Geothermal Power Plants in the Philippines

Date
Rated
Commi
Owner/ Steam Capacit
Plant Name Location - Remarks
Operator Supplier y
ssione
(MW*)
d
Luzon

Makban Bitin, Chevro

NPC 110 1979
Plant A Laguna n

Makban Plant
Bitin, Laguna NPC Chevron 110 1980
B

Makban Bitin, Chevro On prolonged

NPC 110 1984
Plant C Laguna n shutdown

Makban Plant
Bitin, Laguna NPC Chevron 40 1995
D

Makban Bitin, Chevro

NPC 40 1996
Plant E Laguna n

Tiwi A Tiwi, Albay NPC Chevron 110 1979 decommissioned

Chevro
Tiwi B Tiwi, Albay NPC 110 1980
n

Tiwi C Tiwi, Albay NPC Chevron 110 1981-82

Bacon, PNOC-
Bacman A NPC 110 1993
Sorsogon EDC

BacMan Bacon, PNOC-

NPC 20 1994
(Cawayan) Sorsogon EDC

Bacman Bacon, PNOC-

NPC 20 1998
(Bacon) Sorsogon EDC

Visayas

Valencia,
Palinpinon PNOC-
Negros NPC 112.5 1983
I EDC
Oriental

Valencia,
PNOC-
Palinpinon 2 Negros NPC 80 1993-95
EDC
Oriental

Northern Negros PNOC- PNOC-

49 2007 On rehabilitation
Negros Occidental EDC EDC

Tongonan, PNOC-
Leyte A & B PNOC-EDC 610.18 1996 NPC-IPP
Leyte EDC
 Date
Rated
Commi
Owner/ Steam Capacit
Plant Name Location - Remarks
Operator Supplier y
ssione
(MW*)
d

Leyte Kananga, PNOC-

NPC 112.5 1983
Tonginan Leyte EDC

Mindanao

Kidapawan Marubeni
PNOC-
Mt Apo I , N. Corporatio 54.24 1996 NPC-IPP
EDC
Cotabato n

Kidapawan, Marubeni PNOC-

At Apo II 54.24 1999 NPC-IPP
N. Cotabato Corporation EDC

Working of Geothermal Power Plants

For the generation of electricity Geothermal power plants use much higher temperature
deep within the earth, we can say that these power plants are much similar to coal or oil
powered generators in which electricity is generated from steam driven turbines.

One of the main difference is that coal and oil powered plants burn fossil fuels to
produce steam while the heat of the earth’s core is used by the geothermal power
plants. Earth’s core is extremely hot and some areas are more suitable for the
generation geothermal power from others depending upon that how far the surface of
hot areas are located in the within the earth.

Places where high incidence of volcanoes occurs are much suitable for the production
of geothermal energy. As we have heard about geysers, hot springs and volcanoes,
these are the examples from in which the molten core comes close to the surface. From
ancient times heat from hot springs has
been used for the generation of
geothermal energy.

There is a simple concept behind

generation of geothermal power. To tap
into a pressurized area of hot water and
steam drill a hole deep into the earth and
to drive a turbine for the generation of
electricity we have to pipe the steam to
the surface.
Direct Steam Plants

It is the oldest type of geothermal power plants, operates as I described above.

Underground collection of hot water and steam are tapped and steam used to turn
turbines. The concept of generating electricity form the heat of earth is not new, a direct
steam powered generator is used by Prince Piero Conti of Italy to light a few light bulbs
at the steam fields of Larderello and after seven years a commercial power plant was
built at the same location.

There are few potential problems of Direct steam plants which are discussed below,

 Steam which is used for the driving of turbines may carry small amounts of mineral,
which can make steam to be very corrosive to the turbine, and due to this the possibility
of releasing pollutant into the air also increases.
 One other problem is that there are limited number of locations have the geological
structure which is important for the feasibility of Direct steam plants.

Other type of plants that overcome some of the problems and are widely available have
developed by the engineers. Possible pollution reducing because current plants recover
the condensed steam and return it to earth.

Binary power plant is the newest system and geothermal fluid passes through heat
exchanger in this system. In this exchanger,
the transfer of earth’s heat to another fluid
circulating in a closed system takes place
and this fluid vaporizes to steam, drives the
turbines and then condenses to liquid, after it
the cycle starts again. These type of systems
avoid turbine parts to the corrosive steam
and eliminates pollution virtually. We can say
that, Binary systems will probably be the
most common in the future.

Present and Future of Geothermal Power Plants

Currently, there are 24 countries in the world which have geothermal generating plants,
others are more likely to follow as the technology improves and the problems with oil
become more apparent. The US has the highest absolute production and producing
almost 3000 megawatts and this is very small according to the needs of the country.
Many of the geothermal plants are in California and they only produce about 5% of the
energy needed by the state. Second largest producer of geothermal energy is
Philippines.
According to the estimation of Earth Policy Institute, there are at least 39 countries that
meets their electric needs with the production of geothermal and many more can use
geothermal as part of their energy mix. It can be concluded that Geothermal power
plants are a cost effective source of electric power that are likely to become more
common in the future.

Geothermal Energy Due to Sun

The top surface of the earth is baked by the sun during the day. The earth conducts this
heat underneath the surface. The effect of this is more pronounced during the winters –
when the temperatures a few meters underground are 10-15 degrees Celsius.

Geothermal Energy from the Earth’s Core

The other source of geothermal energy is the hot center of our earth. The center of the
earth has very high temperature of up to 6000 Celsius. Places which are more prone to
volcanic eruption are mostly suitable for extracting geothermal energy. The hot pools
and geysers are other apparent forms of geothermal energy at our disposal. The
geothermal energy from the center of earth can be extracted by digging for deep
pipelines which will require more cost.

Comparison of the Two Sources

The geothermal energy due to absorption of heat from sun rays is more uniform and
can be used anywhere. This heat is mostly used to warm up the homes in cold
countries.
Different Scandinavian countries have employed methods which make use of this
energy. However the geothermal energy from the earth’s center is more useful when
higher temperatures are required; for example, in generating steam for power plant
usage.

Mechanism Employed

The water needs to be pumped for circulating through the pipes. This pumping cycle
needs electricity or some mechanical power. However it is estimated that you get 2-3
degrees for using one degree equivalent power. This heat can be extracted by laying
underground pipes and running water through them.

Applications

The water absorbs heat which can be used for different purposes after reaching the
earth’s surface. This water can be directly used for floor heating using compressors.
The water containing the geothermal energy needs less heat to boil. So this water is
more economical in generating steam which in turn can be used for electricity or
supplying hot water to buildings. As less fuel is consumed in heating this underground
water so the drastic effects on environment can also be reduced.
A geothermal power plant consists of a geothermal steam source, vaporizer, mist
separator . The other major parts are just the same as a conventional thermal power
plant, such as:: [1] steam turbine, generator set. Control room and circuit breakers are
included. (2) condenser and condensate tanks. Hoy water,93deg C may used for other
purposes such as health spas with a heat exchanger. Colder water is injected back to
the source wells.

How the plant works

A mixture of steam and geothermal brine is
transported from the wells to a central separation
station. After being separated from the brine, the
steam is piped through moisture separators to steam
heat exchangers inside the plant building. The steam
can be piped to steam turbines for co-generation of
electricity. Unutilized steam is released through a
steam exhaust.

In the steam heat exchangers, the steam is cooled

under pressure into condensate whose heat is then
transferred to cold fresh water in condensate heat
exchangers. The condensate cools down in the
process to 20°C. Separated geothermal brine has its
heat transferred to cold fresh water by geothermal
brine heat exchangers. Since the mineral-rich
geothermal brine causes scaling that coats the heat
exchanger pipes, steel particles are allowed to
circulate in the stream, impacting against the pipes to
remove any scaling as it occurs. Cold water is
pumped from wells at Grumelur, near the shore of
Lake Thingvallavatn, to a storage tank by the power
house.
From there, it is pumped to the heat exchangers where its temperature is raised
to85-90°C. Since the fresh water is saturated with dissolved oxygen that would cause
corrosion after being heated, it is passed through deaerators where it is boiled at low
vacuum pressure to remove the dissolved oxygen and other gases, cooling it to 82-
85°C.
The heating process

Heat exchangers

Hitaveita Reykjavikur operated a pilot heating plant at Nesjavellir during 1974 - 1990.
Various types of heat exchangers have been tested. Conventional plate heat
exchangers are used for the condensation of steam from the separators and to cool the
condensate. They are equipped with EPDM-gaskets and made of titanium plates to
avoid stress corrosion, as it is not possible to guarantee problem free operation if
stainless steel plates are used.

Conventional heat exchangers cannot be used for the separated water due to the high
content of dissolved solids (TDS 1200 PPM) which would cause severe scaling of silica.
A new type of heat exchanger, in the geothermal context, has been tested successfully
in the pilot plant. These are the so-called "fluidized bed heat exchangers", or FBHX
made by Eskla Heat exchangers BV in the Netherlands. They are shell and tube heat
exchangers operating in a vertical position . Stainless steel balls, 1.5 mm in diameter,
circulate in the flowstream of the separated water. They impact continuously against the
pipe surfaces and remove any scaling that may form. A mechanical device is fitted to
the inlet and outlet of the heat exchangers to keep the steel balls evenly distributed in
the flow stream. The FBHX heat exchangers make possible the direct utilization of the
heat in the water from the separators and contribute to the overall economy of the
heating process.

Deaeration

The cold ground water is saturated with dissolved oxygen and becomes very corrosive
when heated. A conventional thermal deaeration method is used where the ground
water is boiled under vacuum after heating to remove the oxygen. The cold ground
water has a pH-value of 7.5-8.5. It is partially degassed through boiling after heating.
This raises the pH-value to 9.0-9.5 and the oxygen content is reduced down to about 50
ppb. The remaining dissolved oxygen is removed through injection of small amounts of
geothermal steam that contains acid gases (H2S and CO2). Hydrogen sulfide gas
reacts rapidly with the dissolved oxygen. The final water product then has a pH-value of
8.5-9.0. It is free of dissolved oxygen, and contains 0.5-2.0 PPM of H2S. The remaining
H2S gas reacts against any oxygen absorption in accumulators and ensures that the
"pleasant smell", which the users of geothermal water in Iceland have become
accustomed to, is retained.

Amorphous Mg-Si scaling was formed in the distribution system in Reykjavik during the
first months of operation of the plant, due to the high pH-value of the mixture of the
geothermal water from the low-temperature fields and the heated ground water from
Nesjavellir. Different ratios of these two water types control the pH-value. Scaling can
only be avoided by reducing the amount of geothermal water in the mixture below 10-
15%. Therefore the original plan of mixing these two water types in the distribution
network has been abandoned. They will be used separately.

The waste geothermal water

Geothermal heating plants in high-temperature fields only utilize the thermal energy of
the geothermal fluid, which, after use in heat exchangers. must be disposed of with
minimum risk to the environment. This disposal can be performed in two different ways,
i.e. at surface or into subsurface aquifers. Surface disposal can be carried out in a
similar way to the natural disposal of flow from the hot springs, i.e. into the brook in the
Nesjavellir valley, which disappears into a lava field before reaching Lake
Thingvallavatn. Subsurface disposal requires that the waste water is pumped back into
the geothermal reservoir. This latter method is obviously more friendly to the
environment but more expensive. It can also be more difficult to operate due to scaling
in the reinfection wells and their aquifers.
There are two important features of the waste water from high-temperature fields that
may have a negative effect on the environment. These are the raised temperature of
surface waters and ground water aquifers and the presence of hazardous chemicals in
the waste water, i.e. arsenic, mercury, boron, etc. Extensive research has been carried
out at Nesjavellir with respect to disposal of the waste water. Chemical and biological
measurements have been carried out at Lake Thingvallavatn since 1979 to define the
pre-exploitation value for future reference. All the wells at Nesjavellir were flow tested in
1984-1987 as a part of the exploration program. Large amounts of geothermal water
were disposed of at the surface during these tests without any apparent effects on water
chemistry at the shoreline of the lake. This is in agreement with the prediction of a
ground water model that simulates fluid flow and distribution of chemicals in the ground
water system at Nesjavellir.
Chemical analysis of the geothermal fluid show that dangerous chemicals, which may
be expected from the condensate of the steam phase, are almost absent.
All arguments seem to indicate that surface disposal of the waste water can be used for
the geothermal power plant at Nesjavellir.

THE GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

General outline

Due to scaling, the geothermal fluid from the Nesjavellir field

cannot be used directly in the space heating distribution network.
The power plant therefore uses the geothermal energy to heat
cold ground water indirectly in heat exchangers. The heated
water is treated so that it can be used directly in the network.
The geothermal power plant at Nesjavellir consists of the
following five sub-systems all of which have separate functions:

 Cold water supply

  Geothermal fluid supply
 Heating and treatment of cold ground water
 Transmission pipeline to Reykjavik
 Electricity co-generation

These five sub-systems of the power plant are described below along with their main
functions.
The planned capacity of the co-generation power plant is 400 MA for district heating and
over 80 MWe when fully developed. The design is for two power stations of similar size
which will be developed in steps as follows:
Power station I:
Phase 1: 100 MWt
Phase 2: 100 MWt + 8 MWe
Phase 3: 30-37 MWe

Power station II:

Phase 4: 100 MW, + 23 MWe
Phase 5: 100 MWt + 23 MWe

The first phase of power station I became operational in September 1990 but the
second phase is being built in two steps in 1991 (already in operation) and 1993.

The cold water supply

Cold ground water (4°C) is pumped from 30 m deep wells, at Gramelur, 6.2. km north of
the power house, in a lava field at the shore of Lake Thingvallavatn. The nominal
capacity of each pump is 278 kg/s, but larger pumps can be installed. Four wells have
been drilled so far with only 5 m spacing.
Pumping tests of up to 600 kg/s have confirmed a very high permeability of the lava
formation. The pumping station is designed so that it can be enlarged for future
developments and house additional wells.
The cold water is piped 6.2 km through a DN 900Æ mm pipe from Gramelur to the
power house. The pipe is made of ductile iron and has the same capacity as the
transmission pipeline to Reykjavik, i.e. about 1900 kg/s. The water is piped to an 1000
m3 storage tank by the power house, before entering the heat exchangers and
deaerators.
The geothermal fluid supply

The geothermal fluid supply system gathers the fluid from the production wells,
separates water and steam and then pipes them individually to the power house.
Figure 15 shows a schematic flow diagram of the system. It includes two phase pipes
from the production wells, separators, pressure control valves and the mist eliminators
by the power house.
The wells discharge a mixture of water and
steam, which is transported along the two-
phase pipes to a central separator station
close to the power house instead of a
number of separators nearer to the wells.
The two-phase pipes are therefore relatively
long, which is made possible by the high
enthalpy of the well fluid and favorable
topography.
The dissolved solids are largely confined to
the separated water phase, as steam and
water are almost completely (over 99.9%) separated in the separators. The separator
station is situated 400 m away from the power house. The separated steam pipeline is
constructed so that some condensation occurs in the pipe. The condensate washes out
remaining dissolved solids in the steam. It is drained through control valves on the pipe
and the remaining droplets are removed in the mist eliminators.
Three wells (no. NJ-11, 13 and 16) are connected to the separator station for the first
phase, with well NG-6 as a reserve. These wells have a very high steam fraction
(enthalpy 2000 kJ/kg). It was therefore decided to operate the steam separators at 15
bara, which is an unusually high pressure for a geothermal power plant. The
advantages are smaller pipes and more efficient electricity generation. Power station II
will utilize wells with lower fluid enthalpy and a lower separator pressure will be more
practical, probably 8 bara.
Vertical separators have hitherto been chosen for steam separation in geothermal
power plants. Nesjavellir is the first one to operate conventional horizontal separators
with Chevron-filters, their main advantages being less height, hence lower cost for
separator building and much easier water level control. The capacity of each separator
equals 35 kg/s or about 50 MWt (at 15 bara).
The mist eliminators are in principle of the same size and type (horizontal) as the main
separators but are fitted with "wire-mesh" filters.
No steam turbine is installed in the first phase of the power plant. The steam pressure
must therefore be lowered in control valves from 15 to 2 bara before entering the heat
exchangers. This causes superheating of the steam and very high noise level due to
sonic flow. The control valves are therefore placed in a separate building. Here,
condensate is injected into the superheated steam to cool it to saturation conditions to
protect the gaskets in the plate heat exchangers.
Electricity generation is planned in phases 2 and 3. The high pressure steam will then
expand in back pressure turbines, down to 2 bara, relieving the control valves of the
high flow load. The exhaust steam from the turbine will be piped directly to the heat
exchangers.

The heat exchangers

The indirect heating of the cold ground water takes place in the heat exchangers. About
82% of the heat is transferred in the steam heat exchangers. The condensate heat
exchangers cool the condensate from the steam heat exchangers down to 20°C and
add about 14% to the heating process, whereas the heat exchanger for the separated
geothermal water finally contributes only 4% to the heating in the first phase of the
power plant.
Steam heat exchangers. Three out of four of the installed steam heat exchangers have
titanium plates, but one of the heat exchangers has plates of ANSI 316 stainless steel
for testing the long-term corrosive resistance of this material. The steam temperature is
kept below 120°C (2 bara), the
maximum temperature that the
EPDM material in the gaskets
can withstand for a longer
period. They are manufactured
by REHEAT in Sweden. Each
titanium heat exchanger is
composed of 329 plates with a
total heat exchange surface
area of 280 m2, whereas the
stainless steel heat exchanger
has 367 plates and heating
surface of 312 m2. The heat
transfer coefficient is stated to
be 4300 W/(m2K) for clean
plates.
Condensate heat exchangers.
The condensate heat
exchangers are of the
conventional plate type. They
extract the heat of the
condensate from the steam
heat exchangers through
cooling from about 90 to 20°C. Two heat exchangers connected in parallel were
installed in the first phase of the power plant, one acts as a reserve. They are
manufactured by REHEAT of Sweden. The plates are made of the ANSI 316 stainless
steel and have a heat exchange surface area of 190 m2
Heat exchangers for the separated water. There are two fluidized bed heat exchangers
(FBHX) connected in series, which transfer heat from the separated water to the cold
ground water. Each FBHX is equipped with 19 steel pipes (ID 50 mm, length 9 m).
These heat exchangers contribute only 4% to the heating process of the first phase, as
stated earlier. They are therefore installed mainly to obtain operational experience, as
they will play an important role in power station II when the low enthalpy wells will be
connected. The separated water is cooled down to 20-35°C before entering the waste
water system.

Deaeration of the heated water

The main role of the two deaerators installed in the plant is to remove oxygen from the
heated fresh water. It enters the vessel at the temperature of 85-88°C and is deaerated
through boiling by vacuum pressure down to 83°C. The main flow enters the central part
of the deaerators. The water boils vigorously as it sprays over the filling material. Steam
and gas rise to the top. There the steam is condensed through injection of cold water
before the gas is ejected. At the bottom of the vessel a small amount of geothermal
steam is injected into the deaerated water to dissolve hydrogen sulfide. This lowers the
pH, rids the water of any remaining oxygen and acts against oxygen absorption.
The deaerators are made of stainless steel. They are 2.5 m in diameter and 11 m high.
The nominal capacity of each is 278 kg/s of heated water or 50% of the first phase.

The control system

The computerized control system for the geothermal power plant at Nesjavellir is
identical to the one that is used to supervise and control the pumping stations for the
low-temperature fields and the distribution network in Reykjavik. This control system
was tailor-made for Hitaveita Reykjavikur [Magnusson and Gunnarsson, 1989]. The
advantage of using the same type of control system is to reduce the investment, training
and maintenance costs.
The data processors. The control system is built around process computers of the
Texas Instruments 565 PC type. They take care of sequence and closed loop controls.
They are situated in the cold water pumping station, in the transformer station and in the
power house. Two process computers are connected together in the power house in a
hot back-up configuration, as they control the most critical part of the heating process.
The SCADA System. The process computers are connected to a SCADA system
(Supervision Control and Data Acquisition). The SCADA system is based on a PDP
11/83 computer in the control building at Nesjavellir . Peripherals such as color screens
and printers are located in the control rooms at Nesjavellir and in Reykjavik . The power
plant is operated round the clock from Reykjavik as the control room at Nesjavellir is
usually unmanned. The peripherals in Reykjavik are connected to the PDP 11/83
computer through a 64 kbit/s data multiplex and a fiber-optical data link.
The color VDU display system used is of the ABB Tesselator type. One of the
advantages of this system is that it can be connected to the SCADA computer by
modem. The Tesselator system can therefore easily be moved around, which facilitates
all process tests and remote monitoring.
Should the SCADA system fail, the power plant can be controlled from switch boards
that are connected directly to the PC's processors.
The operation of the power plant is fully automated. It can run all day without any
manual intervention, except during breakdowns. A closed loop control is used at all
stages and reserve pumps take over automatically in case of pump failure. Restarting of
the plant after shut-down is at present done manually but automation will be gradually
increased as experience is gained in the operation.
The process simulator. A computer model has been developed for the dynamic
behavior of the plant. It runs on a PC computer and the whole process is incorporated
into the model. A lot of effort was made to make the program code as effective as
possible for real time simulation.
The simulator consists of a PC computer that simulates the process, a process
computer with the same software as is used for the control system of the plant and a
SCADA system similar to the one used in the power plant. The process computer
program had to be modified to communicate with the PC computer instead of the
sensors and control system of the power plant.
The main advantages of the simulator are expected to be:
· The designers and operators can optimize regulation and control strategies in a simple
way. Tests that are either too risky or time consuming can be simulated.
· Training of personnel can be carried out without disturbing the operation of the plant.
Both normal operation and various types of breakdowns can be simulated.
· Development of an expert system for operation and maintenance of various parts of
the system.

Ventilation of buildings

The atmosphere at Nesjavellir is contaminated with H2S gas from the geothermal field.
Its concentration varies depending on weather conditions, but is estimated to be around
100 ppb on average. H2S is especially corrosive for copper and silver, materials that
are common in electrical and electronic equipment. Instruments are therefore largely
situated in air-tight buildings . These buildings are fitted with airlocks and an
independent ventilation system where the hydrogen sulfide gas is absorbed in active
carbon filters. The requirements for the indoor conditions are that the H2S content is
below 3 ppb and relative humidity around 40%.
This is expected to be achieved with the ventilation system by pressurizing the building
up to 100 kPa, recirculating about 85% of the air inside the building and placing the
fresh air intake about 6 m above the roof of the power house (20 m above ground level).
The power plant buildings have two additional ventilation systems installed. One is for
the visitors' reception hall and the other for the process halls. Both of these are
conventional systems without gas purification but they use the same fresh air intake.
Geothermal Energy: Operations and Maintenance Impacts
Environmental impacts during the operations and maintenance phase would mostly
occur as a result of noise, water demand, waste management, land use conflicts,
potential spills, and the increased traffic at the project site.

Typical activities during the operations and maintenance phase include operation and maintenance of
production and injection wells and pipeline systems, operation and maintenance of the power plant,
waste management, and maintenance and replacement of facility components. Potential impacts from
these activities are presented below, by the type of affected resource.

Acoustics (Noise)

Primary sources of noise during normal operations would be associated with the power plant, e.g., the
power houses, transformers, and cooling towers. Cooling towers are relatively tall and have noise-
generating fans at the top, making them the main source of noise. During the operations and
maintenance phase, a geothermal power plant would generate noise levels in the 71 to 83 decibel range
at a distance of one-half mile. Noise levels can be reduced by the addition of mufflers or other
soundproofing. The primary impacts from noise would be localized disturbance to wildlife, recreationists,
and residents.

Air Quality

Emissions generated during the operations and maintenance phase include exhaust from vehicular traffic
and fugitive dust from traffic on paved and unpaved roads, most of which would be generally limited to
worker and maintenance vehicle traffic. In addition, emissions could include the release of geothermal
fluid vapors (especially hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, mercury, arsenic, and boron, if present in the
reservoir). Impacts would depend upon the amount, duration, location, and characteristics of the
emissions and the meteorological conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction, precipitation, and relative
humidity). Carbon dioxide emissions would be considerably less than for comparable power plants using
fossil fuel. State and local regulators may require permits and air monitoring programs.

Cultural Resources

During the operations and maintenance phase, impacts to cultural resources could occur primarily from
unauthorized collection of artifacts and from visual impacts. In the latter case, the presence of the
aboveground structures could impact cultural resources with an associated landscape component that
contributes to their significance, such as a sacred landscape or historic trail. The potential for indirect
impacts (e.g., vandalism and unauthorized collection) would be greater during the operations and
maintenance phase compared to prior phases, due to its longer duration.

Ecological Resources

Most impacts to ecological resources (vegetation, wildlife, aquatic biota, special status species, and their
habitats) would be less during the operations and maintenance phase than for the exploration and drilling
and construction phases because no new drilling or construction activities would take place. However,
operations and maintenance activities have the potential to affect ecological resources mainly by reducing
the acreage for foraging and migrating animals, fragmenting habitat, and creating noise at the project
site during the life cycle of the project (which could last up to 50 years). Some of these impacts could be
significant. Increased human activity also increases the risk of fire, especially in arid or semiarid areas.
Applications of herbicides to control vegetation along access roads, buildings, and power plant structures,
would increase the risk of wildlife exposure to contaminants.

Environmental Justice

Possible environmental justice impacts during the operations and maintenance phase include the
alteration of scenic quality in areas of traditional or cultural significance to minority populations. Noise,
water, and health and safety impacts are also potential sources of disproportionate effects to minority or
low-income populations.

Hazardous Materials and Waste Management

Industrial wastes are generated during routine operations and maintenance activities (e.g., lubricating
oils, hydraulic fluids, coolants, solvents, and cleaning agents). These wastes are typically placed in
containers, characterized and labeled, possibly stored briefly, and transported by a licensed hauler to an
appropriate permitted off-site disposal facility as a standard practice. Impacts could result if these wastes
were not properly handled and were released to the environment. Environmental contamination could
occur from accidental spills of herbicides or, more significantly, oil. Chemicals in open pits used to store
wastes may pose a threat to wildlife and livestock.

Health and Safety

Potential human health and safety impacts during the operations and maintenance phase would include
exposures to geothermal fluids or steam during maintenance activities, system failures or well blowouts,
and hazardous materials such as petroleum, oils, lubricants, and herbicides; and the risk of serious
injuries or accidents. Adverse impacts could also occur from the risk of electrical fires and wildfires
caused by project activities; electric shock during transmission line and substation maintenance; and
vehicular accidents due to increased traffic on local roads. The potential for such impacts can be
minimized if appropriate safety procedures are implemented.

Land Use

Impacts on land uses during the operations and maintenance phase are an extension of those that
occurred during the exploration and drilling and construction phases. While, to some extent, land use can
revert to its original uses (e.g., livestock grazing), many other uses (e.g., mining, farming, or hunting)
would be precluded during the life span of the geothermal development. Mineral resources would remain
available for recovery and operations and maintenance activities are unlikely to affect mining and energy
development activities, military operations, livestock grazing, or aviation on surrounding lands.

Paleontological Resources

The potential for impacts on paleontological resources would be limited primarily to unauthorized
collection of fossils. This threat is present once the access roads are constructed, making remote areas
more accessible to the public. Damage to localities caused by OHV use could also occur. The potential for
indirect impacts (e.g., vandalism and unauthorized collection) would be greater during the production
phase compared to the drilling/development phase, due to the longer duration of the production phase.

Socioeconomics

Activities during the operations and maintenance phase would contribute to the local economy by
providing employment opportunities, monies to local contractors, and recycled revenues through the local
economy. The magnitude of these benefits would vary depending on the resource potential. Operations
of a typical 50-MW power plant and related transmission lines would require an estimated 93 jobs and $8
million in income, but would vary depending on the community. Job availability would vary with different
stages of construction. Expenditures for equipment, materials, fuel, lodging, food, and other needs would
stimulate the local economy over the duration of the project, which could last up to 50 years.

Economic impacts may occur if other land use activities (e.g., recreation, grazing, or hunting) are altered
by geothermal development. Constructing facilities will alter the landscape and could affect the
nonmarket values of the immediate area during the life of the geothermal development. Many of these
land uses may be compatible; however, it's possible that some land uses will be displaced by geothermal
development.
Soils and Geologic Resources

Impacts to soils and geologic resources would be minimal during the operations and maintenance phase.
The initial areas disturbed during the construction phase would continue to be used during standard
operation and maintenance activities, but no additional impacts would occur unless new construction
projects or drill sites are needed. Impacts associated with new construction projects or drill sites would
be similar to those described for the exploration and drilling and construction phases.

Transportation

Daily traffic levels, particularly heavy truck traffic, would be expected to be lower during the operations
and maintenance phase compared to other phases of geothermal development. For the most part, heavy
truck traffic would be limited to periodic monitoring and maintenance activities at the well pads and
power plant.

Visual Resources

Adverse impacts to visual resources would occur during the 10- to 30-year life of the geothermal
development. Impacts during the operations and maintenance phase would result from the presence of
facility structures and roads (where undeveloped land once stood), increased vehicular traffic to the site,
and releases of steam plumes from the geothermal power plant. Periodic construction projects occurring
throughout the life of the development would have impacts similar to those described for the construction
phase.

Water Resources (Surface Water and Groundwater)

Impacts to water resources during the operations and maintenance phase result mainly from the water
demands associated with operating a geothermal power plant. Water resources during operations would
be needed for replenishment of the geothermal reservoir through reinjection. However, because some
water would be consumed by evaporation, additional water would need to be added to the system from
another source. Makeup water to replace the evaporative losses and blowdown in a water-cooled power
plant system would also be needed, depending on the type of power plant used (e.g., flash steam
facilities can lose up to 20% of its cooling water due to evaporation, but binary plants are
nonconsumptive because they use a closed-loop system). Water can also be lost due to pipeline failures
or surface discharge for monitoring and testing the geothermal reservoir. The availability of water
resources could be a limiting factor in siting or expanding a geothermal development at a given location.

Cooling water or water from geothermal wells that is discharged to the ground or to an evaporation pond
could affect the quality of shallow groundwater if allowed to percolate through the ground. However, the
potential for this type of impact is considered minor or negligible because the facility would have to
comply with the terms of the discharge permit required by the state.

Geothermal Operations and Maintenance

Relative to fossil fuel fired power generation, geothermal power plants are much less complex, being simple cycle,
operate at relatively low pressure and temperature and have fewer auxiliaries. Nonetheless, geothermal plants incur
a significant penalty with respect to the severe equipment operating environment created by saturated steam
containing relatively high levels of impurities of non condensable gases, dissolved and suspended solids. Geothermal
maintenance costs are about twice that of fossil fuel plant, due principally to the following problems which are
characterisitic of the geothermal environment:

 Corrosion - of well casings, valves, surface pipelines (steam and condensate), structural steel, cooling
tower components, building cladding and electrical switch gear

 Deposition - of geothermal mineral phases and corrosion products inside production and injection wells,
steam field piping/ plant and steam turbines

 Erosion - of surface piping, valves and turbine blades

Sinclair Knight Merz has 20 years experience in the operation and maintenance of geothermal steamfields and power
stations and promotes O&M practices based on:

 Highest possible steam quality through advanced separator design, sophisticated control of separator
pressure and the use of secondary steam conditioning plant.

 Detailed attention to process requirements, material selection and plant equipment in power plant
specification.

 Well defined and documented operational procedures.

 Training and technology transfer to ensure client organisation develops the required level of operational
skills.

 Good preventative maintenance programs to minimize forced plant outages and to maximize turbine in-
service periods, targeting at least 3 years operation between major maintenance shuts. This ensures high
plant availability, which for a base load geothermal plant represents a high capacity (utilisation) factor, and
high revenue.

Sinclair Knight Merz O&M services include:

 Drilling Engineering and Management – engineering of well workovers, redrills, cleanouts, and
permeability enhancement through acidizing.

 Resource Management – through life assessment of reservoir performance, steam and injection reserves
and resource problems.

 Steam Field Engineering – system re-engineering in response to changing production conditions,

assessment and management of deposition problems (silica, calcite anhydrite, corrosion products), on line
chemical tracer flow measurements.

 Steam Supply – steam quality measurement and improvement, contract steam flow metering, steam line
corrosion problems, steam sales contracts.

 Turbines – performance testing, deposition problems.

  Condenser/ Cooling Circuit – optimization of thermodynamic performance and chemical dosing
requirements through numerical modelling.

Steam turbines

The steam turbine on a page about engines? Maybe you wondered about it. It is hardly used in means of
transport, but the steam turbine has many things in common with the combustion engine. The steam
turbine changes chemically stored energy into mechanical energy, too. It's called a heat-force engine.
The steam turbine works similarly to the water turbine, which is known probably by everyone. Not water,
but steam is used as working medium.

Turbine types

When people began to use water power to win mechanical work, they looked first for the best forms of
impellers. Three types were established thereby and variations of them are used today in various
applications, among other in steam turbines in power stations, as marine propellers, as compressors in
gas turbines etc. These three types are introduced here:

The pelton turbine

The pelton turbine (also free-jet turbine) was invented 1880 by L.A. Pelton. It
possesses spoon-shaped shovels, the jet hits the impeller tangentially, gets
divided by the two shovels and transfers an impulse. The pelton turbine is
used in storage power stations with downward gradients up to 2000 meters
and can contain up to 6 nozzles.

Grafic: Pelton turbine Grafic: Pelton turbine, source: http://www-

enlarge (35 K, 770 * 905) spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Spelton.htm

The francis turbine

he reaction turbine invented by J.B. Francis 1849 is hit by the jet almost
axially (toward the axle) and radially (away from the center). The rotor blades
can be adjusted, in order to ensure an even run. It looks similar to the type
shown below as Steam turbine.
 The Kaplan turbine

The Kaplan turbine, developed around 1915 by the

Austrian V.Kaplan, looks like a marine propeller.
The jet is led thereby axially on the freely
adjustable shovel pages.

Grafic: Kaplan turbine

enlarge (35 K, 282 * 292)

Besides the types described above, there are still other types of water turbines, e.g. the Bànki turbine,
which are not closer described here.

From the water- to the steam turbine

The won realizations with water power let the researchers expect similar results with steam, too.
Numerous engineers took part in the development of the steam turbine in the second half of the 19.
Century. To mention are the Englishman Charles Parsons, the Swede Carl Gustav Laval and the
American Charles Curtis, who made crucial contributions for the development of the steam turbine.

Diagram: 2-step steam turbine after Parsons (1883). This turbine

possesses two impellers and an idler in the center.
enlarge (154 K, 510 * 570), Image (18 K, 255 * 285), Mini steam
turbine (For your website) (11 K, 100 * 112)

Mode of operation of the steam turbine

Since it is a steam jet and no more a water jet who meets the turbine now, the laws of thermodynamics
are to be observed now. The modern steam turbine is an action turbine (no reaction turbine), i.e. the
steam jet meets from a being certain nozzle the freely turning impeller. There's a high pressure in front of
the turbine, while behind it a low pressure is maintained, so there's a pressure gradient: Steam shoots
through the turbine to the rear end. It delivers kinetic energy to the impeller and cools down thereby: The
pressure sinks.
Steam is produced in a steam boiler, which is heated in power
"Steam"
stations by the burn of coal or gas or by atomic energy. Steam
Steam turbines are operated today
doesn't escape then, but after the passage through the turbine it is
of course no longer with normal
condensed in a condensor and then pushed back into the steam
water vapour only, but depending on
boiler again by a pump. This has the advantage that for example
the field of application also with
in nuclear power stations work- and cooling water are clearly
other materials, e.g. with freons).
separated.

Multi-level steam turbines

In modern steam turbines not only one impeller is propelled, but several being in a series. Between them
idlers are situated, which don't turn. The gas changes its direction passing an idler, in order to perform
optimally work again in the next impeller. Turbines with several impellers are called multi-level. The
principle was developed 1883 by Parsons. As you know, with the cooling gas expands. Therefore it is to
be paid attention when building steam turbines to a further problem: With the number of passed impellers
also the volume increases, which leads to a larger diameter of the impellers. Because of that, multi-level
turbines are always conical.

Coupling of several turbines

Grafic: Coupled steam turbine. source: Helmut Hütten, "Motoren", Motorbuchverlag Stuttgart, S.379

In power stations today, different types of turbines are used in a series, e.g. one high pressure -, two
medium- and four low pressure turbines. This coupling leads to an excellent efficiency (over 40%), which
is even better than the efficiency of large diesel engines. This characteristic and the relatively favorable
production make the steam turbine competitionless in power stations. Coupled with a generator and fired
by an atomic reactor, they produce enormously much electric current. The strongest steam turbines
achieve today performances of more than 1000 megawatts.

A geothermal power plant uses its geothermal activity to generate power. This type of natural energy
production is extremely environmentally friendly and used in many geothermal hot spots around the
globe.
To harness the energy, deep holes are drilled into the earth (much like when drilling for oil) until a
significant geothermal hot spot is found.

When the heat source has been discovered, a pipe is attached deep down inside the hole which allows
hot steam from deep within the earths crust to rise up to the surface.

The pressurized steam is then channeled into a turbine which begins to turn under the large force of the
steam. This turbine is linked to the generator and so the generator also begins to turn, generating
electricity. We then pump cold water down a new pipe which is heated by the earth and then sent back up
the first pipe to repeat the process.

The main problems with geothermal energy is that firstly, you must not pump too much cold water into the
earth, as this could could cool the rocks too much, resulting in your geothermal heat source cooling down.
secondly, geothermal power plants must be careful of escaping gases from deep within the earth.

We suggest if you would like to learn more on this topic, you take a look at our advantages of geothermal
energy, and our disadvantages of geothermal energy articles.

A very good way of thinking about geothermal energy is remembering that all our continents lie on molten
rock deep within the earth, this rock produces tremendous levels of heat that we are able to extract, just
think of your nation lying on a bed of fire.

Geothermal power is one of the most renewable energy sources that exists on our planet today, the earth
will contain this heat for our lifetime. If this heat disappears, our planet will become too cold to survive on.

You can purchase small scale geothermal equipment for your home yet this works in a different manner
to geothermal power stations. The power stations extract the heat directly from deep within the earth,
whereas home geothermal hot water equipment absorbs heat over a lengthy period of time from a few
meters beneath your feet.

http://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/geothermal_power.html

The ground beneath our feet contains a significant amount of energy in the form of heat. All of this
geothermal energy has the potential to generate geothermal power to provide large amounts of
electricity.

People have used geothermal energy in the form of hot springs for centuries, however, the first attempt to
generate electricity from this energy source did not occur until the 20th century.
The production of electricity from geothermal energy sources can be a highly efficient method to generate
a source of clean and renewable energy. Location is key for the development of an efficient geothermal
power station, and therefore, significant levels of electricity can only be generated in certain areas.

There are only a handful of locations across the world that are capable of producing viable and efficient
levels of electricity from geothermal energy sources. As a result of this, in 2007, less than 1% of the
worlds electricity supply was produced from geothermal sources.

To harness geothermal energy and transform this into electricity, geothermal power stations are designed
in a variety of ways.

The three main power plant designs which utilise geothermal as an energy source are; "dry steam", "flash
steam", and "binary-cycle" power stations.

Geothermal Ground Source Heat Pumps

Alternative "geothermal energy systems" are available, yet instead of providing power, they focus on
providing heat and warmth. This heat can be used to heat water for your home or to simply provide
heating for your house.

Geothermal energy systems utilising ground source heat pumps are different to geothermal power
systems. The main difference is that ground source heat pump systems only make use of the first few
meters of ground.
Water is usually pumped through one end of a lengthy piping system and by the time it reaches the other
end, the water is of a higher temperature than it was at the start. This allows for an energy efficient boiler
system as it doesn't have to boil water from cold.

The great advantage of geothermal ground source heat pumps is that they can be used in many
locations. Even cold regions such as Norway and Sweden see efficient results when using ground source
heat pumps.

A geothermal heat pump system can be very efficient in providing your home with a source of lower cost
hot water. The use of a ground source heat pump with a backup boiler allows your boiler to use less
energy to heat the water than it would have previously. This can save you significant amounts of money
on energy bills for your home or business.

Geothermal Disadvantages
Here are some disadvantages of using the power of geothermal energy to provide heat for your home or
water through the use of a ground source heat pump.

The initial cost of design and installation can be costly yet this investment would be likely to pay
off over the years of operation.
The area needed to lay the piping system can be quite large and this may not be suitable for
small developments.

These are just some of the disadvantages of using geothermal energy yet there are many more
advantages which greatly outweigh these negatives.

Geothermal System Suppliers

If you're looking for suppliers or installers of geothermal energy systems, then our geothermal suppliers
area may be of interest to you and could help you locate a reputable supplier in your area.
 Guide to Power Plant Preventive Maintenance

Power plant preventive maintenance refers to set of planned activities -- which include
nondestructive testing and periodic inspection as well as maintenance -- designed to prolong the life
of equipment and facilities. It may include adjustment, cleaning, lubrication and replacement of minor
components.

1. Benefits
o Preventive maintenance activities can be classified as periodic, or time-based, planned or
predictive. Their aim is to reduce the amount of unplanned maintenance work -- which
consumes a large proportion of the cost of generating electricity -- needed in a power station.

Boilers
o There are various conventional preventive maintenance techniques associated with boilers
and boiler materials in power plants. These include liquid penetrant, magnetic particle and
ultrasonic testing inspection techniques.

Turbines
o Gas turbines, which use high temperature combustion gases as a working fluid, place severe
thermal stresses on their components, so they need to be inspected and repaired or
replaced on a regular basis. Even low temperature steam turbines can suffer from fatigue
cracking or stress corrosion cracking and need to be repaired or reconditioned in similar
fashion

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 Parts of a Geothermal Power Plant

Geothermal plants use the Earth's natural heat to generate

electricity.
According to the Energy Information Administration, the United States in 2009 generated 15 billion
kilowatt-hours of power using geothermal power plants. Geothermal power uses the heat of the
Earth's core to generate usable electricity. Because the Earth has substantially more heat energy
than can be used or extracted by geothermal plants, scientists consider geothermal power
sustainable, like wind or solar power. Like most power plants, from wind turbines to nuclear power
plants, geothermal plants ultimately generate electricity by turning a turbine whose motion generates
usable electricity.

1. Geothermal Vents
o The geothermal vent is the first component of a geothermal plant. A geothermal vent is a
deep well drilled into the Earth that the power plant uses to tap into the Earth's heat. A
geothermal plant may have two goals for its vent; most current geothermal plants draw
superheated, pressurized water upward; these are called flash steam plants. Geothermal
plants may also simply dig far enough underground, as many as three kilometers, to reach a
point where the Earth is warm enough to boil water, these are called dry steam vents.

Steam Generator
o Another key component of a geothermal plant is the steam production unit, which can take
multiple forms. In a flash steam vent, superheated pressurized water is drawn from its place
underground to low-pressure tanks. The pressure of the Earth kept the water in liquid form
despite its high temperature, and by removing that pressure the hot water instantly turns to
steam, hence the term flash steam. In a dry steam plant, the plant technicians pump water to
the bottom of the vent where the Earth's heat boils the water and turns it into steam.
 Turbine
o Regardless of the plant type, both flash steam and dry steam plants pump the steam from
the geothermal vent to a large turbine. The steam passes this turbine, turning it in the
process. This turbine is attached to an electric generator, and as the turbine turns the
generator turns the mechanical energy into electric energy, thus converting the heat from the
Earth into usable electricity.

Condenser
o After the steam passes through the turbine, it continues to a condenser chamber. This
chamber condenses the steam back into liquid water by cooling it. The excess heat lost as
the steam turns to liquid water may be used for other applications, such as heating or
greenhouse farming. The cooled liquid water is then typically pumped back into the ground to
either restart the boiling process for dry steam or to replenish the natural heated aquifer for
flash steam plants.

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What Are the Advantages of Geothermal?

By Marty Simmons, eHow Contributor

updated December 07, 2010

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1.

o A geothermal source

Geothermal power is one of the few renewable energy sources available. Coming in several
forms, from full-scale electrical power plants to a simple pump to help save on your home
 energy bills, geothermal power is used all over the world. Geothermal plants supply more
than 10,000 megawatts of electricity to 24 countries, according to the Geothermal Energy
Association. Low pollution and other advantages make geothermal power a popular choice
for green energy advocates.

2. Low Maintenance
o Both geothermal power plants and home heat pumps have low lifetime costs, since most of
the equipment is underground and there are few moving parts. Most of any geothermal
system is made up of pipes that transfer water from a heat source to power a turbine. Other
than on the turbines, the wear and tear is minimal.

Low Pollution
o Power plants using geothermal heat sources have zero emissions, compared with fossil fuel
plants. No burning takes place during geothermal energy production and only steam is
produced to power generators. Although small amounts of sulfides and other gases
associated with volcanic activity may be released, they are at much lower levels, compared
with traditional fossil fuels, and these emissions are easily mitigated by filtering systems.

Near Infinite Fuel Source

o Areas with volcanic activity or warmer crust near the Earth's surface are constantly having
their heat replenished at a rate much faster than can be exploited by geothermal power
plants. As a result, they can practically never run out of fuel. The continuous decay of
radioactive elements in the Earth's crust will continue to provide heat longer than fossil fuels.

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References

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