THRUST AVAILABLE

THRUST REQUIRED IS DICTATED BY THE AIRFRAME ( W, A, AR, e*, Cdo )

 SHAPE (AIRFOIL, PLANFORM, FUSELAGE, EMPENNAGE)
 SIZE (SURFACE AREA, FRONTAL AREA, AIRFOIL)
 CONFIGURATION (CLEAN, GEAR DOWN, FLAPS DOWN)

THRUST AVAILABLE IS DICTATED BY THE POWERPLANT

(ENGINE TYPE, PROP)
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE - PROPELLER COMBINATION
 TURBOJET
 TURBOPROP (TURGINE ENGINE AND PROPELLER)
 TURBOFAN
 DUCTED PROPELLER

Jet Engines are rated in units of force (“thrust” … lb or N)

 Jet Engine power … P = T x V

Prop-Driven Engines are rated in units of Power … (assumed: P = T x V)

1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec = 746 watts

THRUST AVAILABLE

Accelerating the mass (of air) gives Ta ( … remember F = ma)

 PROPELLER - uses a larger mass of air & imparts a smaller ∆V∞

 TURBOJET - uses a smaller mass of air & imparts a larger ∆V∞

TA
Turbojet
A
T

Reciprocating
Engine-Propeller

V
THRUST AVAILABLE
 TA & TR vs V curves provide Vmin and Vmax
 Assume TA = constant for all velocities

 TA & TR depend on altitude

 TA decreases as altitude increases (air is thinner)

Our model … TA, alt = ρ/ρ
R
ρο TA, sea level (inversely proportional)

TA,R
T AND T

T A je t

ρ∞
TA,alt = TA,S
T ρ0
A

A p ro p

T R

V m a x p ro p
V m a x je t
V
Power Available for the Prop-driven A/C

PROPELLER EFFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT
FOR ANY POWERPLANT DRIVING A PROPELLER PA = ηP
 η IS PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
 P IS BRAKE HORSEPOWER
 PA IS AVAILABLE HORSEPOWER ( < P )

We assume PA from the prop engine is constant for all velocities

PA

Reciprocating engine-
propeller combination

V∞
POWER AVAILABLE PA

PA for the Jet engine grows linearly with V

PA from the Prop engine is constant with Vs

PA
Jet PA = TA V∞

PA = constant

Propeller

V∞
POWER AVAILABLE PA
ρ∞

ALTITUDE EFFECTS PA PA,alt = PA,S = σ PA,S
PROPELLER AIRCRAFT
ρ0
… our ‘prop’ model assumes P = const for an altitude

Propeller
airplane
POWER AVAILABLE PA
ρ∞

JET-POWERED AIRPLANE PA,alt = PA,S = σ PA,S
but for the jet T = const and P = T x V ρ0

Jet-powered
airplane
AT A GIVEN ALTITUDE,
WE MAY HAVE
EXCESS POWER

… let’s use it to climb

RATE OF CLIMB : “ R/C ”
Consider a steady climb … ΣF =0
FORCES INCLUDE A GRAVITY COMPONENT …

ΣFII = 0 T = D + W sin θ
ΣF⊥ = 0 L = W cos θ

V∞
R/C
 MULTIPLY THE DRAG EQN BY V∞
TV∞ = DV∞ + WV∞ sin θ

TV∞ − DV∞ PA − PR Excess Power

= V∞ sin θ ⇒ = = V∞ sin θ
W W W
 IN CLIMB, R/C IS THE VERTICAL VELOCITY

R / C = V∞ sin θ

R/C =
( T − D ) V∞
W
 MAXIMUM R/C excess power
 MAXIMIZE EXCESS POWER
R/C =
W
 MINIMIZE WEIGHT

 MAXIMUM ANGLE OF CLIMB

sin θ =
( T − D)
 MAXIMIZE EXCESS THRUST
 MINIMIZE WEIGHT
W
 R/C

AT A GIVEN ALTITUDE,
FOR ANY TYPE OF A/C
EXCESS POWER
DETERMINES R/C

 P − PR 
R/C = A 
 W 

 R/C CHANGES WITH V

 Graphs assist to determine

max R/C and best A/C V
R/C

IF THRUST AVAILABLE IS CONSTANT WITH V (a jet engine)

 MAXIMUM CLIMB ANGLE OCCURS AT MINIMUM DRAG

sin θ =
( T − D)
W

Thrust is ~constant for

a pure turbojet
 R/C
IF WE ASSUME CONSTANT THRUST :

T − D 
 FOR SMALL CLIMB ANGLES θ = sin −1  A 
 W 

 THE MAXIMUM ANGLE OF CLIMB WILL OCCUR AT MINIMUM DRAG

… RECALL THE DRAG POLAR
CL2
CD0 = CDi =
πeAR

 NOTE: ACCELERATION AVAILABLE IN LEVEL FLIGHT IS:

W dV∞ dV∞  TA − D 
TA − D = ma∞ TA − D = a∞ = = 
g dt dt  W / g 
FOR A JET, R/C max DOES NOT OCCUR AT MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED

 R/C max OCCURS AT V∞ WHERE EXCESS POWER IS GREATEST

 The V∞ for R/C max is found for any A/C by
 Plotting both PR vs V∞ and PA vs V∞
 Finding the V∞ where the distance between the
PA and PR curves (excess) is the greatest

speed for
“best R/C”
R/C - propeller
Again, R/C max occurs at the V∞ of maximum excess power

PA PR

PA

PA- PR

V∞
V∞,min V∞,max
V∞, R/C max
 R/C (excess power ) MAX
R / CMAX =
W
THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE …

 In general ,
PR decreases w/ altitude.

 And, PA drops faster than PR

 R/C max decreases w/ altitude

Remember
 For the jet …

ρ∞
TA,alt = TA,S and PA,alt = V∞ ⋅ TA,alt
ρS
 For the prop …
ρ∞
PA,alt = PA,S
ρS
R/C

CLIMB PERFORMANCE “HODOGRAPH”

 … a plot of VERTICAL V vs HORIZONTAL V

 NOTE, A DIFFERENCE IN V FOR θmax AND V FOR R/Cmax

Consider 2 identical A/C, at the same instant they are
at the same altitude and same constant velocity,

but

One A/C is straight & climbing and one A/C is straight & level.

Question, which A/C is creating more drag?

… which A/C is creating more drag?

L T L
T
D

D
W
W
… which A/C is creating more drag?

L T L
T
D

D
W
W

ΣFII = 0 T = D + W sinθ ΣFII = 0 T=D

ΣF⊥ = 0 L = W cosθ ΣF⊥ = 0 L=W
W cosθ W
CL = CL =
q∞ S q∞ S
CL2
D = q∞ SCD = q∞ S (CD0 + )
π eAR
CEILING: HOW HIGH CAN THE A/C CLIMB?

Absolute Ceiling: 0 fpm

Service Ceiling: 100 fpm

“Absolute Ceiling”: R/C = 0

CEILINGS
CEILING … ALTITUDE WHERE R/C HAS REACHED A LIMIT

 ABSOLUTE CEILING
 R/C = 0
 PA tangent to PR

 SERVICE CEILING
 R/Cmax = 100 ft/min ( = 1.67 ft/sec)
 PRACTICAL UPPER LIMIT FOR STEADY, LEVEL FLIGHT

 PROCEDURE …
 CALCULATE R/Cmax AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
 PLOT R/Cmax VERSUS ALTITUDE
 EXTRAPOLATE TO 100 fpm AND 0 fpm
TO FIND THE SERVICE AND ABSOLUTE CEILINGS

 the 2 point “straight line” method is a simplification, but conservative

 The 2 Point Method
to estimate SVC & ABS ceilings
Absolute ceiling (R/C)MAX = 0

Service ceiling (R/C)MAX = 100 fpm

∆h h 2 − h1
2 m = = (< 0)
∆R/CMAX R/CMAX, 2 - R/CMAX, 1

m h = m ( R/C MAX - R/C MAX, 1 ) + h1

100
h SVC = m ( fps - R/C MAX, S )
60

h ABS = − m R/C MAX, S

(R/C)MAX, 1
(R/C)MAX, 2

(R/C)MAX, ft/min x 10-3

Ceiling & Time to climb

Absolute Ceiling: 0 fpm

Service Ceiling: 100 fpm

Absolute ceiling
Service ceiling
TIME TO CLIMB

TIME TO CLIMB
 Use the R/C info

(R/C)-1
dh
R / C = V∞ sin θ =
dt
dh
dt =
R/C

 Integrate for time

t2 dh
h2
∫t1 dt = ∫h1 R / C Altitude x 10-3

 Or, graphically, determine time-to-climb

 Plot ( R/C ) -1 vs h
 observe the area under the curve is the time-to-climb
 Consider the time from the starting altitude
TIME TO CLIMB

TIME TO CLIMB … constant R/C
dh

(R/C)-1
R / C = V∞ sin θ =
dt
dh
dt =
R/C (R/C)-1

 INTEGRATING
t2 dh
h2 1 h2 Time to climb
∫t1 dt = ∫h1 R / C = R / C ∫h1 dh
h2 − h1
t2 − t1 = Altitude x 10-3
R/C
 Or, graphically, determine time-to-climb
 Constant ( R/C ) -1 vs h
 Use the area under the curve
 Limited by R/C max
GLIDING FLIGHT
ΣF║ ⇒ D = W sin θ

FORCES IN A POWER-OFF GLIDE
ΣF⊥ ⇒ L = W cosθ
 Divide drag by lift
1
tan θ =
L
D
 Again, L/D is important

 θ MIN => Maximum glide range

 MAX range @ MAX L/D

 A/C with good aerodynamic efficiency

“HIGH L/D” will glide 20 to 50
times as far as the altitude

Equilibrium Glide Velocity …

cos θ W
L = W cos θ ⇒ qSCL = W cos θ ⇒ V∞ =
CL ρ ∞ / 2 S