Bonding

 and  Properties
 Materials  and  atoms
• Materials  are  made  of  atoms  (elements)  
and  mixtures  of  atoms  (molecules  or  
compounds)
– atom  =  the  basic  unit  of  a  chemical  element
• Inter  atomic  bonding  is  largely  governed  by  
the  electron  structure  of  the  atoms

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 Bohr’s  model  of  the  atom
• Core  with  neutrons and  
protons  surrounded  by  
electrons  in  different  
shells
• Atomic  number  =  
number  of  protons
• Number  of  protons  =  
number  of  electrons
• Proton  and  electron  
charge,  equal  and  
opposite

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 Valence  Electrons
• The  Valence  Electrons  are  those  that  
occupy  the  outermost  shell  (see  Bohr’s  
Model).  
• The  Valence  Electrons  are  extremely  
important  as  they  control  the  physical  and  
chemical  properties  of  the  element
• They  are  also  involved  in  the  bonding  that  
forms  molecular  aggregates.
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Periodic  table  of  the  elements
Elements  in  a  group  (column)  have  similar  
valence  electron  structures

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Factors  that  Control  Material  
Properties
• Composition – what  it  is  made  from  (bonding)
• Micro-­‐Structure  – arrangement  of  atoms  
(manipulated  by  how  it  is  manufactured)
• Defect  Population  – porosity,  inclusions  etc.  
(also  linked  to  how  it  is  manufactured;  note  -­‐
critical  in  fatigue,  which  can  arise  during  cyclic  
loading)

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 Defect  Population
Steel Shaft and
Shaft with
Blades –
Industrial Gas
Turbine

Critical
Application –
requires very
small defect
population and
limited size
range
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Factors  that  can  Degrade  or  Alter  
a  Materials  Properties
• Operating  Environment  – e.g.  
• temperature,  
• atmospheric  composition,
• pressure,  and
• loading  conditions  -­‐ e.g.  cyclic  loading  

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 Bonding/Crystal  Structure  
Controls
• Melting  temperature
• Thermal  and  Electrical  Conductivity
• Coefficient  of  Thermal  Expansion
• Stiffness
• Density
– e.g.  Graphite  and  Diamond.  Both  are  Carbon.  One  is  a  
good  electrical  conductor  the  other  is  not.  One  is  the  
hardest  known  substance,  the  other  is  soft  and  used  in  
pencils.  The  density  is  also  different  (graphite:  
2.267 g/cm3,  diamond:  3.515 g/cm3)

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 Types  of  Bonds
• Primary  Bonds  or  Intra-­‐molecular  bonds  
(chemical  bonds);  strong.  
– Ionic  Bonds  (transfer  of  electrons)
– Covalent  Bonds  (shared  electrons)
– Metallic  Bonds  (sharing  of  many  electrons)
• Secondary  Bonds  or  intermolecular  
(physical  bonds);  weak.
– Van  der  Waals  Bonds
– Hydrogen  Bonds

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For example – Water (H2O)

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 Bond  Forces
• At  small  separation  distances,  atoms  exert  
forces  on  one  another.
• There  are  two  types,  the  magnitude  of  
which  varies  with  distance:
1. Attractive,  FA,  dependent  on  the  type  of  bond  – e.g.  ionic,  
covalent,  metallic
2. Repulsive,  FR,  due  to  electron-­‐electron  interaction  as  the  
negatively  charged  electron  clouds  begin  to  interact  with  one  
another.  

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Bond    Force  &  Energy  Diagrams
r

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Referring  to  the  previous  figure…

• At  equilibrium the  radius  of  the  bond  is  at  the  saddle  
point in  the  potential  energy  curve,  r0.  This  is  also  the  
point  where  the  attractive  and  repulsive  forces  are  in  
balance    

• At  the  saddle  point,  the  bond  energy  is  E0,  where

r0 r0
E0 = − ∫ (Frep + Fattr )dr = − ∫ (Fnet )dr
∞ ∞

dE
Fnet = =0
and   dr

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Ionic  Bond

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Periodic  table  of  the  elements

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 Ionic  Bond  Formation
For an Na+ - Cl- ion pair

1.436 7.32 × 10−6

EA = − ER =
r r8

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 Ionic  Bond  Formation
For a Na+– Cl– ion pair, attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER, respectively,
depend on the distance between the ions r, according to

1.436
EA = −
r

7.32 × 10−6
ER =
r8

where r is in nm. If the net energy of the bond is given by the following expression

!" = !$ + !&

Determine the equilibrium bond radius, r0. Recall that the equilibrium bond radius
corresponds to the saddle point (minimum) on the EN vs. r curve.

'! 1.436 7.32×1056

=0= −8
'( (/ (7

(8 = 0.249:

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 Covalent  Bonds

The  formation  of  a  covalent  bond  – in  this  case  between  two  

hydrogen  atoms,  making  a  hydrogen  molecule

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Covalent  Bonds  are  Directional

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Metallic  Bonds

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Secondary  Bonds

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Hydrogen  Bonds

From Wikipedia.org
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 Bond  Energies

Bonding Energy
Type of Bond
(kJ/mol)
Ionic 600-1500 (strong)
Primary Covalent 100-800 (med.)
Metallic 70-850 (med.)
Van der
10-50 (weak)
Secondary Waals
Hydrogen 10-50 (weak)

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 Presence  of  Bonds

Type of Bond
Material
Ionic Covalent Metallic Van der Waals
Metals X X

Polymers X X

Some Ceramics X X

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 Bonding  Energies  and  Melting  
Temperatures
Bonding  Type   Substance   Bonding  Energy   Melting  
(kJ/mol)   Temperature  
(deg  C)  
Ionic   NaCl   640   801  
  MgO     1000   2800  
Covalent   Si   450   1410  
  C  (diamond)   713   >3550  
Metallic     Hg   68   -­39  
  Al   324   660  
  Fe   406   1538  
  W   849   3410  
van  der  Waals   Ar   7.7   -­189  
  Cl2   31   -­101  
Hydrogen   NH3   35   -­78  
  H2O   51   0  

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Presence  of  Bonds

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 Thermal  Expansion  Coefficient
• Decreases  with  
increase  in  bond  
energy
• Controlled  by  the  
shape  of  the  bond  
energy  diagram

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 Thermal  expansion  and  bond  
energy  diagram
T>  0K  creates  vibrational  energy:  E1-­‐>  E5
If  bond  energy  curve  is  asymmetric,  mean  interatomic  distance  changes  with  temperature

CTE  >  0 CTE  =  0

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Note: Comparisons should be made between groups with similar
types of bonds

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 Homework  Problems  
See  Canvas

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