Fiber optic sensors: An introduction and overview
'HQLV RQODJLü
University of Maribor, Faculty of Electrical engineering and Computer Science
Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor
E-mail: ddonlagic@uni-mb.si
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of fiber
optic sensor technology. Basic types and
operation principles of these sensors are
presented.
1. Introduction
The field of measurement and instrumentation,
and particular sensor development, is one of that
that has expanded rapidly in recent years. The
need for high quality sensors to be integrated
into sophisticated measurement and control
system is clear. In parallel with rapid advance in
the development of sensors based on
microelectronics, those based on optical
techniques have expanded significantly over last
few years.
2. Fiber optics sensors
The fiber sensor is illustrated diagrammatically in
Fig. 1. The basic components are simple. Light is
taken to a modulation region using an optical
fiber and modulated therein by a physical,
chemical, or biological phenomena, and the
modulated light is transmitted back to a receiver,
detected, and demodulated. Hopefully, there is a
one-to-one correlation between the phenomenon
of interest and the demodulated signal.
There are two substantial issues in realizing a
viable optical fiber sensor technology:
1) to ensure the one-to-one relationship between
the parameter to be measured and the
demodulated signal;
2) to match the technology to the application in
terms of both performance and cost.
The first of these is the simpler one despite the
fact that the impact of the fibers to and from the
modulation region, variations in source and
detector characteristics with temperature and
time and the influence of temperature on the
modulation process are all important. The
second of these must recognize the presence of
established techniques and in particular must
identify otherwise insoluble problems which are
important but for technical reasons have not
been satisfactorily resolved.
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3. Fiber optic sensor configurations
Fiber optic sensors (FOS) can be generally
classified in two large groups:
1) extrinsic FOS
2) intrinsic FOS
Extrinsic FOS are basically optical sensor where
we deliver (and collect) light signal by optical
fiber, while the modulation of the light signal
occurs outside optical fiber. To date, those
sensors present most successfully commercial
FOS. Typical examples are fiberized versions of
Dopler anemometers and non-contact vibration
measurements systems. These sensors tend to be
rather expensive and are used in industries such
as aerospace and automotive. Their major
advantage is that the flexible and dielectric link
provided by the fiber allows the instruments to
be used where access is difficult or prohibitive
by means of electrical signals. Intrinsic FOS are probes. The curve follows a 1/r2 law where r is
“true” fiber optic sensors, meaning that the distance. A more sensitive approach employs
modulation of light takes place inside fiber in radial displacement as shown in figure 2b.
accordance to measured parameter.
According to principle of operation both sensor Reflective concept
groups can be further divided in two large
categories:

1) intensity modulated FOS

2) phase modulated FOS (fiber interferometers)

4. Intensity modulated FOS

In intensity modulated FOS, measured parameter

induces light intensity change at the detector.
Intensity modulated FOS can be found in variety
of intrinsic and extrinsic configurations.
Following are the most often examples.

Figure 3: Reflective concept of FOS

Figure 2: Transmissive FOS

a) Transmissive concept

The transmissive sensor concept is normally

associated with interruption of light beam in a
switch configuration and is usually found in Figure 4: Reflective FOS with self-referencing.
extrinsic configuration. However, this approach
The reflective concept is especially attractive for
can provide good analog sensor. Figure 2a
broad sensor use doe to accuracy, simplicity and
shows the probe configuration for measurement
potential low cost. The concept is shown in
of axial displacement. The figure 2 also gives a
figure 3. The sensor is comprised of two bundles
curve of output versus distance between the
of fibers or pair of single fibers. One bundle
transmits light to a reflecting target, the other
bundle traps reflected light and transmits it to a
detector. The sensitivity of the detected light
depends on how far the reflecting fiber is form
the fiber optic probe. Figure 3 shows the
detected light intensity versus distance from the
target. The accuracy and resolution depends on
the probe configuration; a hemispherical probe
has more dynamic range, but less sensitivity
when compared to random probe. A fiber pair
probe further expands the dynamic range. A
single fiber used in conjunction with a beam
splitter to separate transmitted and received
beams eliminates the front-end slope. Depending
upon the fiber configuration, reflective probes
can be tailored for a wide range of applications.
For applications that require greater dynamic
range than possible with any of the
configurations, a lens system can be added.
The major problems associated with intensity
sensors are random changes of transmissivity of
optical path and variations of the output power
of the optical source, which directly affects the
accuracy of the sensor. Intensity sensors
therefore need mechanism that compensates for
those changes. Figure 4 show such an example
of reflective sensor, where we use two bundles
to collect light. Then the ratio of received optical
powers by inch fiber bundle is measured and
calculated to determine displacement. Such
configuration is independent of optical power of
the source and loss in supply and collecting
fibers.
b) Microbend sensors
The microbend sensor is one of the earliest
intrinsic fiber-optic sensors. Microbend loss has
always been a curse to the cable designer, but it
is this very same microbend loss effect in optical
fibers which is exploited by the microbend
sensor designer who has adopted the microbend
effect in the measurement of many physical
parameters and physical variables such as
temperature, pressure, displacement, etc.
The early interest in microbend sensors was for
hydrophone applications. Since that time, over
100 different studies on microbend sensors have
appeared in the literature, and the sensors have
been adapted to many different measurement
applications.
Figure 5: Microbend FOS
What is microbending? In simplest terms, the
mechanical perturbation of a multimode fiber
waveguide causes a redistribution of light power
among the many modes in the fiber. The more
severe the mechanical perturbation or bending,
the more light is coupled to radiation modes and
is lost. Thus, the important characteristics of a
microbend sensor are that it uses a multimode
optical fiber, it is a light intensity sensor and the
light intensity decreases with mechanical
bending.
The microbend sensor is basically displacement
sensor. The basic design is shown in figure 5.
Corrugated plates, called deformer plates,
squeeze optical fiber under measured
perturbation and thereby induce microbending.
This causes coupling between guided and
continuum of cladding modes, which results in
irreversibly leak of the optical power from the
fiber.
The microbend sensitivity can be enhanced by
the proper constriction of deformer plates. It
was shown that mechanical period of the
deformer must match expression
2πa
Λc = (1)
2∆
 proportion to 1/r. For radial positions on the
wave front larger than a characteristic value rc, a
in the case of graded index fiber in order to radiation caustic occurs where the angular phase
achieve maximum microbend sensitivity, where a velocity of the wave front equals the velocity of
is core radius and ∆ is refractive index light in the propagation medium and the power
difference. in the shaded tail Pc dissociates itself from the
wave front and propagates in a tangential path to
Over the years, microbend sensors have been the dissociation point and radiates away.
configured for measurement of many different
parameters including pressure, temperature,
acceleration, flow, local strain, and speed.
Microbend sensors arrays have been used in
tactile sensing systems, and in distributed sensing
systems for temperature, strain, structural
monitoring, and water detection. In some of
these areas, prototypes have been built and
tested, and in a few of the areas, commercial
products have been offered.

Macrobend sensors

Macrobend sensors are another type of intensity

modulated, intrinsic FOS. They are certain
similarities to microbend sensors, however there
are also significant differences between both
concepts. In macrobend sensors, singlemode
fiber is usually used and is bend at relatively
large diameters (typically bend radius is in order
of few centimeters). Regular telecommunication
fiber is usually not enough sensitive to
macrobending therefore its is usually necessary
to use specially bend sensitive singlemode fibers.
Those fibers are usually operated at low V
numbers (V is normalized frequency). The
principle of operation can be explained as
follows.
Consider the schematic representation of a
single-mode fiber shown in figure 6. In the
straight region of the fiber before the bend, the
fiber is considered as lossless and the transverse
mode of power P0 is confined to propagate
along fiber axis. In the bend region of radius R
and angle Φ, the confining path is assumed to be
circular. In the bend the modal wave front will
propagate with a phase velocity linearly
dependent on the radial distance from the center
of curvature of the bend. The propagation
constant of the mode β, will thus be in
Figure 6: Macrobend loss
Macrobend sensors can be used in applications
similar to microbend sensor.
c) Fiber Bragg grating sensors (FBG)
Very popular type of FOS are Fiber Bragg
gratings. Fiber Bragg gratings are made from a
section fiber in which we imprint periodic
structure (i.e. we periodical perturb refractive
index of the fiber). This structure is usually
formed by illumination with intense UV light
during the fiber drawing process – figure 7. Each
perturbation acts as an partially reflective mirror.
When the incidence light is of correct
wavelength all partially reflected waves
coherently add and the amplitude of the reflected
wave is maximized. At all other wavelengths the
refraction of the structure is low.
 Figure 7: Fiber Bragg grating sensor
If FBG is starched the wavelength at which we
obtain maximum reflectance changes. The
deformations of FBG are therefore determined
of the basis of the spectral properties of the
structure (i.e. we need o determine at which
wavelength do we obtain maximum reflectivity).
FBG are therefore strain sensors however they
are also sensitive to the temperature (when used
as strain sensors they need to be temperature
compensated). All physical parameters that can
be converted to strain can be therefore measured
by FBG. FBG can be hence found in form of
strain, temperature, pressure, displacement, and
some other types of sensors.
Figure 8: Temperture sensor using temperature
dependent loss
d) Other types of intensity modulated sensors
Three are many other types of intensity modulate
sensors. Typical examples are chemical and
some types of temperature sensors. For example
chemistry of the glass or cladding can be used to
achieve sensing activity. The prime mechanisms
are absorption, florescence, changes in refractive
index, or polarization.
For absorption temperature sensor, doping the
core glass results in absorption spectra.
Generally, some peaks are temperature sensitive,
while others are not. The ratio of intensity at
two specified wavelengths provides a
temperature sensing function as shown in figure
8. A similar approach can be considered for
scattering (i.e. non-linear scattering such as
Ramman scattering has been successfully used
for temperature measurements).
Florescence time and intensity are temperature
dependent and can be used to measure
temperature.
Refractive index change can vary the amount of
received light by effectively changing the
numerical aperture of the fiber. Many polymeric
coating materials can be made to have index
changes with temperature, thus providing a
temperature sensor.
5. Phase modulated FOS – fiber optic
interferometers
When extreme sensitivity is required the fiber
optic interferometers can successfully used.
Most interferometric FOS use singlemode fiber
and are of intrinsic type.
Figure 9: Interferometer: principle of operation
The phase angle for lightwave traveling in fiber
is defined in figure 9. The phase angle for
lightwave with given λ, and length L is given by:
φ=2π L/λ= 2πn1 L/λ
where n1 is index of the refraction of the core
and λ0 is the wavelength of light in the vacuum.
A change in length and/or refractive index under
temperature influence or fiber strain will cause a
phase change as defined by following equation:
∆φ=2π/ λ0 (n1∆L +∆n1L)
note that very small changes of length (at the
order of wavelength) produce large phase
differences (at the order of radians). Similarly,
very small changes of refractive index at longer
sections of fiber L produce large phase
differences. Expression brackets, n1∆L+∆n1L, is
called optical path difference (OPD).
Figure 10: Mach Zheneder intrfromter
Optical phase change can not be directly
detected (optical waves have frequencies in the
range of few hundred THz). In order to detect
phase difference it necessary to convert phase
difference to optical intensity change. This is
achieved by combing (mixing) two optical
signals. The whole system is called
interferometer and the most straightforward
configuration, called Mach-Zehnder
interferometer, is shown in figure 10. The fiber
optic Mach-Zehnder interferometer is composed
of two fiber beam splitters. In first splitter
optical wave is split and directed in two separate
fibers. One fiber is exposed to mesurand field,
and is called sensing fiber. Another fiber is
isolated from the surrounding and is called
reference fiber. If the sensing fiber is
unperturbed, then two fibers have exactly the
same length L. The optical waves in second
spliter are therefore in phase and coherently add
(interfere constrictively) to give maximum
intensity output. If the sensing fiber experiences
a mechanically or thermally applied strain, the
optical length of sensing fiber increases and the
optical path difference changes. The intensity
output decreases due to destructive interference.
When the OPD equalst to π the intensity output
will be minimal (zerro). The optical intensity at
the output of the interferometer is a function of
relative phase shif (OPD) as shown in figure 11.
Note that an increases in length for of the
sensing fiber for just one half of the wavelength
produces intensity swing from maximum to
minimum (or vice versa).
The output if the interferometer is a non-linear
(cosinus) function of OPD. In order to allow for
detection of very small variations in OPD it is
necessary to assure interferometers initial OPD
to λ/4 (i.e phase difference between signals
should be proximately π/4 in order to obtain
steepest slope (highest sensitivity) of the output
characteristics – figure 11). This is usually
achieved actively by active control of the length
of the reference fiber.
Figure 11: Output of the two-beam
interferometer
Another possible configuration of two-beam
interferometer is Michelson interferometer -
figure 12. In this configuration light wave is split
and recombined in the same splitter. Fiber
mirrors are used to reflect light at the fiber ends.
Figure 12: Michelson interferometer
Interferometers can be fund in diversity of
applications where very high sensitivity is
required (strain, temperature, pressure,
acoustical and other measurements). Perhaps the
most typical application is very high sensitivity
hydrophone (military applications have been
drving force of this sensor). Today’s FO
hydrophones achieve signal to noise ratio that
approach or even exceed level of deep-sea noise
floor, which ranks them between the most
sensitive sensors ever produced.
Another type of fiber interferometer is fiber optic
Sagnac interferometer, often called fiber-optic or
laser gyroscope. This is probably the most
developed FOS and it has been topic of intensive
research during last two decades. The Sagnac
interferometer is primarily used for rotation rate
measurement, taught it can be used for other
dynamic measurements as well. The principal of
operation can be explained as follows:
Figure 13: Sagnac effect
Consider single loop made of optical fiber as
shown in figure 13. At each side of the loop we
simultaneously launch short pulse of light. Both
pulses travel exactly the same distance and
emerge at outputs of the fiber loop in exactly the
same time (if we combine those two optical
waves in splitter, waves would be in phase and
they would coherently add to give maximum
intensity output).
Now assume that loop is rooting around its axis.
According to theory of relativity, the speed of
light is constant and does not depend on local
velocity of the system. Again, at each side of the
loop we simultaneously launch short pulse of
light. Both pulses would propagate with the
same velocity, regardless of the angular velocity
of the loop. During the passing time of the
pulses trough the fiber loop, the ends of the fiber
loop will move away from their initial position
due to the loop rotation. Pulse that transposes
light in the direction that is the same as direction
of loop rotation therefore experiences longer
optical path, i.e. end of the fiber loop will “run
away” from the pulse. The situations for the
pulse traveling in the direction that is opposite
the rotation will causes for pulse to reach end in
shorter period of time as it would happen if loop
would be still (figure 13). Obviously rotation
causes for waves to shift out of phase. This
difference is again detected by combination of
optical waves in beam splitter to achieve
maximum sensitivity of the system.
Figure 14: Optical gyroscope
Sagnac interferometer usually consists of several
hundreds to few thousands loops of optical fiber
(typical fiber length is 100-1000m), and
additional optical components – figure 14.
Sagnac interferometers can be designed as very
sensitive and compact gyroscopes. Significant
effort has been put in development of fiber optic
gyro. For example they form part of standard
avionics in Boeing 777.
Fabry-Perot interferometer is type of multibeam
interferometer. Typical intrinsic configuration
would consist of two, semi-reflective fiber
mirrors. Optical waves bounce forward and
backwards between mirrors and at certain
lengths (or wavelengths) all waves combine to
produce maximum intensity output (resonance).
Any deviation from this length (+or wavelength)
will cause rapid fall of output intensity.
Fabry-Perot interferometer is often found in
extrinsic configuration. Typical application is
pressure sensor for medical applications as
shown in figure 15. Miniature membrane reflects
part of the light back towards fiber another
partial reflection is obtained from the cleaved
fiber end. Both waves interfere and allow for
tracking of minute movements of the membrane.
Figure 15: Fabry Perot interferometer as
pressure sensor
Figure 16: Coherence of optical field
Finally, an important part of fiber interferomrtry
are low coherence, often called white-light
interferometers.

Until now, we have assumed that our optical
source emits single frequency (sinusoidal) optical
signal. Such source would have infinitely narrow
spectrum and is therefore hypothetical. All
optical sources, including high quality lasers,
poses finite spectral linewidth. The output of the
frequency spectrum is limited and output of the
optical source in time domain can be viewed as
string of single frequency wave packages with
constant frequencies. Between those single
frequency packages, optical wave experiences
random phase shifts as shown in figure 16.
If such optical wave is split in two separate
paths, one of the waves is delayed, and again
recombined, well-known interference pattern
will emerge at the output only if delay between
waves is shorter than duration of the wave
packages generated by the source. If delay is
larger than wave packages, the phase difference
in recombining splitter would not be constant,
but will rather change rapidly and randomly
(with the rate of incoming wave packages).
Therefore the output at the recombining splitter
takes an average intensity and it does not change
when delay (OPD) changes. Interference pattern
therefore vanishes as soon as OPD exceeds the
average length of the wave package produced by
the source. The duration of wave package is
often called coherence time and the average
length of this package in free space coherence
length. In summary the interference phenomena
is not possible, if coherence time is shorter than
delay between optical signals that are
recombined in interferometer’s splitter. The
difference between length of sensing and
reference arms is therefore limited to coherence
length of laser diode (which is between 1mm and
1cm for standard Fabry-Perot diode and up to
few meters for high quality DFB laser diodes).
But even sources such as LED or visible light
posses certain degree of coherence. For
example, LED diode has typical coherence
length in range of 20-50µm, coherence of visible
light is around few micrometers.


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Figure 17: White light interferometer
This allows for design of low coherence or
white-light interferometer. Observe two Mach-
Zhender interferometers that are set in series as
shown in figure 17, and are supplied with low
coherence source such as LED. Assume that we
expose one of the first interferometer’s arms to
measurand field which expands (or contracts)
fiber arm. If this expansion exceeds coherence
length, the interference fringe at the output
disappears. Now, assume that we perturb one
of the second interferometers arms in controlled
way (i.e. for example we wrap fiber on the PZT
cylinder and by applying voltage to the cylinder
we can control the fiber expansion).
We expand (and/or contract) fiber in second
interferometer until we do not achieve OPD
difference that correspond to OPD of first
interferometer. When this condition is met, at
the output the same wave packages will again
combine and interference fringes will be
detectable. I.e. when interference fringe appears
at second interferometer the OPD of second
interferometer is equal to the OPD of first
interferometer. If we know OPD of second
interferometer we can also determine the OPD
of first interferometer. First interferometer is
therefore called sensing and second resolving
interferometer. We use second interferometer to
find OPD of first interferometer. We usually
scan first interferometer by the help of second
interferometer. Typical scan is shown in figure
18. The central interference fringe appears when
scanning interferometer approaches zero path
difference. The second interference fringe
appears when OPD of sensing and resolving
interferometer become equal. The difference
between maximum intensities of central and side
interference fringes presents the OPD of sensing
interferometer.
 stimulated by the illuminating optical beam, so a
measure of the offset spectrum effectively
produces a frequency dependent upon the
acoustic velocity in the optical fiber and the
wavelength of the illuminating source. Assuming
the latter gives the former, which in turn
depends upon temperature and strain. Raman
scatter probes the optical phonon spectrum and
this in turn can give a unique measure of the
temperature at the scattering point The basic
Figure 18: White-light fringe patern idea of distributed sensing was appreciated in the
late 1970s and the first mention of the Raman
White light interferometer allows for
distributed temperature probe came rapidly
measurements of absolute OPD, which is an
thereafter. The possibilities for Brillouin became
important property for many (static)
apparent a decade or so later, by which stage the
measurements.
first commercial Raman temperature probes had
6. Distributed FOS begun to appear. Distributed sensing remains
one of the most powerful tools offered by fiber-
The interferometer measures the change in the optic sensor technology. It enables unique
end-to-end path length along the fiber measurements which cannot be undertaken using
configured to interact with the physical competitive technologies. However, an optical
parameter field. However, there are a time domain reflectometer (OTDR) reconfigured
multiplicity of ways in which light may interact to detect time varying Brillouin or Raman
with the external world around it, and some of spectra is a complex specialized and therefore
these can be configured to enable a probe to be expensive piece of equipment, but despite this
developed which reveals a parameter field as a very significant parameter, distributed sensing
function of position along the fiber length. has found its niches.
Distributed sensing (Fig. 18) is a technique
which is unique (or almost so) to fiber-optic
technologies. While there are a very few
electrical cables, which can be configured to be
read through a time-domain reflectometer, none
has the ruggedness, flexibility, and accuracy of
the fiber-optic model. Distributed sensing relies
upon backscatter and on modulating the
backscattered radiation produced by a forward-
travelling optical beam to reveal typically a
temperature or strain field. Three major
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backscattering processes have been used.
Rayleigh backscatter produces the highest signal
of the three, but its returned intensity is simply a
0XOWLSOH[HG )26
representation of the intensity, which arrived at
Optical systems have, at the typical power levels
the scattering point. It follows then that Rayleigh
involved in optical fiber transmission, very useful
backscattering systems must modulate this
signal-to-noise ratio potential within the very
intensity through some secondary mechanism.
modest bandwidths demanded by sensing
Brillouin scatter produces an offset frequency
applications. Additionally, if the receiver power
spectrum related directly to the acoustic phonon
is within the shot noise limit, the signal-to-noise
spectrum in the fiber. This in turn can be
ratio only decreases as the square root of the
power. These simple observations rapidly
pointed toward the concept of dividing this
power among an array of sensors and the ideas
of multiplexing sensor arrays have been with us
for some considerable time [15]. The sensors can
be strung together in a multiplicity of
architectures based upon ladders, stars, and
combinations thereof. Of these, the star (Fig. 19)
is, for individual sensor elements, the most
simple to implement, since equal power division
is relatively easy to arrange. Multiplexing also
features strongly in Bragg grating technology.
However, even with relatively lossy sensors—for
example gas cells—up to 128 elements can be
usefully configured into a single array, fed from
a single optical system.
7. Multiplexed FOS
Optical systems have, at the typical power levels
involved in optical fiber transmission, very useful
signal-to-noise ratio potential within the very
modest bandwidths demanded by sensing
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Figure 19: Multiplexed FOS
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7. Conlusion
SRLQWHG WRZDUG WKH FRQFHSW RI GLYLGLQJ WKLV
SRZHU DPRQJ DQ DUUD\ RI VHQVRUV DQG WKH LGHDV Guided-wave optics, particularly fiber systems,
RI PXOWLSOH[LQJ VHQVRU DUUD\V KDYH EHHQ ZLWK XV continue to offer unique possibilities in a
IRU VRPH FRQVLGHUDEOH WLPH 7KH VHQVRUV FDQ EH measurement context. Where this will lead
VWUXQJ WRJHWKHU LQ D PXOWLSOLFLW\ RI DUFKLWHFWXUHV depends particularly on the initiatives of the
EDVHG XSRQ ODGGHUV VWDUV DQG FRPELQDWLRQV research community. There remains considerable
WKHUHRI 2I WKHVH WKH VWDU )LJXUH  LV IRU activity in chemical sensing with distributed
LQGLYLGXDO VHQVRU HOHPHQWV WKH PRVW VLPSOH WR measurement as one of many major interests.
LPSOHPHQW VLQFH HTXDO SRZHU GLYLVLRQ LV The same resolution too could be applied to
UHODWLYHO\ HDV\ WR DUUDQJH 0XOWLSOH[LQJ DOVR measuring material properties in
IHDWXUHV VWURQJO\ LQ %UDJJ JUDWLQJ WHFKQRORJ\ microengineered structures, though these have
+RZHYHU HYHQ ZLWK UHODWLYHO\ ORVV\ VHQVRUV²IRU yet to be demonstrated.
H[DPSOH JDV FHOOV²XS WR  HOHPHQWV FDQ EH So most of the work in fiber-optic sensors is
XVHIXOO\ FRQILJXUHG LQWR D VLQJOH DUUD\ IHG IURP now focused on developmental opportunities.
D VLQJOH RSWLFDO V\VWHP But the more speculative research will continue,
and at least some will lead into demanding,
exotic, innovative measurements.
The general drawback of FOS is bat
cost/preference ratio, however rapid
development of telecommunication systems have
important impacts on the lowering of the cost of
the fiber optic components, which will eventually
bring FOS to more diverse range of applications.

7. Reference
[1] D.A Krohn, Fiber optic sensors fundamentals
and applictions, Instrument society of America,
1992
[2] K.T.V. Grattan and B.T.Meggitt, Optical
Fiber Technology, Chapman and Hall, 1995
[3] E.Udd, Fiber optic smart structures, John
Wiley & Sons, 1995
[4]B.Culshaw, Fiber Optics in Sensing and
Measurement, IEEE, Journal of selected topics
in quantum electronics, vol 6, pp.1014-1021