GEOTECHNIC II

BFC34402
SEM I 2018/19
PROJECT REPORT

SECTION NO.: S2
GROUP NO. : G5
GROUP MEMBERS:
1. Andrew Ho Liang Yew (AF 160210)
2. Koo Zhong Yee (AF 160213)
3. Looi Chee Yeen (AF 160216)
4. Samuel Ling Su Yiew (AF 160241)
5. Yap Wei Xian (AF 160238)

DATE:
LECTURER: DR. MOHD KHAIDIR BIN ABU TALIB
Table of Contents

No. Title Pages

1. Abstract 1

2. Introduction 1

3. Case Study 2

4. Application 6

5. Conclusion 6

6. Acknowledgement 7

7. References 7

8. Appendix- Fila Table 8

9. Appendix- Minute of Meeting 9-14

10. Appendix- Weekly Reflection 15-17

11. Appendix- Overall Reflection 18-19

 A review on relationship between seepage flow
and the hydraulic conductivity of soil, effect of
the seepage and seepage controls.
Z.Y.Koo1, W.X.Yap2, S.Y.Samuel Ling3, L.Y.Andrew Ho4, and C.Y.Looi5

1.0 Abstract. There are many seepage problems and failure of the structures have occurred because
of inadequate seepage control measures. Hence, this study was reviewed the relationship between the
seepage flow and also the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. There are so many conditions, causes, and
effects of seepage and control measures in the earth buildings. This study also examines the control
measures included regularly scheduled monitoring and inspection, impermeable upstream blankets or
liners, drainage tunnels and drainage hole arrays and also microbially induced carbonate precipitation
(MICP). In order to keep continuous watch on the health of the earth works, some curative step must
be taken before the failure occurs.

Keywords: Seepage; earth building; effects and control of seepage.

2.0 Introduction

Seepage is the slow flow of a liquid through something. In soil engineering, seepage refer
to movement of water in soils. It always a critical problem in the foundations of building.
Seepage depends on several factors, including permeability of the soil and the pressure
gradient, essentially the combination of forces acting on water through gravity and other
factors. Permeability will change over a wide range of distance, depending on soil structure
and composition. Seepage should be a factor to consider in the design safety criteria for
structures such as earth dams, reservoirs and other structures like roadbeds and filtration beds
in which rapid drainage is desirable. Soil seepage may lead to many severe structural failure
or problems if they are not concerned or noticed. The most common causes of dam failure
are leakage and piping (35%), overtopping (25%), spillway erosion (14%), excessive
deformation (11%), sliding (10%), gate failure (2%), faulty construction (2%), and
earthquake instability (2%). Reported that about 40%, 25% and 35% of failures of earth dams
are due to hydraulic, structural and seepage failures respectively.

In this study, case studies regarding soil improvement method were carried out. The first
case study is about the relationship between the soil’s hydraulic conductivity and seepage
flow. Hydraulic conductivity is a soil parameter used by the Green-Ampt model for
estimation of infiltration and runoff. In this study, we will identify whether the seepage flow
is affected by hydraulic conductivity or not. Soil hydraulic conductivity decreases with soil
depth from the surfaces, yet many infiltration models ignore this fact. The next case study is
all about effect of seepage flow on the construction works. Effects of seepage flow discussed
are piping, erosion, solutioning, internal pressures, uplift, heave, or blowout and et cetera.
The effect of seepage problem in construction were identified and discussed. Then, the third
case study touch on seepage control method. The ways and solutions to overcome or solve
seepage problem in soil were discussed. This study write on method of seepage control such
as regularly scheduled monitoring and inspection, impermeable upstream blankets or liners,
drainage tunnels and drainage hole arrays and microbially induced carbonate precipitation
(MICP).
3.0 Case Study

Seepage is the slow escape of water through the porous materials such as soils.
Seepage can lead to failures of the structure, so we must really understand how the seepage
happens. With this, we all decided to focus on the case studies that are related to the seepage.

3.1 Case study 1- The relationship between soil’s hydraulic conductivity and seepage.

After reviewed so many journals, we found that the seepage flow always related to
the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. It had been proved that, the higher the hydraulic
conductivity, the higher the rate of seepage flow. Hydraulic conductivity of soil is affected
by many factors: density, water content, degree of saturation, void ratio, grain size
distribution and particle structure. Factors which affect water infiltration in the soil are
sorptivity, ponding depth, depth of water table and impact of rain drops. Soil hydraulic
conductivity decreases with soil depth from the surfaces, yet many infiltration models ignore
this fact. Assumption that the decrease in soil permeability with depth is as a result of
decreasing porosity resulting from greater packing density of soil particles. Hydraulic
conductivity is affected by characteristics pore size rather than porosity. The decrease in soil
permeability with depth is a result of decreasing porosity resulting from greater packing
density of soil particles. With this, we can say that the greater the depth, the lower the rate of
seepage flow.

Besides that, we found a predicted hydraulic conductivity and seepage rates along
two large irrigation canals using diffusion-wave model approximated estimates from
previous studies. From the table, we can found that the greater the hydraulic conductivity,
the higher the predicted seepage flux. Hence, we can conclude that our hypothesis is correct.

Figure1: Predicted saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) in the Truckee Canal and comparison with
Miheve et al. (2012) values.

3.2 Case Study 2- Effect of seepage flow on the construction works.

Seepage is a problem that we cannot ignore when we plan to construct the buildings.
There are so many effects of seepage on the construction (dam & foundation) such as piping,
erosion, solutioning, internal pressures, uplift, heave, or blowout and et cetera. With this
opportunity, we would like to explain all of the effects that caused by seepage flows.
1)Piping

There are two types of piping (i) Piping through dam body: This is occurred when
seepage starts through the body of the dam due to poor soils, formed small channels which
transport material downstream. The channels (hollows) continued glow bigger and bigger as
more materials are transported downstream which could lead to wash out of dam body, and
subsequent subsidence of the dam. These flow channels may develop due to faulty
construction, insufficient compaction, cracks developed in embankment due to foundation
settlement, shrinkage cracks and animal burrows.

(ii) Piping through foundation: Sometimes, when highly permeable cavities or

fissures or strata of gravel or coarse sand are present in the foundation of the dam, water may
start seeping at a huge rate through them. This concentrated flow at a high gradient, may
erode the soil. This leads to increased flow of water and soil, ultimately resulting in a rush of
water and soil, thereby creating hollows below the foundation. The dam may sink down into
hollow so formed, causing its failure.

Other forms of piping include movement of materials across internal material zone
boundaries where proper filter protection was not provided. This movement often happens
between fine grained core materials and rock-fill or coarse gravel. The movement of
embankment soil into untreated foundation rock openings was another possible type of piping
failure.

2) Internal Erosion

A failure resulting from internal erosion may appear similar to a piping failure.
Internal erosion and backward piping erosion are used to describe failure mechanisms of
embankment dams associated with the uncontrolled flow of water rather than the single term
piping. These terms describe the distinctly different mechanisms by which water can damage
embankment dams. However, the mechanisms of backward piping and internal erosion
failures are very different. In both cases the seepage forces of high gradient flow move
particles. In the case of backward piping is caused solely by inter-granular flow causing
excessive seepage forces at an exit face. These seepage forces cause a boil condition or
particle detachment at an exit face, if it is not protected by a properly designed filter. Internal
erosion, on the other hand, describes the common way that water can damage embankment
dams and it occurs when water flows:
• Along cracks or other defects in the soil or bedrock in the cross-section.
• Along boundaries between soil and bedrock.
• Between soil and concrete or metal appurtenances.

3) Solutioning

Seepage causing problems can arise in foundations or abutments where water-

soluble rock can be dissolved by ground water or reservoir seepage. At earth’s surface rain
fall can dissolved the soluble rocks in the zone above the water table by percolating water
and below the water table by groundwater in motion. Materials susceptible to solutioning
include minerals such as gypsum, anhydrite and halite (rock salts) and limestone rock.
Solutioning enhanced internal erosion as well as piping. Dam to be constructed on material
that can be affected by solutioning such as limestone should always be treated with extreme
caution. In addition, gypsum, halite, and a few similar minerals are so soluble that severe
solutioning and distress can occur during the life of a project. The failure of Quail Creek Dike
is one of the failures caused by solutioning. It has been identified that arid areas may contain
considerable amounts of soluble alts that can be dissolved by seepage. This dissolving of
salts may lead to loss of density, volume, and strength.

4) Internal Pressures and Saturations

When water is stored in the dam as reservoir, seepage takes place through the body
and the foundation soil of the dam. This seepage causing problem has the adverse effects
such as loss of water, loss of pore pressure, reducing the shear strength, piping-horizontal,
sloughing of downstream side of dam, and shear slides in foundation soil.

Progressive sloughing is a type of damage that results from both saturation and the
seepage forces' effect on stability. Progressive sloughing starts when a small quantity of
material erodes at the downstream toe and produces a small slump. This leaves an over-
steepened face, known as a scarp, which slumps again forming a higher unstable scarp. The
process of failure due to sloughing begins when the downstream toe of the dam becomes
saturated and begins getting eroded causing small slump or slide of dam. The process of
saturation and slumping continues, until the dam becomes too thin to withstand the water
pressure and leading to failure of dam.

5) Uplift, Heave, or Blowout

It is one of the symptoms of internal pressures and saturations. It is occurred when

the foundation seepage pressure in pervious layers exerts an excessive force on an overlying
confining layer. Failure starts when the pore pressure on the bottom of the confining layer
exceeds the overburden pressure created by the weight of overlying soils. The resulting uplift
eventually breaches or breaks through the confining layer in what is known as a blowout,
commonly forming a sand boil.

3.3 Case Study 3- Study on seepage control.

As what we have mentioned, there are many terrible effects from the seepage flow.
With this, we have to plan and find out some controls to avoid or reduce the effects of seepage
flow. After reviewed so many case studies, we found that the scheduled monitoring and
inspection is essential to detect seepage and prevent dam failure. Some other typical methods
of intercepting include impermeable upstream blankets, cut-off trenches, in the embankment,
grout curtains, relief wells, and toe drains. At here we will further explain about the seepage
control that always used to prevent the failures of structures.

1) Regularly Scheduled Monitoring and Inspection

Inspection should be made periodically throughout the year. Frequency should be

based on hazard classification of the dam. Higher classified dams should be checked more
common compared to those that are lower hazard classified. At a minimum all dams should
be visually inspected at least every six months, before a predicted major storm event, during
or after severe rainstorms or snowmelts, and inspected weekly after construction is complete
and reservoir has been filled. If seepage is detected on a dam embankment or foundation, it
should be closely monitored on a regular basis until it is corrected. If seepage flows increases
or embankment soil are showing signs of instability, corrective action should be taken
quickly. A qualified geotechnical engineer or dam safety professional should be contacted
for inspection and advice for all high dam seepage problems.
2) Impermeable Upstream Blankets or Liners

Impermeable upstream blankets or liners are the most effective method, but require
complete drawdown of the reservoir. These blankets may consist of low permeability soil or
a synthetic geo-membrane. The blankets may be deployed on the floor of the reservoir to
prevent foundation seepage. All cracks and erosion rills on the embankment should be filled,
re-graded and re-seeded. Borrowing rodents should be eliminated from dams and any damage
created should be repaired by back filling a soil or filtered drain.

3)Drainage Tunnels and Drainage Hole Arrays

These hole arrays mainly function for draining the underground water flow resulting
from rainfall infiltration and the possible local water-bearing aquifers in the surrounding
rocks. Given that this part of water flow is generally typical of small flow rate, so that the
number of drainage holes can be moderately reduced and the layout of the drainage system
can be further optimized. Besides that, the spacing of the drainage holes also has the strong
influence on the seepage flow behaviours in the geotechnical structures and rock masses.
With this, we must plan it wisely and do some inspections before designing.

4) Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation (MICP)

Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) for seepage-induced internal

erosion control. Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP), a bacteriainduced bio-
mineralization process, has been investigated extensively in civil, environmental, and
infrastructure engineering applications
The carbonate precipitation via ureolysis involves several stages: synthesis of
enzyme through bacteria metabolic activities (Krajewska 2009); catalysis of ureolytic
reactions by enzyme and massive production of ammonia (NH3) and dissolved inorganic
carbon (DIC) [Eq. (1)]; alkalinity accumulation at the proximity of bacteria cells [Eqs. (2)
and (3)]; and formation of carbonate precipitation on nucleation sites (i.e., bacteria cell
surfaces) in the presence of available calcium source [Eq. (4)] (Ferris et al. 2004)

(NH2)2CO + H2O → 2NH3 + CO2 (1)

2NH3 + 2H2O ↔ 2NH4+ + 2OH− (2)
CO2 + 2OH− ↔ HCO3- + OH− ↔ CO33− + H2O (3)
Ca2+ + CO32− ↔ CaCO3(s) (4)

The MICP treatment contributed to an enhanced critical shear stress and a reduced
erosion coefficient for sand-clay mixtures with a large gap ratio (using coarser host sand)
when subject to a constant flow rate erosion test. However, the improvement in critical shear
stress and erosion resistance was insignificant for a mixed soil with a small gap ratio (finer
host sand) due to its inefficiency in carbonate precipitation during the MICP treatment phase.
The tested sand-clay mixtures exhibited steady increase in permeability and volumetric
contraction with increasing accumulative erosion weight. An erosion mode of the suffosion
was identified for the sand-clay mixtures. Regardless of the gap ratio of the tested soils, the
MICP treatment resulted in the sand-clay mixtures exhibiting reduced volumetric contraction
when fines were eroded. The effectiveness of MICP for internal erosion control was mainly
dominated by the amount of produced carbonate precipitation, which absorbed/coated fine
particles directly and bridged the contacts of coarse particles. Sand-clay mixtures with a large
gap ratio were able to produce increased levels of precipitated carbonate, which corresponded
to reduced fines loss and smaller volumetric contraction. The difficulty with injecting
bacteria and chemical solutions into sand-clay mixtures caused by the flushing of produced
calcium carbonate. The precipitation flushing reduced the overall carbonate precipitation
content and MICP treatment efficiency. The spatial distribution of calcium carbonate in the
sand-clay mixtures was also modified. It shows that soil properties such as particle size
distribution, fine particle content, and gap ratio are important in determining whether MICP
is feasible for internal erosion control. If MICP is implemented in the field, the content and
spatial uniformity of carbonate precipitation need to be ensured in order to achieve improved
control effectiveness.

4.0 Applications
The study of the relationship between the soil’s hydraulic conductivity and seepage
flow is very important because it can let us to understand and find the solution to solve the
problems of seepage. For poor geological conditions in the cavern area, seepage control is
critical for maintaining the stability and safety of the cavern complex. For this purpose, a
seepage control system containing a grouting curtain, drainage tunnels and drainage hole
arrays were suggested, but its performance remains an important issue to be addressed.

With this study, we can really understand and able to consider the effect of the
seepage while designing some earth structures or dams. With the knowledge we have, we
can avoid and reduce the happening of accidents. For example, weak stratum, therefore, it is
prone to softening and its resistance to seepage erosion becomes a major concern in design.
Furthermore, considering that the long-term effect of seepage flow is the major concern in
the design of the seepage control system, the steady-state flow model is used for assessment.

To avoid failures that due to the seepage, we must plan and find out other better
solutions. Hence, further investigation on this aspect must be done.

5.0 Conclusion

In the case of designing and constructing the core of the earth dam, we must able to
consider all of the conditions that will make the structure fail because of the seepage flow.
At first, we must understand the characteristics of seepage flow. From the study, we found
that the seepage flow always related to the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. The greater the
hydraulic conductivity, the higher the predicted seepage flux.

There are so many effects of seepage on the construction (dam & foundation) such
as piping, internal erosion, solutioning, internal pressures and saturations and also the uplift,
heave, or blowout. Hence, we must able to use what we learned to solve or reduce this kind
of problems.

After reviewed so many journals, we can conclude that there are some effective
ways that can used to control and reduce the problems because of seepage flow. The solutions
are regularly scheduled monitoring and inspection, apply impermeable upstream blankets or
liners and also try to build some drainage tunnels and drainage hole arrays. Besides that,
microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) also can be used to control the seepage
flow but this method should be refined and we must make sure this method can function
before we use it.
6.0 Acknowledgement

At here, we would like to thank and appreciate the guide and consultant from our
lecturer, Dr. Mohd Khaidir Bin Abu Talib who guide us when we are clueless about the
project.

7.0 References

1. Yi Li, Yifeng Chen, Qinghui Jiang, Ran Hu, and Chuangbing Zhou. (15 October
2013). Performance assessment and optimization of seepage control system: A
numerical case study for Kala underground powerhouse. Computers and
Geotechnics 55 (2014), Pages 306–315.

2. C. C. Nnaji. (3 July 2015). Effective hydraulic conductivity for a soil of variable

pore size with depth. Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH), Vol. 34 No. 3,
July 2015, pp. 636 – 642.

3. Ning-Jun Jiang, S.M.ASCE; Kenichi Soga, Ph.D., M.ASCE; and Matthew Kuo,
Ph.D. (2016). Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation for Seepage-Induced
Internal Erosion Control in Sand–Clay Mixtures.

4. Margaret Shanafield, Richard G. Niswonger, David E. Prudic, Greg Pohll, Richard

Susfalk4 and Sorab Panday. (17 July 2012). A method for estimating spatially
variable seepage and hydraulic conductivity in channels with very mild slopes.
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, Hydrol. Process. 28, 51–61 (2014)

5. E. Omofunmi, J. G. Kolo, A. S. Oladipo, P. D. Diabana, and A. S. Ojo (22nd July

2017). A Review on Effects and Control of Seepage through Earth-fill Dam. Current
Journal of Applied Science and Technology 22(5): 1-11, 2017.

6. Seepage [Def 1] (n.d.) In Collins English Dictionary Online (2018), retrived on 28

October 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-
Encyclopaedia-Britannica/ 4419

7. Lukman S, Otun JA, Adie DB, Ismail A, Oke IA. A brief assessment of a dam and
its failure and prevention. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention 11: 97-109
(2011).

8. Margaret Shanafield, Richard G. Niswonger, David E. Prudic, Greg Pohll, Richard

Susfalk and Sorab Panday. (17 October 2012). A method for estimating spatially
variable seepage and hydraulic conductivity in channels with very mild slopes.
Hydrol. Process.28, 51–61.

9. Puyang Zhang, Wei Wei, Nan Jia, Hongyan Ding and Run Liu. (15 May 2018).
Effect of seepage on the penetration resistance of bucket foundations with bulkheads
for offshore wind turbines in sand. Ocean Engineering, Volume 156, Pages 82-92.
8.0 Appendix- Fila Table

Facts Ideas Learning Issues Actions

1.Hydraulic 1. Piping that occur at 1. What is the 1. Find information
conductivity is different places characteristic of through books,
affected by causing different the failure that journal papers,
characteristics type of problems. help in classify conference papers
pore size rather the type of and websites.
porosity. 2. Pressure produced failure?
by seepage flow 2. Having group
2. Different also a factor of 2. How they discussion with
situation will seepage failure in interpret the type group members
lead to different construction. of failure? for information
seepage sharing.
problems. 3. Soluble stone such 3. What chemical
as limestone and reaction will 3. Analyse the
3. Every type of gypsum will happen when soil problems based
soil has their dissolve when or stone exposed on the conditions.
own tendency in having contact with to other
approaching water. chemical? 4. Suggest the
different failure appropriate
due to their own 4. Each solution has 4. Should further solutions.
material their own research to be
composition. advantages and doing to 5. Choose the best
limitation in certain investigate way to solve the
4. Each seepage condition. certain condition? problem
control method according to
has their own 5. A specific soil 5. Should the lab findings
pros and cons. improvement testing result to collected.
method will have be trusted 100%?
5. Every type of different 6. Present by group
failure has each effectiveness in members through
different solving different report and
solution. type of problems. presentation.