SPIRAL CURVES

Definition
Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvature and
superelevation that occurs between tangent and circular curve. The spiral
curve is used to gradually change the curvature and superelevation of the
road, thus called transition curve.
A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always
changing. As one would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae
than the curves with a constant radius and their design is more complex.

History
Spiral curves were originally designed for the Railroads to smooth the
transition from a tangent line into simple curves. They helped to minimize the
wear and tear on the tracks. Spiral curves were implemented at a later date
on highways to provide a smooth transition from the tangent line into simple
curves. The highway engineers later determined that most drivers will
naturally make that spiral transition with the vehicle; therefore, spiral
curves are only used on highways in special cases today.
On early railroads, because of the low speeds and wide-radius curves
employed, the surveyors were able to ignore any form of easement, but during
the 19th century, as speeds increased, the need for a track curve with
gradually increasing curvature became apparent. Rankine's 1862 "Civil
Engineering" cites several such curves, including an 1828 or 1829 proposal
based on the "curve of sines" by William Gravatt, and the curve of adjustment
by William Froude around 1842 approximating the elastic curve. The actual
equation given in Rankine is that of a cubic curve, which is a polynomial curve
of degree 3. This was also known as cubic parabola at that time.
In the UK, only from 1845 when legislation and land costs began to constrain
the laying out of rail routes and tighter curves were necessary, did the
principles start to be applied in practice.
The "true spiral", where the curvature is exactly linear in arc length, requires
more sophisticated mathematics (in particular, the ability to integrate its
intrinsic equation) to compute than the proposals cited by Rankine. Several
late-19th century civil engineers seem to have derived the equation for this
curve independently (all unaware of the original characterization of this
curve by Leonhard Euler in 1744). Charles Crandall gives credit to one Ellis
Holbrook, in the Railroad Gazette, Dec. 3, 1880, for the first accurate
description of the curve. Another early publication was The Railway Transition
Spiral by Arthur N. Talbot, originally published in 1890. Some early 20th
century authors call the curve "Glover's spiral", attributing it to James
Glover's 1900 publication.
The equivalence of the railroad transition spiral and the clothoid seems to
have been first published in 1922 by Arthur Lovat Higgins. Since then,
"clothoid" is the most common name given the curve, even though the correct
name (following standards of academic attribution) is "the Euler spiral".

Discussion
A spiral curve is for the transition of a vehicle traveling at a sustained speed
from a straight tangent to a circular curve. It is an attempt to approximate
the path followed by a vehicle’s wheels from when the operator begins to turn
his steering wheel until he has reached the maximum degree of curvature at
the circular portion of the curve. Spiral curves are divided into an entering
spiral transition, a circular curve, and an exiting spiral transition. In most
cases the entering and exiting spiral will be equal. The major difference
between a spiral and a circular curve is that the change of direction varies
as the square of the length for a spiral rather than as the first power of the
length for a circular curve. The degree of curvature on a spiral increases
directly as the distance increases along the spiral curve from the tangent.
The degree of curvature at any point in the spiral is the same as the degree of
curvature of a circular curve having the same radius. A spiral curve will be
tangent to a circular curve at the point where they share the same radius.
Geometry
While railroad track geometry is intrinsically three-dimensional, for
practical purposes the vertical and horizontal components of track
geometry are usually treated separately.
The overall design pattern for the vertical geometry is typically a sequence
of constant grade segments connected by vertical transition curves in which
the local grade varies linearly with distance and in which the elevation
therefore varies quadratically with distance. Here grade refers to the
tangent of the angle of rise of the track. The design pattern for horizontal
geometry is typically a sequence of straight line (i.e., a tangent) and curve
(i.e. a circular arc) segments connected by transition curves.
The degree of banking in railroad track is typically expressed as the
difference in elevation of the two rails, commonly quantified and referred
to as the superelevation. Such difference in the elevation of the rails is
intended to compensate for the centripetal acceleration needed for an
object to move along a curved path, so that the lateral acceleration
experienced by passengers/the cargo load will be minimized, which enhances
passenger comfort/reduces the chance of load shifting (movement of cargo
during transit, causing accidents and damage).
It is important to note that superelevation is not the same as the roll angle of
the rail (also referred to as cant or camber), which is used to described the
"tilting" of the individual rails instead of the banking of the entire track
structure as reflected by the elevation difference at the "top of rail".
Regardless of the horizontal alignment and the superelevation of the track,
the individual rails are almost always designed to "roll"/"cant" towards gage
side (the side where the wheel is in contact with the rail) to compensate for
the horizontal forces exerted by wheels under normal rail traffic.
The change of superelevation from zero in a tangent segment to the value
selected for the body of a following curve occurs over the length of a
transition curve that connects the tangent and the curve proper. Over the
length of the transition the curvature of the track will also vary from zero
at the end abutting the tangent segment to the value of curvature of the curve
body, which is numerically equal to one over the radius of the curve body.
The simplest and most commonly used form of transition curve is that in which
the superelevation and horizontal curvature both vary linearly with distance
along the track. Cartesian coordinates of points along this spiral are given
by the Fresnel integrals. The resulting shape matches a portion of an Euler
spiral, which is also commonly referred to as a "clothoid", and sometimes
"Cornu spiral".
A transition curve can connect a track segment of constant non-zero
curvature to another segment with constant curvature that is zero or non-zero
of either sign. Successive curves in the same direction are sometimes called
progressive curves and successive curves in opposite directions are called
reverse curves.
The Euler spiral has two advantages. One is that it is easy for surveyors
because the coordinates can be looked up in Fresnel integral tables. The other
is that it provides the shortest transition subject to a given limit on the rate
of change of the track superelevation (i.e. the twist of the track). However, as
has been recognized for a long time, it has undesirable dynamic
characteristics due to the large (conceptually infinite) roll acceleration and
rate of change of centripetal acceleration at each end. Because of the
capabilities of personal computers it is now practical to employ spirals that
have dynamics better than those of the Euler spiral.
Radial Force and Design Speed
Radial forces act on a vehicle as it travels around a curve and this is why
transition curves are necessary
A vehicle of mass m, travelling at a constant speed v, along a curve of radius
r, is subjected to a radial force P such that:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑝=
𝑟
This force acting on the vehicle is trying to push the vehicle back on a straight
course. On a straight road where r =∞, P = 0.
Roads are designed according to a ‘design speed’ which is constant for a given
stretch of roadway. Thus a vehicle must be able to comfortable and safely
travel the length of a given stretch of road at the design speed regardless of
bends etc. The mass of a vehicle is also assumed constant and consequently:
1
𝑝∝
𝑟
Thus the smaller the radius of a curve the greater the radial force acting on
the vehicle. Any vehicle leaving a straight section of road and entering a
circular curve of radius r will immediately experience the full radial for P.
If the radius is too small and the thus P too large, the vehicle will skid off the
roadway or overturn.
Transition curves are curves in which the radius gradually changes from
infinity to a particular value R. The effect of this is to gradually increase the
radial for P from zero to its maximum value, thereby reducing its effect.
To introduce P uniformly along the length of the transition curve, P must also
be proportional to the length of the transition curve l.
1
Therefore: 𝑝∝𝑟 and 𝑝∝𝑙

Combining the two requirements:

Thus
1
𝑙∝
𝑟
𝑟𝑙 = 𝑘
Where K is a constant.
Therefore for each transition in a transition curve the radius R and length LT
can be designed to equal to K over the whole length of the curve
 Elements of Spiral Curve
Figure 1. Elements of a Spiral Curve
 TS = Tangent to spiral
 SC = Spiral to curve
 CS = Curve to spiral
 ST = Spiral to tangent
 LT = Long tangent
 ST = Short tangent
 R = Radius of simple curve
 Ts = Spiral tangent distance
 Tc = Circular curve tangent
 L = Length of spiral from TS to any
point along the spiral
 Ls = Length of spiral
 PI = Point of intersection
 I = Angle of intersection
 Ic = Angle of intersection of the
simple curve
 p = Length of throw or the distance
from tangent that the circular
curve has been offset
 X = Offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to any
point on the spiral
 Xc = Offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to SC
 Y = Distance along tangent to any
point on the spiral
 Yc = Distance along tangent
from TS to point at right angle
to SC
 Es = External distance of the
simple curve
 θ = Spiral angle from tangent to
any point on the spiral
 θs = Spiral angle from tangent
to SC
 i = Deflection angle from TS to any
point on the spiral, it is
proportional to the square of its
distance
 is = Deflection angle from TS to SC
 D = Degree of spiral curve at any
point
 Dc = Degree of simple curve
Formulas for Spiral Curves

Distance along tangent to any point At L = Ls, i = is, thus,

on the spiral:
1 𝐿𝑠
5 𝑖 = 𝜃𝑠 =
𝐿 3 6𝑅
𝑌=𝐿−
40𝑅 2 𝐿𝑠 2 This angle is proportional to the
At L = Ls, Y = Yc, thus, square of its distance
𝑖 𝐿2
𝐿𝑠 3 = 2
𝑌𝑐 = 𝐿𝑠 − 𝑖𝑠 𝐿𝑠
40𝑅 2
Offset distance from tangent to Tangent distance:
any point on the spiral: 𝐿𝑠 𝐼
𝑇𝑠 = + (𝑅 + 𝑃)𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐿 3 2 2
𝑋=
6𝑅𝐿𝑠 Angle of intersection of simple
curve:
At L = Ls, X = Xc, thus
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼 − 2𝜃𝑠
𝐿𝑠 2
𝑋𝑐 = External distance:
6𝑅
Length of throw: 𝑅+𝑃
𝐸𝑠 = −𝑅
𝐼
1 𝐿𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝑝= 𝑋𝑐 =
4 24𝑅
Degree of spiral curve:
Spiral angle from tangent to any
𝐷 𝐿
point on the spiral (in radian): =
𝐷𝑐 𝐿𝑠
𝐿2
𝜃=
2𝑅𝐿𝑠
At L = Ls, θ=θs, thus,
𝐿𝑠
𝜃𝑠 =
2𝑅
Deflection angle from TS to any
point on the spiral:
1 𝐿2
𝑖= 𝜃=
3 6𝑅𝐿𝑠
Sample Problems
Problem no. 1
A roadway goes from tangent alignment to a 250-m circular curve by means
of an 80-m-long spiral transition curve. The deflection angle between the
tangents is 45°. Use formulas to compute Xs, Ys, p, and k. Assume that the
station of the P.L, measured along the back tangent, is 250 + 00, and compute
the stations of the TS, SC, CS, and ST.
Solution:
Problem no. 2
In order to improve an existing circular curve R=250m, θ=31°20’. Determine
minimum and maximum length of the spiral curve. The design speed
=80km/hr.

Solution:

Problem no. 3
Two tangents intersect at a deflection angle= 35° at station I= 23+20. These
tangents are to be connected by two similar transition curves 75m long and a
circular curve, R=300m. Calculate stations TS,SC,CS,ST.

Solution:
Problem no. 4
A two-lane highway (3.6 m lanes) with a design speed of 100 km/h has a 400 m
radius horizontal curve connecting tangents with bearings of N75°Eand
S78°E°. Determine the superelevation rate, the length of spiral if the
difference in grade between the centerline and edge of traveled way is
limited to 1/200, and the stations of the TS, SC, CS, and ST, given that the
temporary station of the P.I. is 150+00. The length of the spiral should be
rounded up to the next highest 20 m interval.

Solution:
Problem no. 5
What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable for a roadway with a 100
km/h design speed, assuming that the maximum allowable superelevation
rate is 0.12? Compare this with the minimum curve radius recommended by
AASHTO. What is the actual maximum superelevation rate allowable under
AASHTO recommended standards for a 100 km/h design speed, if the value of
f is the maximum allowed by AASHTO for this speed? Round the answer down
to the nearest whole percent.

Solution:
Photos of a Spiral Curve
References
http://cereference.com/book/surveying-and-transportation-
engineering/spiral-curve-or-transition-curve
http://www.cc4w.net/spiral/spiraltraining.pdf
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/manuals/fulltext/M22-
97/Chapter11.pdf
http://emu.edu.tr/~mmk/Presentations/c361pres05.pdf
http://hwy.uod.ac/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/6-The-Transition-Curves.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_transition_curve
http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/civil/banks/graphics/chap4.pdf
http://www.tcd.ie/civileng/Staff/Brian.Caulfield/3A1/3A1%20Lecture%2013.pd
f