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DOI 10.1007/s12098-015-1866-4
REVIEW ARTICLE
Received: 11 May 2015 / Accepted: 28 July 2015 / Published online: 27 August 2015
# Dr. K C Chaudhuri Foundation 2015
Pathophysiology Diagnosis
Bronchiectasis is dilatation and thickening of the airways. In Diagnosis of bronchiectasis should be suspected in children
pre-existing abnormalities (congenital or acquired), recurrent presenting with any of the following clinical symptoms:
infection and inflammation leads to bronchial wall destruc- Persistent wet/moist cough lasting for more than 8 wk and
tion. Recurrent infection/inflammation may result in impaired persisting in between colds, asthma not responding to appro-
mucociliary clearance of purulent and inflammatory material. priate treatment, persistence or recurrence of symptoms of
Bronchoscopic biopsies and bronchoalveolar lavage analysis pneumonia, pertussoid cough not resolving even after 6 mo,
has helped in understanding the mechanisms of development persistent crepitations in the chest without obvious explanation,
of bronchiectasis [6, 7]. It has been suggested that the key recurrent respiratory problems with associated esophagus and
factor in the development of bronchiectasis is bronchial infec- upper respiratory illnesses and unexplained hemoptysis [16].
tion and inflammation. It has been identified that infection Imaging has remained a diagnostic tool for bronchiectasis.
leads to mucosal infiltration by neutrophils and T lympho- A few decades ago, bronchiectasis was suspected on abnormal
cytes; which in turn results in increased concentrations of findings in X-ray film and confirmed by bronchography. X-
inflammatory elements such as neutrophil elastase, interleu- ray film of chest (CXR) lacks specificity. Abnormalities on X-
kin-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and prostanoids. A com- ray film suggestive of bronchiectasis include: prominent
plex interaction between these mediators results in permanent bronchovascular markings, dilated bronchus, loss of lung vol-
dilatation and thickening of the airways i.e., bronchiectasis ume and peribronchial thickening. Now high resolution CT
[6–8]. It is suggested that underrecognition and (HRCT) has replaced bronchography and is considered gold
undertreatment of protracted bacterial bronchitis (PBB) which standard [17, 18]. Contrast enhanced chest CT (CECT) may
is persistence of bacterial infection of airways in children for be considered if reactivation of tuberculosis or mass lesion in
more than 4 wk may be responsible for the development of mediastinum, including lymphnodes are suspected.
bronchiectasis in the developing countries as well as vulnera- Findings in HRCT suggesting bronchiectasis include: dilata-
ble children in the developed countries [9]. tion of airway lumen more than nearby vessel; lack of tapering
towards periphery; bronchial wall thickening; cylindrical, vari-
cose, and/or saccular changes with local or diffuse disease [19,
20]. Findings on HRCT may give clue about underlying illness.
Etiology/Underlying Illnesses in Children Central bronchiectasis suggests allergic bronchopulmonary as-
pergillosis (ABPA), cystic fibrosis or recurrent aspirations.
There are many causes underlying the development of bron- With advanced technology, HRCT may detect subtle ab-
chiectasis. They can be classified into two major groups: con- normalities, including dilatation of airways during acute pneu-
genital problems and acquired problems [10–15]. A list of monia, aspiration or foreign body aspiration. These changes
underlying illnesses is given in Table 1 and comparison of may resolve in repeat HRCT after 6–8 wk [21, 22]. In some
various underlying causes from different parts of the world patients bronchial dilatation may persist static or may show
is described in Table 2. resolution; [11, 23] though it is difficult to differentiate natural
resolution or resolution due to aggressive treatment of bron-
chiectasis. It is suggested that the term prebronchiectasis may
be used in those which resolve over the period of time [24].
Clinical Manifestations Performance of Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
chest and HRCT chest in picking up findings like
Clinical manifestations of bronchiectasis are variable and de- peribronchial wall thickening, mucous plugging and bronchi-
pend on the causes and extent of the illness. There is no uni- ectasis was assessed to be similar [25]. MRI is not associated
form reporting of the clinical symptoms. A comparison of with exposure to radiation but needs longer duration of seda-
presenting clinical symptoms is given in Table 3. A recent tion or general anesthesia. HRCT can be done quickly with
study from India [15] reported 80 children with bronchiecta- minimal or no sedation but is associated with radiation expo-
sis. Common manifestations were: Cough (96 %), breathless- sure. With more experience and improvement in technology,
ness (81 %), expectoration (66 %), fever (62 %), wheezing MRI may find a place in imaging of pediatric chest diseases.
(52 %), repeated pneumonia (46 %) hemoptysis (16 %)
and failure to thrive (70 %). Common manifestations
include: Chronic cough, wheezing, exercise intolerance Investigations for Identification of Underlying Cause
and recurrent chest infections. Advanced disease may
manifest with failure to thrive, clubbing and pulmonary The aim of laboratory investigations for confirmation of the
arterial hypertension. underlying cause is to administer specific treatment.
940 Indian J Pediatr (October 2015) 82(10):938–944
Bronchoscopy: 3–15 % of underlying causes are Work-up for immune deficiency disorders: 6–34 % of un-
malformations of airways. Fiber optic bronchoscopy helps in derlying causes are immune deficiency. Common causes are
identification of airway abnormalities and obtaining samples pan hypogammaglobulinemia (common variable immune de-
from the airways. It can identify airway abnormalities like ficiency, X-linked hypogammaglobulinemia or isolated IgA
laryngotracheomalacia very well [26]. deficiency). Therefore, serum immunoglobulin profile (IgG,
Table 3 Clinical manifestations of children with bronchiectasis Diagnosis of PCD is confirmed by demonstration of
Li et al. Karadag Kumar abnormal ciliary structure on electron microscopy [28].
2005 [10] et al. et al. Identification of genetic mutation may be alternative di-
2005 [14] 2015 [15] agnostic test in future. At present, it is expensive as
there are a high number of PCD genes and only 60 %
Total numbers studied 138 111 80
of cases can be identified by genetic testing. Diagnostic
Geographic region UK Turkey India
facilities may not be available at all the centers, there-
Chronic cough 34.6 96.9 96 fore it is advisable to refer a suspected patient to cen-
Recurrent wheeze 10.3 46.9 52 ters that have diagnostic facilities [28].
GERD 8.1 - - For diagnosis of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis,
Rhinitis 5.1 - - recently a combination of clinical and lab parameters has been
Recurrent otitis media 5.1 - - suggested [30].
Failure to thrive 4.4 - -
Exercise intolerence 1.5 49 81
Recurrent chest infection 77.2 - 46
Hemoptysis - 10 16 Investigations for Monitoring of Bronchiectasis
Expectoration - 80.6 66
It is important to monitor children with bronchiectasis to as-
GERD Gastroesophageal reflux disease
sess progression of the illness and effect of the treatment. In
All figures are in percentages
older children, spirometry gives objective evidence of airways
and may be repeated every 3–6 mo. In younger children, clin-
IgM, IgA) should be estimated in suspected immune deficien- ical monitoring including symptom relief and weight gain
cy disorders. Other investigations may be considered depend- may be used. Pulmonary function test in pre- school children
ing on the suspicion of underlying illness. Hyper IgE syn- are emerging methods and may be available in future.
drome can be confirmed by documenting high levels of serum Periodic sputum examination may give clear idea about
IgE. Human immunodeficiency virus infection can be con- colonization of the airways. It may also help in deciding about
firmed by ELISA test in children above 18 mo of age. If antibiotic regimen for pulmonary exacerbations.
combined immunodeficiency or chronic granulomatous dis- Imaging such as x-ray film of the chest and computerized
ease is suspected, flowcytometry based investigations may tomography (CT) scan is not required routinely. These may be
confirm diagnosis. obtained in pulmonary exacerbations that are not responding
Cystic fibrosis (CF), once considered a disease of to the treatment. If patient has pulmonary hemorrhage that
Caucasian population, is being diagnosed more frequently does not respond to supportive care, a CT angiography for
from other parts of the world including India [27]. It is impor- demonstration of systemic to pulmonary collaterals may be
tant to suspect CF on clinical features and confirm by sweat considered.
test or mutation studies.
Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is reported to be 1–17 %
in different studies [10–15]. Diagnostic tests for PCD include
screening test and confirmation of the diagnosis. Screening Treatment
test includes saccharine clearance test, rate of clearance of
radiolabelled aerosol from the airways and nasal NO [28]. In Majority of children with bronchiectasis can be managed with
saccharine clearance test, a crystal of saccharine is placed medical treatment. The aim of the treatment includes nutri-
below inferior turbinate bone and the time taken for appreci- tional support, keeping airways clear and treatment of individ-
ation of sweet taste is recorded. It requires cooperation from ual episode of exacerbation with antibiotics.
the child and normal value for children is not available. It is no
more being used. Delayed clearance of radiolabelled aerosol
from the airways has been used in children above 5 y of age General Measures
and results may not be reliable in the presence of cough [29].
The test is associated with exposure to radiation and reference These include maintaining good hydration, adequate nu-
values for children are not available. trition, vaccination against common respiratory patho-
Nasal NO measurement is standard practice in older chil- gens like pertussis, measles, influenza, pneumococcal
dren and adults. Disorders of Mucociliary Clearance infection and HiB infection. Children with bronchiecta-
Consortium (GDMCC) in North America recommend nasal sis should be protected against smoke (biomass burning,
NO measurement as a screening tool for PCD in children [28]. tobacco) and irritants.
942 Indian J Pediatr (October 2015) 82(10):938–944
Antibiotics
Conclusions
Antibiotics should be used with an evidence of pulmonary
exacerbations as indicated by increased expectoration, fever, Bronchiectasis is relatively a common cause of respira-
weight loss, decrease in FEV1 (if available). Long term inhaled tory morbidity. Causes are varied and depend on the
Indian J Pediatr (October 2015) 82(10):938–944 943
geographic region and availability of diagnostic work up 10. Li AM, Sonnappa S, Lex C, et al. Non-CF bronchiectasis: does
knowing the aetiology lead to changes in management? Eur
of underlying illness. In developing countries, post in-
Respir J. 2005;26:8–14.
fectious causes are common while in countries with less 11. Karakoc GB, Yilmaz M, Altintas DU, Kendirli SG. Bronchiectasis:
burden of infection, other causes like malformations, still a problem. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2001;32:175–8.
immune deficiency disorders and primary ciliary dyski- 12. Eastham KM, Fall AJ, Mitchell L, Spencer DA. Paediatric lung
nesia are more common. Bronchiectasis should be disease: the need to redefine non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis in
childhood. Thorax. 2004;59:324–7.
suspected in children presenting with long term wet
13. Nikolaizik WH, Warner JO. Aetiology of chronic suppurative lung
cough. Clinical presentation depends on the severity of disease. Arch Dis Child. 1994;70:141–2.
illness and underlying cause. Diagnosis is established by 14. Karadag B, Karakoc F, Ersu R, Kut A, Bakac S, Dagli E. Non-
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ment is successful in majority. Localized disease with developing countries. Respiration. 2005;72:233–8.
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Contributions AKG: Involved in literature search, manuscript writing; ment of non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Prim Care Respir J.
RL: Involved in manuscript writing; SKK: Involved in literature search, 2011;20:135–40.
manuscript writing and will act as guarantor for manuscript. 17. Swensen SJ, Aughenbaugh GL, Brown LR. High-resolution com-
puted tomography of the lung. Mayo Clin Proc. 1989;64:1284–94.
18. Kuhn JP, Brody AS. High-resolution CT of pediatric lung disease.
Conflict of Interest None. Radiol Clin N Am. 2002;40:89–110.
19. Barker AF. Medical progress: bronchiectasis. N Engl J Med.
2002;346:1383–93.
Source of Funding None.
20. Kang EY, Miller RR, Muller NL. Bronchiectasis: comparison of
preoperative thin-section CT and pathologic findings in resected
specimens. Radiology. 1995;195:649–54.
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