Food Bioscience 23 (2018) 100–106

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Food Bioscience
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbio

Effects of different fermentation temperatures on metabolites of Kimchi T

⁎
Seong-Eun Park, Seung-Ho Seo, Eun-Ju Kim, Chang-Su Na, Hong-Seok Son
Department of Korean Medicine, Dongshin University, Naju Jeonnam 58245, Republic of Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The influences of fermentation temperature on metabolic changes in Kimchi using a gas chromatography–mass
Kimchi spectrometry (GC-MS) method were studied. Kimchi mixtures fermented at 4, 12, and 20 °C were taken on the
Chinese cabbage 1st, 5th, 10th, and 50th day of fermentation to determine overall changes in metabolites of Kimchi during
Fermentation fermentation. Based on the principal component analysis (PCA) score plot, Kimchi samples were confirmed to
Metabolomics
have separation trends by the first principal component 1 (PC1). One group included all samples on fermentation
GC-MS
day 0 and day 1, and samples fermented at 4 °C for up to 10 days after fermentation, demonstrating that me-
tabolites of Kimchi fermented at 4 °C changed slowly. The partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA)
score plot also showed clear differences in metabolites among Kimchi samples with fermentation temperature.
The changing metabolites were identified to be alanine, propylene glycol, fumaric acid, malic acid, citric acid,
and galactaric acid. These results highlight that a GC-MS-based metabolomics approach can be used to monitor
distinct metabolite changes in Kimchi with fermentation temperature.

1. Introduction
Kimchi is Korea's representative ethnic food. It is a unique food
made by fermenting vegetables (such as Chinese cabbage and radish),
fish sauce, and spices (such as garlic and ginger) (Jang, Chung, Yang,
Kim, & Kwon, 2015). According to the Korean Nutrition survey, Korean
adults consume 50–200 g/day/person, accounting for 12.5% of their
total daily food intake (Mheen & Kwon, 1984).
Kimchi is usually manufactured by spontaneous fermentation
without using a starter culture. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as
Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Weissella, Lactococcus, and Pediococcus are
involved in Kimchi fermentation (Park et al., 2003). Recently, many
studies have determined the dynamics of microbial communities in
Kimchi using a metagenomics approach (Jeong, Lee, Jung, Choi, &
Jeon, 2013; Jung et al., 2012, 2013; Park et al., 2003). Microbial
communities in Kimchi during its fermentation are affected by several
factors, including raw material (Chinese cabbage), temperature, pH,
salt concentration, and fermentation period (Kim et al., 2017; Lee,
Song, Jung, Lee, & Chang, 2017). Among these, fermentation tem-
perature is a critical factor for determining its final quality. To maintain
the quality of Kimchi and store it for a long time, controlling fermen-
tation rate through temperature regulation is well-known.
Many previous studies have reported the relationship between fer-
mentation temperature and Kimchi quality. Mheen and Kwon (1984)
have reported that Kimchi samples stored at high temperatures will
reach the ripening stage faster than those stored at low temperatures.
Chang and Kim (2000) have reported that the edible period of Kimchi
depended on storage temperature. In addition, it has been reported that
low storage temperatures are better for the stability and quality of
Kimchi than high storage temperatures (Choi et al., 1990; Park et al.,
2008). Therefore, differences in Kimchi quality might be simply due to
difference in fermentation speed depending on fermentation tempera-
ture. However, recent studies have shown that differences in fermen-
tation microbial community also depended on temperature (Park et al.,
2003; Tabatabaei Yazdi, Alizadeh Behbahani, Mohebbi, Mortazavi &
Ghaitaranpour, 2013). For example, Lee, Kim, Cho, and Kim (2008)
have reported that Lactobacillus sakei was predominant in Kimchi due to
proper fermentation temperature (5–9 °C) and storage temperature
(−2 °C). However, few studies have shown the overall fermentation
pattern or metabolite differences of Kimchi according to fermentation
temperature.
Metabolomics refers to systematic identification and quantification
of metabolites present within an organism, cell, or tissue. Many meta-
bolomics studies have been done for component analysis (Farag, Porzel,
& Wessjohann, 2012), quality evaluation (Vikram, Lui, Hossain, &
Kushalappa, 2006), safety evaluation (Castro-Puyana and Herrero,
2013), or microbial monitoring (MacKenzie et al., 2008). A previous
metabolomics study using GC-MS with multivariate statistical analysis
has shown the metabolic characteristics of Kimchi according to starter
cultures (Park et al., 2016). Kimchi metabolites are important factors
that determine the taste of Kimchi. However, little is known about
changes of Kimchi metabolites with temperature during the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hsson@dsu.ac.kr (H.-S. Son).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2018.03.009
Received 3 November 2017; Received in revised form 19 March 2018; Accepted 24 March 2018
Available online 27 March 2018
2212-4292/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.-E. Park et al.
fermentation process. Thus, the objective of this study was to monitor
overall changes in metabolites of Kimchi with fermentation tempera-
ture using a GC-MS-based metabolomics approach.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Kimchi preparation
Kimchi was prepared according to a previous report (Jeong et al.,
2013). Briefly, a seasoning mixture was prepared as follows: Chinese
cabbage (90%); red pepper (2.2%); leek (2.8%); garlic (1.4%); ginger
(0.4%); water (3.2%). The raw materials, including Chinese cabbage
(Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis), were purchased at a fully ripe state
from a local market in Naju (Korea) in 2016. The final salinity of Kimchi
was 2.5%. The Kimchi mixture was then fermented in 4, 12, and 20 ℃
incubators. Samples were taken on the 1st, 5th, 10th, and 50th day of
fermentation for analyses.
2.2. Total cell counts
Kimchi samples were diluted ten-fold with 0.1% peptone water
(Difco, Detroit, MI, USA). Total bacteria and LAB counts were measured
after incubating samples at 37 °C for 48 h in plate count agar (PCA,
Difco) and de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar (Difco), respectively.
Total cell counts were carried out in triplicates. Results were expressed
as log CFU/g.
2.3. Measurement of pH and titratable acidity
Kimchi samples (10 g) were ground using a hand mixer (model:
HBL-3500S, Samyang Electronic Co., Gimpo, Korea). After centrifuging
(Union 55 R, Hanil, Seoul, Korea) Kimchi samples at 14,300×g for
15 min at 4 °C, pH was measured using a pH meter (pH-250L, ISTEK,
Seoul, Korea). Titratable acidity was expressed as lactic acid (%) by the
volume of 0.1 N NaOH needed to reach pH 8.3.
2.4. Derivatization
The sample derivatization protocol and GC-MS analysis conditions
were the same as described in a previous study (Park et al., 2016) with
slight modifications. Briefly, 150 µL of Kimchi sample supernatant and
30 µL of internal standard (ribitol in water, 20 mg/mL) were lyophilized
(FD 8505, Ilshinlab, Daejeon, Korea). After adding 80 µL of methox-
yamine hydrochloride in pyridine (20 mg/mL) to the freeze-dried
sample residue, the mixture was sonicated (Powersonic 520, Hwashin,
Seoul, Korea) for 5 min followed by incubation at 37 °C for 12 h for
oximation. Next, 100 µL of N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide
(containing 1% trimethylchlorosilane) was added to the reaction and
incubated at 70 °C for 1 h. These samples were cooled at 20 °C in the
dark for 1 h. After centrifuging samples at 12,500 ×g for 10 min at 4 ℃,
supernatants were transferred to glass vials for GC-MS analysis. The
reagents used in this experiment were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich
(Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA).
2.5. GC-MS analysis
One µL of each derivatized sample was injected using a splitless
injector with an Agilent 6890 N GC (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA)
equipped with a DB-5MS capillary column from Agilent
(30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness). The injector tempera-
ture was set at 250 °C. Flow rate of carrier gas (He, 99.9%) was at 1 mL/
min. GC-MS temperatures were as follows: injector, 250 °C; transfer
line, 280 °C; ion source, 230 °C; and quadrupole temperature, 150 °C.
The oven temperature was maintained at 60 °C for 1 min, increased to
300 °C at 10 °C/min, and then held at 300 °C for 10 min. Column ef-
fluent was introduced into the ion source of an Agilent 5973 N MS
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Food Bioscience 23 (2018) 100–106
(Agilent). The mass spectrometer was programmed using electron im-
pact in a full scan mode at m/z 50–550 with a scanning rate of 2 scans/
sec.
2.6. Data processing and multivariate analysis
GC-MS raw data in a netCDF format obtained from MSD
ChemStation (Agilent) were imported to the XCMS website (https://
xcmsonline.scripps.edu) for peak detection, integration, and statistical
analysis. A default Centwave method (Tautenhahn, Boettcher, &
Neumann, 2008) for GC Single Quadruple was selected for peak de-
tection and alignment with the following parameters: signal/noise
threshold, 2; mzdiff, 0.1; integration methods, 1; prefilter peaks, 3;
prefilter intensity, 100; mzwid, 0.25; minfrac, 0.5; and bandwidth, 3.
Metabolites were identified by comparing their accurate mass and MS
fragments with spectra in the NIST ver. 14.0 library (http://www.
sisweb.com/software/ms/nist.htm). Peak intensities were normalized
against an internal standard (ribitol). Multivariate statistical analysis
was done with principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least
squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) using SIMCA-P version 14.0
(Umetrics, Umea, Sweden). Hotelling's T2 region, shown as an ellipse in
the PCA score diagram, defines the 95% confidence interval of the
modeled variation (Hotelling, 1931). The quality of PCA models was
expressed by R2 (the variance in the data) and Q2 values (the prediction
of model). A permutation test of two hundred iterations with a cross-
validation step was done to avoid model overfitting. After processing
PLS-DA, peaks with variable importance in projection (VIP) score >
1.5 and p < 0.05 were considered to be responsible for differences.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microbial and physicochemical changes during Kimchi fermentation
Growth curves for total microbial cells in Kimchi according to fer-
mentation temperature is shown in Fig. 1A. Total cell number in Kimchi
before fermentation was log 6.42 CFU/g. Total cell counts of Kimchi
decreased slightly on the 1st day of fermentation, but increased sig-
nificantly at 12 and 20 °C. On the 10th day of fermentation, Kimchi
samples fermented at 12 and 20 °C showed maximum total cell counts.
On the other hand, total cell number in Kimchi stored at 4 °C increased
steadily from the 1st day. These results confirmed that higher fermen-
tation temperature would lead to faster growth rate and higher total
number of bacteria during the entire fermentation period. The growth
curve for LAB showed a similar trend as total cell count (data not
shown) and were of similar magnitude, indicating that most bacteria
during Kimchi fermentation were LAB.
Changes in pH and titratable acidity (TA) of Kimchi with different
fermentation temperature are shown in Figs. 1B and C, respectively. On
the 5th day of fermentation, the pH of Kimchi was rapidly decreased at
12 or 20 °C. However, the pH value of Kimchi fermented at 4 °C was
decreased slower compared to that of Kimchi fermented at 12 or 20 °C,
suggesting that fermentation progressed slowly at 4 °C. Generally, TA
values and pH of Kimchi showed opposite tendencies during Kimchi
fermentation. As expected, a large and rapid increase of TA was ob-
served for Kimchi stored at 20 °C. This clearly demonstrates that high
temperature accelerates the fermentation process of Kimchi.
It has been reported that pH and TA of Kimchi after the optimum
ripening period are 4.2% and 0.6%, respectively (Mheen & Kwon,
1984). Based on such criteria, the optimum fermentation period for
Kimchi at 12 and 20 °C would be 5–10 days. However, the optimal
fermentation period for Kimchi at 4 °C was found to be 50 days or
possibly a few days longer because pH and TA at that point were 4.3%
and 0.55%, respectively (Fig. 1).
S.-E. Park et al.
Fig. 1. Changes in viable cells of total bacteria (A), pH (B), and titratable
acidity (C) of Kimchi during ripening at different temperatures. Values are
presented as mean ± standard deviations (n = 5).
3.2. Metabolite changes during Kimchi fermentation
GC-MS was used to monitor metabolic changes during the Kimchi
fermentation process. A total of 1851 variables were obtained based on
Fig. 2. PCA score plot derived from GC-MS data of Kimchi during ripening at different temperatures (4, 12, and 20 °C). Each symbol (point) in the score plot
represents a Kimchi sample. Symbols with different colors and shapes denote Kimchi samples taken at different temperatures on different days of fermentation.
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Food Bioscience 23 (2018) 100–106
mass peaks on chromatograms. Changes in total metabolites of Kimchi
samples during 50 days of fermentation were expressed as score plots
using PCA (R2 = 0.695, Q2 = 0.674) (Fig. 2). As fermentation pro-
gressed, points moved from quadrant 4 to quadrant 1. They then moved
to quadrant 2 or 3 according to fermentation period, indicating con-
tinuous metabolic changes during fermentation. The Kimchi samples in
the PCA score plot showed a clear separation into two groups for PC1.
One group included all Kimchi samples at fermentation day 0 and 1,
and samples fermented at 4 °C until 10 days after fermentation, im-
plying that metabolites of Kimchi fermented at 4 °C changed slowly
during fermentation. The other group included the rest of the Kimchi
samples during 50 days of fermentation. Kimchi samples fermented at
20 °C on the 50th day of fermentation were found to be out of Ho-
telling's T2 range, suggesting that their metabolite profiles were sig-
nificantly different from those of other samples.
To investigate metabolic changes of Kimchi over the fermentation
period, PCA score plots were regenerated at each temperature (Fig. 3).
As shown in the PCA score plot (Fig. 3A), points of Kimchi samples
fermented at 4 °C showed a noticeable movement between 10 and 50
days of fermentation, indicating that fermentation proceeded rapidly
during this period. Meanwhile, Kimchi samples stored at 12 °C showed
a large metabolic change between days 1 and 5 (Fig. 3B), suggesting
that early Kimchi fermentation progressed very fast. The PCA score plot
of Kimchi samples fermented at 20 °C also showed clear separation of
PC1 between samples obtained at days 1 and 5 (R2 = 0.760, Q2 =
0.725) (Fig. 3C).
3.3. Metabolite differences by fermentation temperature
To determine metabolic differences of final Kimchi samples fer-
mented at different temperatures, PCA models were generated using
variables obtained from GC-MS data at 50 days after fermentation
(Fig. 4A). Kimchi samples fermented at 4 °C were successfully separated
from other Kimchi samples using PC1. However, Kimchi samples were
not fully distinguishable between 12 and 20 °C in the PCA score plot,
implying that metabolites of these Kimchi samples were similar to each
other, but different from those of Kimchi samples stored at 4 °C. This
might be due to differences in bacterial community structure depending
on fermentation temperature.
To maximize separation between samples, the PLS-DA (supervised
pattern recognition method) was applied (Fig. 4B). The PLS-DA score
plot of Kimchi samples showed clear differentiation. When two com-
ponents were calculated, cumulative R2X, R2Y, and Q2 values were
0.650, 0.961, and 0.892, respectively. A permutation test (200 per-
mutations) was done to verify the PLS-DA model. Through this test, Q2
S.-E. Park et al. Food Bioscience 23 (2018) 100–106

Fig. 3. PCA score plots derived from GC-MS data of Kimchi during ripening at 4 °C (A), 12 °C (B), and 20 °C (C), showing different metabolic changes (fermentation
rates) depending on different temperature. The color and shape of each point are the same as shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 4. PCA (A) and PLS-DA (B) score plots derived from GC-MS data of Kimchi after 50 days of fermentation at different temperatures. A permutation test was
carried out with 200 random permutations in the PLS-DA model (C). The color and shape of each point are the same as shown in Fig. 2.

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S.-E. Park et al.
Fig. 5. Changes in identified metabolites of Kimchi during ripening at different temperatures. Metabolites contributing to differentiation in the PLS-DA model (VIP
score > 1.5, p < 0.05) were selected. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviations (n = 5).
and R2 values were found to be higher than their original values,
proving the suitability and validity of this model (Fig. 4C). To de-
termine which metabolites caused segregation, the VIP score of > 1.5
and p < 0.01 were used. A total of six metabolites were identified
based on fragmentation patterns of GC–MS library in NIST 14 and other
researchers’ experimental data. Metabolites responsible for metabolic
differences among these groups included some organic acids (fumaric
acid, malic acid, citric acid, and galactaric acid), propylene glycol, and
alanine.
Changes of these six metabolites according to fermentation tem-
perature are shown in Fig. 5. Levels of fumaric acid, malic acid, and
citric acid in Kimchi samples fermented at 20 °C decreased rapidly
during the early fermentation period. However, levels of malic acid and
citric acid in Kimchi samples fermented at 4 °C decreased after 10 days
of fermentation. These results were consistent with large changes in
metabolites of Kimchi fermented at 4 °C between 10 and 50 days of
fermentation as shown in Fig. 3A. Reduction in malic acid and citric
acid levels indicated the presence of malolactic fermentation since LAB
could convert malic acid and citric acid into lactic acid (Son, Hwang,
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Food Bioscience 23 (2018) 100–106
Park, Hong, & Lee, 2009). When lactic acid is produced in Kimchi, the
growth of aerobic bacteria is suppressed (Jang & Kim, 2013). Park et al.
(2012) have reported changes in bacterial community structure of
Kimchi after a long period of incubation at room temperature (22 °C).
These changes in microbial communities might cause differences in
metabolites, thus affecting the quality of Kimchi. Levels of propylene
glycol and galactaric acid in Kimchi stored at 4 °C were increased
sharply between the 10th and 50th day of fermentation. Interestingly,
these metabolites showed very little changes during the entire fer-
mentation period in Kimchi samples stored at 12 or 20 °C. In this study,
different contents of metabolites in Kimchi with fermentation tem-
peratures indicated that fermentation temperature can affect microbial
community and fermentation rate.
Kimchi generally undergoes fermentation at low temperature (about
4–6 °C). However, it will take weeks to finish the process. Commercially
produced Kimchi is usually fermented for a short period (1–2 days) at
20 °C. It is then stored at low temperature (5–8 °C) to improve orga-
noleptic quality (Hong et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2017). It is difficult to
clearly determine the optimum duration of ripening time according to
S.-E. Park et al.
the fermentation temperature of Kimchi. Cheigh, Park, and Lee (1994)
have reported that optimized time for Kimchi fermented at 5 and 20 °C
were 35–180 days and 2–3 days, respectively. According to a study of
Chang and Kim (2000), optimized time for Kimchi ripening at 15, 10,
and 5 °C were 4, 10, and 18 days, respectively. Similar to these studies,
Lee, Cho, and Pyun (1991) have reported that Kimchi's shelf life 4 and
28 °C were 33 and 3 days, respectively, based on kinetic modeling of
total acidity for quality prediction. Hong, Lee, Kim, and Ahn (2016)
have reported that the optimum ripening time for Kimchi fermented at
4 and 20 °C was 35 and 2 days, respectively, after analyzing volatile
compositions of Kimchi. Nowadays, it is common to store homemade or
commercially produced Kimchi products in a Kimchi refrigerator in
Korea to reduce microbial growth and avoid over-fermenting or souring
by rapid shifting to subzero temperatures (Hongu et al., 2017; Lee et al.,
2008). Although the optimum ripening time for Kimchi is different, it
obviously depends on storage temperature. Storage temperature of
Kimchi is directly related to the growth of microorganisms which will
affect Kimchi metabolites. Therefore, it is important to know the me-
tabolic difference in Kimchi because it affects the quality of Kimchi.
These results suggest that the optimum duration for Kimchi fermenta-
tion can be determined using a metabolomics approach to simulta-
neously observe metabolites during fermentation.
4. Conclusion
A GC-MS based metabolomics approach coupled with multivariate
statistics were applied in this study to understand relationships between
fermentation temperature and metabolite differences of Kimchi.
Metabolites of Kimchi fermented at 4 °C changed more slowly during
early fermentation than those of Kimchi fermented at higher tempera-
tures (4 and 20 °C). After fermentation, different concentrations of
metabolites were observed in Kimchi samples depending on fermenta-
tion temperature. It is possible to determine the optimum duration of
Kimchi fermentation by metabolomics approach which can simulta-
neously observe metabolites during fermentation. However, more de-
tailed studies are needed to better understand relationships of sensory
characteristics, microbial communities, and metabolites of Kimchi with
fermentation temperature.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant (NRF- 2014R1A1A1002817)
from the National Research Foundation funded by the Korean
Government.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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