NanowireCdSCdTeSolarCell ANWAR

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Simulation and Performance Study of Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell
Thesis · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25657.98400
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Simulation and Performance Study of
Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell
Submitted by
Examination Roll No. : 1255

Registration No. : 2011 213 839
Session : 2011-2012
Examination Roll No. : 1257

Registration No. : 2011 913 797
Session : 2011-2012
Certificate
This is to certify that the 4th year project on “Simulation and Performance Study of
Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell” has been submitted for the award of the degree of B.Sc. in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering from the University of Dhaka, carried out by exam roll-
1255 and exam roll-1257, under my supervision. According to my knowledge and as per
declaration, the whole work and project report has been prepared by the student and has not
been submitted to anywhere else for any degree. The project report can be considered for
evaluation.
They are permitted to submit the project report.
(Supervisor’s signature)
…………………………………………..
DR. SAEED MAHMUD ULLAH
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka
i
Declaration
We, hereby, declare that the work presented in this project is the outcome of the investigation
performed and authentically prepared by us under the direct supervision of Dr. Saeed
Mahmud Ullah, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
University of Dhaka. We also proclaim that the work is original except where indicated by
special references and no part of this submission has been or is being submitted elsewhere for
the award of any other degree or diploma.
Examination Roll No. : 1255 Examination Roll No. : 1257

Registration No. : 2011 213 839 Registration No. : 2011 913 797
Session : 2011-2012 Session : 2011-2012
Dept. of Electrical & Electronic Dept. of Electrical & Electronic

Engineering Engineering
University of Dhaka University of Dhaka
Signature: Farhana Anwar Signature…………………………

Date…………………… Date……………………
ii
Abstract
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) are two leading semiconductor
materials used in the fabrication of thin film solar cells of relatively high power conversion
efficiency and low manufacturing cost. Numerical simulations of current-voltage
characteristics of thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell and nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cell were
performed as a function of temperature using SCAPS-1D to demonstrate the fact that use of
CdS nanowires enhances the efficiency of the CdS/CdTe solar cells. For the simulation of
nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cell we changed some parameters (thickness, bandgap, electron
and hole mobility) of the simulation of thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell. The Optical properties
(absorption and scattering cross section) of CdS nanowire were observed to determine the
preferable diameter for CdS nanowires. Simulations for realizing the absorption and
scattering cross sections for various diameters of CdS nanowire were done using Lumerical
FDTD solutions. From simulation results it was evident that nanowire CdS design was
superior to planar CdS film due to enhanced performance in the CdS/CdTe solar cell through
higher open circuit voltage and higher efficiency as for thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell the
open circuit voltage was 0.6908V and efficiency was 14.15%. For nanowire CdS/CdTe solar
cell model the open circuit voltage was 0.7889V and efficiency was 15.07%. Device
parameters such as: thickness, bandgap, interface state density, density of states, electron and
hole mobility, trap density, metal work function, temperature, parasitic series and shunt
resistance were studied which can affect the efficiency of the nanowire-CdS/CdTe solar cell.
The rollover effect on nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cell was explained by varying the majority
carrier barrier height of back contact from 0.4 to 0.7 eV. It proves that change of barrier
height at the contact can cause rollover effect. The crossover effect was observed by varying
the thickness of CdS nanowire layer and removing defect of i-SnO2 layer. It was evident that
the removal of defect in i-SnO2 is responsible for producing the crossover effect. Though
SCAPS-1D is basically designed for simulation of thin film solar cells, it can be concluded
that SCAPS-1D can also provide realistic simulation for nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cells.
Keywords: Cadmium Sulfide, Cadmium Telluride, Solar Cells, SCAPS-1D, Simulation,

Interface States, Thin Film Solar Cell, Nanowire, Open-circuit Voltage
iii
Acknowledgement
First of all, we are thankful and expressing our gratefulness to Allah who offers us His divine
blessings, patience, mental and physical strength to complete this project successfully.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor Dr. Saeed Mahmud Ullah for
the continuous support of our 4th year project, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and
immense knowledge. His guidance helped us in all the time of research and writing of this
thesis. He nudged us in proper direction with his excellent vision and also encouraged to find
explore our own research interest. His insightful comments and hard questions incented us to
widen our research from various perspectives.
Our sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Mark Burgelman for providing SCAPS-1D software and
helping us whenever we faced any difficulties while doing simulations. His prompt email
replay and valuable insights greatly assisted the project. We would also like to show our
gratitude to Rasika Ganvir for providing the data for SCAPS-1D simulation and Dr. Hongmei
Dang for providing the experimental data.
Last but not the least, we would like to thank our honorable teachers of our department for
their support and advices and also our family members for giving us inspiration and for being
always patient and supportive.
iv
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Solar Energy ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Developments in Solar Cell Technology ...................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Emerging photovoltaics ............................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 Comparison between planar and Nano-structured Solar Cell ................................... 7
1.3 Fundamentals of Solar Cell and Related Semiconductor Principles .............................. 8
1.3.1 Solar Cell Structure ................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Photovoltaic effect ............................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Quantum Efficiency ............................................................................................. 9
1.3.4 Voltage and Current............................................................................................... 10
1.3.5 Fill factor ............................................................................................................... 11
1.3.6 Efficiency............................................................................................................... 11
1.3.7 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell .............................................................................. 12
1.3.8 Current–Voltage curves ......................................................................................... 12
1.3.9 Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance ......................................................... 13
1.3.10 Effect of temperature ........................................................................................... 14
Chapter 2
CdS/CdTe Solar Cell................................................................................................................ 16
2.1 Thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell ..................................................................................... 17
2.1.1 Material property ..................................................................................................... 17
n-type CdS window layer ................................................................................................. 18
2.1.2 Structure of thin film CdS/CdTe Solar Cell .......................................................... 19
2.2 Implementation of Nanowires in Solar Cell ................................................................. 20
2.2.2 CdS nanowire ........................................................................................................ 21
v
2.3 Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell ....................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 The structure of Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell........................................................ 21
2.3.2 Comparison between nw CdS/CdTe SC and Thin film CdS/CdTe Solar Cell ........... 22
Chapter 3
Previous works on modelling & Introduction to SCAPS-1D .................................................. 24
3.1 Numerical Modeling .................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Introduction to SCAPS-1D ............................................................................................. 26
3.4 Mathematical model: Basic Equations used in SCAPS-1D............................................ 27
3.4.1 Current – density equations ................................................................................... 28
3.4.2 Continuity equations .............................................................................................. 28
3.4.3 Poisson equation .................................................................................................... 29
3.5 Physical Model ............................................................................................................. 29
3.5.1 Deep bulk levels ....................................................................................................... 29
3.5.2 Interface states and band discontinuities .................................................................... 29
Chapter 4
Modelling and simulation results of thin film CdS/CdTe & nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cells . 31
4.1 Modelling and simulation of thin film CdS /CdTe Solar Cell ..................................... 32
4.2 Observing the Optical properties of CdS nanowire ..................................................... 34
4.2.1 The scattering cross-section................................................................................... 34
4.2.2 The absorption cross-section ................................................................................. 35
4.3 Modelling and simulation of thin film CdS /CdTe Solar Cell ..................................... 37
4.3.1 SCAPS-1D simulation ........................................................................................... 37
4.3.2 Effect of Both Series and Shunt Resistance ......................................................... 41
4.3.3 Temperature dependency....................................................................................... 42
4.3.4 Effect of interface state density ............................................................................. 43
4.3.5 Effect of interface surface recombination velocity............................................... 47
4.3.6 Effect of CdS effective density of states (Nc) ........................................................ 49
4.3.7 Effect of CdTe effective density of states (Nv)..................................................... 50
vi
4.3.8 Effect of trap density of CdTe (Nt) ........................................................................ 51
4.3.9 Effect of metal work function ................................................................................ 52
4.3.10 Crossover effect .................................................................................................. 57
4.3.11 Rollover effect .................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 5
Conclusion and Future Work ................................................................................................... 64
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................. 66
References ................................................................................................................................ 67
vii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
1.1 Solar Energy
With growing consumption of energy and limited storage of fossil resources, development of
renewable energy becomes more and more important. The conventional energy sources like
fossil fuels are going to deplete over the years and thus, the world is beginning to focus on
renewable energy sources. Moreover, renewable energy is a critical part of reducing global
carbon emissions and the pace of investment has greatly increased as the cost of technologies
fall and efficiency continues to rise. In fact, global investment in renewable energy increased
for the first time in three years last year to $270bn, a 17 per cent rise from 2013, the UN
Environment Programme reported in March 2015. 2015 was an extraordinary year for
renewable energy. Renewables are now cost competitive with fossil fuels in many markets
and are established around the world as mainstream sources of energy [1].
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. Solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity
constitutes the fastest growing renewable energy technology in the world. Solar PV
experienced another year of record growth in 2015, with the annual market for new capacity
up 25% over 2014. More than 50 GW was added – equivalent to an estimated 185 million
solar panels – bringing total global capacity to about 227 GW. The annual market was nearly
10 times the size of cumulative world capacity just a decade earlier [2]
Figure 1.1 Solar PV Global Capacity and Annual Additions, 2005–2015 [2]
1
Solar power was again the leading sector by far in terms of new investment committed during
2015, accounting for USD 161 billion, or more than 56% of total new investment in
renewable power and fuels (not including hydropower >50 MW). Investment in solar power
was up 12% over 2014 [2].
Figure 1.2 Global New Investment in Renewable Energy by Technology, Developed and
Developing Countries, 2015 [2]
1.2 Developments in Solar Cell Technology
Generally the 1st generation of solar cells include Single Crystal Solar Cells and Poly Crystal
Solar Cells. This are the oldest and the mostly common used technology type due to high
efficiencies (15-20%). 1st generation solar cells are produced on wafers. Each wafer can
supply 2-3 watt power. Solar modules are used to increase power. The benefits of this solar
cell technology lie in their good performance, as well as their high stability. However, they
are rigid and require a lot of energy in production [3].
The 2nd generation solar cells focused on a-Si thin film solar cells, mc-Si solar cells, CdTe
solar cells, CIS and CIGS solar cells. The typical performance is 10 - 15%. So, their
efficiencies are less than 1st generation, their costs are also less than 1st generation. Second-
generation solar cells are usually called thin-film solar cells because when compared to
2
crystalline silicon based cells they are made from layers of semiconductor materials only a
few micrometers thick [4].
The term third generation is used about cells that are very efficient. Most technologies in this
generation are not yet commercial, but there is a lot of research going on in this area. The
goal is to make third generation solar cells cheap to produce. The 3rd generation of solar cells
includes Quantum Dot, Polymer, Perovskite, Nanocrystalline and Dye- sensitized solar cells.
The benefits of these types of solar cells are low cost and large scale production capability
with flexibility. The disadvantages are low efficiency and low stability compared to
traditional solar cells.
Figure 1.3 Different generations of solar cells [4]
1.2.1 Emerging photovoltaics
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) classifies a number of thin-film

technologies as emerging photovoltaics—most of them have not yet been commercially
applied and are still in the research or development phase. Many use organic materials, often
organometallic compounds as well as inorganic substances. Despite the fact that their
efficiencies had been low and the stability of the absorber material was often too short for
commercial applications, there is a lot of research invested into these technologies as they
promise to achieve the goal of producing low-cost, high-efficient solar cells [5].
3
Emerging photovoltaics, often called third generation photovoltaic cells, include:
 Copper zinc tin sulfide solar cell (CZTS), and derivates CZTSe and CZTSSe
 Dye-sensitized solar cell, also known as "Grätzel cell"
 Organic solar cell
 Perovskite solar cell
 Polymer solar cell
 Quantum dot solar cell
 Nanowire Solar Cell
Figure 1.4 The evolution of world-record efficiencies of laboratory cells [6]
CZTS thin film solar cells
Kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) materials have direct band gap energies (ranging from 1.0 eV
to 1.5 eV) and high absorption co-efficient (>104 cm−1), which makes it a feasible option for
photovoltaic thin film technologies. Compared with CIGS, CZTSSe-based materials consist
of earth abundant elements; therefore it is a very promising candidate for low-cost and high-
efficiency earth abundant thin film solar cells.
4
A cutting edge Electrostatic Assisted Vapour Deposition (ESAVD) method has been
developed that can deposit high efficiency CZTS thin films using non-vacuum conditions,
that have high uniformity (≤ ±5%), with no secondary phase [5].
Dye-sensitized solar cell
A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC, DSC or DYSC) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the
group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-
sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. The DSSC has a number
of attractive features; it is simple to make using conventional roll-printing techniques, is
semi-flexible and semi-transparent which offers a variety of uses not applicable to glass-
based systems, and most of the materials used are low-cost. In practice it has proven difficult
to eliminate a number of expensive materials. Commercial applications, which were held up
due to chemical stability problems, are forecast in the European Union Photovoltaic
Roadmap to significantly contribute to renewable electricity generation by 2020 [5].
Organic solar cell
An organic solar cell or plastic solar cell is a type of photovoltaic that uses organic
electronics, a branch of electronics that deals with conductive organic polymers or small
organic molecules, for light absorption and charge transport to produce electricity from
sunlight by the photovoltaic effect. An example of an organic photovoltaic is the polymer
solar cell. The molecules used in organic solar cells are solution-processable at high
throughput and are cheap, resulting in low production costs to fabricate a large volume.
Combined with the flexibility of organic molecules, organic solar cells are potentially cost-
effective for photovoltaic applications. The main disadvantages associated with organic
photovoltaic cells are low efficiency, low stability and low strength compared to inorganic
photovoltaic cells such as silicon solar cells [5].
Perovskite solar cell
A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite structured
compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as
5
the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials such as methylammonium lead halides
are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture [5].
Polymer solar cell
A polymer solar cell is a type of flexible solar cell made with polymers, large molecules with
repeating structural units, that produce electricity from sunlight by the photovoltaic effect.
Polymer solar cells include organic solar cells (also called "plastic solar cells"). They are one
type of thin film solar cell, others include the more stable amorphous silicon solar cell [5].
Quantum dot solar cell
A quantum dot solar cell is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the absorbing
photovoltaic material. It attempts to replace bulk materials such as silicon, copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS) or CdTe. Quantum dots have bandgaps that are tunable across a
wide range of energy levels by changing the dots' size. In bulk materials the bandgap is fixed
by the choice of material(s). This property makes quantum dots attractive for multi-junction
solar cells, where a variety of materials are used to improve efficiency by harvesting multiple
portions of the solar spectrum [5].
Nanowire Solar Cell
Goals of applying nano-techniques in solar cells are to lower manufacturing cost and to
obtain higher power conversion efficiency. Comparing with traditional solar cells, much less
materials are used in nano-structured devices and hence inexpensive solar cells are made with
much thinner films. A nano-structured solar cell can have an absorber layer (P side of the
semiconductor device) with thickness as thin as 100 nm or less, even thinner than traditional
thin film solar cell with thickness of several micrometers.
The nanowire geometry provides potential advantages over planar wafer based or thin-film
solar cells in every step of the photo-conversion process. These advantages include reduced
reflection, extreme light trapping, strain relaxation, improved band gap tuning and increased
defect tolerance. These benefits are not expected to increase the maximum efficiency above
6
standard limits; instead, they reduce the quantity and quality of material necessary to
approach those limits, allowing for substantial cost reductions [7].
Figure 1.5 Benefits of the nanowire geometry. (a) Periodic arrays of nanowires with radial
junctions maintain all the advantages, including reduced reflection, extreme light trapping,
radial charge separation, relaxed interfacial strain, and single-crystalline synthesis on non-
epitaxial substrates. (b) Axial junctions lose the radial charge separation benefit but keep
the others. (c) Substrate junctions lack the radial charge separation benefit and cannot be
removed from the substrate to be tested as single-nanowire solar cells [7].
1.2.2 Comparison between planar and Nano-structured Solar Cell
To obtain higher energy transfer efficiency, comparing with traditional planar solar cells,
nano-structured solar cells are hoped to gain advantages in following three ways.
 Nanostructure can create multiple reflection for light in films and result in longer
effective optical path for absorption than actual film thickness.
 The recombination effect in semiconductor junction is effectively limited and energy
losses are reduced due to thinner films and hence a shorter path is available for light
generated electrons and holes to pass through.
7
 The absorber and window layers of solar cell can be more flexibly designed since the
energy band gap of various layers is able to be fabricated to desired value by varying
the size of nano-particles.
1.3 Fundamentals of Solar Cell and Related Semiconductor

Principles
1.3.1 Solar Cell Structure

A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light
shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a voltage to generate electric power.
This process requires firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an electron to a
higher energy state, and secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar
cell into an external circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and
returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and processes can potentially satisfy the
requirements for photovoltaic energy conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic
energy conversion uses semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction.
1.3.2 Photovoltaic effect
In a typical photovoltaic cell, two layers of doped semiconductor materials are tightly bonded
together (illustrated in Figure 1.3). One layer is modified to have excess free electrons
(termed an n-layer), while the other layer have an excess of electron holes or vacancies (a p-
layer). When the two dissimilar semiconductor layers are joined at a common boundary, the
free electrons in the n-layer cross into the p-layer in an attempt to fill the electron holes. The
combining of electrons and holes at the p-n junction creates a barrier that makes it
increasingly difficult for additional electrons to cross. As the electrical imbalance reaches an
equilibrium condition, a fixed electric field results across the boundary separating the two
sides.
When light of an appropriate wavelength (and energy) strikes the layered cell and is
absorbed, electrons are freed to travel randomly. Electrons close to the boundary (the p-n
junction) can be swept across the junction by the fixed field. Because the electrons can easily
cross the boundary, but cannot return in the other direction (against the field gradient), a
charge imbalance results between the two semiconductor regions. Electrons being swept into
8
the n-layer by the localized effects of the fixed field have a natural tendency to leave the layer
in order to correct the charge imbalance. Towards this end, the electrons will follow another
path if one is available. By providing an external circuit by which the electrons can return to
the other layer, a current flow is produced that will continue as long as light strikes the solar
cell [8].
Metal contact layers are applied to the outer faces of the two semiconductor layers to provide
a path to the external circuit that connects the two layers. The final result is production of
electrical power derived directly from the energy of light. The voltage produced by solar cells
varies with the wavelength of incident light, but typical cells are designed to use the broad
spectrum of daylight provided by the sun.
Figure 1.6 Structure of a Common Photovoltaic Device[9]
1.3.3 Quantum Efficiency

The "quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the number of carriers collected by the solar
cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the solar cell. The quantum
efficiency may be given either as a function of wavelength or as energy. If all photons of a
certain wavelength are absorbed and the resulting minority carriers are collected, then the
quantum efficiency at that particular wavelength is unity. The quantum efficiency for photons
with energy below the band gap is zero. Quantum efficiency is usually not measured much
below 350 nm as the power from the AM1.5 contained in such low wavelengths is low.
While quantum efficiency ideally has the square shape, the quantum efficiency for most solar
cells is reduced due to recombination effects [10].
9
External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) is the ratio of the number of charge carriers collected
by the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy shining on the solar cell from
outside (incident photon).
Figure 1.7 The quantum efficiency of a silicon solar cell [10]
1.3.4 Voltage and Current

Two important quantities to characterize a solar cell are
Open circuit voltage (Voc): The voltage between the terminals when no current is drawn
(infinite load resistance). VOC is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell when the
current through the junction is zero, and can be expressed as [11],
10
Short circuit current (Isc): The current when the terminals are connected to each other (zero
load resistance). Jsc is the current density that flows through the junction under illumination at
zero applied bias. In the ideal case, Jsc equals the photo-generated current density (JL).
Therefore, the short-circuit current is the largest current which may be drawn from the solar
cell.
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current and voltage
respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the power from the
solar cell is zero. The point on the J–V curve that yields the maximum power is referred to as
the maximum power point; the corresponding current density and voltage are maximum
current Jmp and maximum voltage Vmp [11].
1.3.5 Fill factor

The fill factor is a parameter which determines the maximum power from a solar cell. The FF
is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.
The FF is a measure of the squareness of the J–V curve and is also the area of the largest
rectangle which will fit in the IV curve. The FF is given by [11],
1.3.6 Efficiency
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of a solar
cell. The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the maximum output power Pmax to
the input power (incident power) Pincident, and can be expressed as [11],
The efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under measurement of efficiency need to
be carefully controlled. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a
temperature of 25°C. For space applications, solar cells are measured under AM0 conditions.
11
1.3.7 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
Figure 1.8 Simple equivalent circuit for a solar cell
The solar cell can be seen as a current generator which generates the current (density) J sc.
The dark current flows in the opposite direction and is caused by a potential between the +
and - terminals. In addition you would have two resistances; one in series (Rs) and one in
parallel (Rp). The series resistance is caused by the fact that a solar cell is not a perfect
conductor. The parallel resistance is caused by leakage of current from one terminal to the
other due to poor insulation, for example on the edges of the cell. In an ideal solar cell,
you would have Rs = 0 and Rp = ∞ [12].
1.3.8 Current–Voltage curves
Power is generated when the cell operates in the fourth quadrant of the graph where
voltage is positive and current is negative. The solar cell operates in the fourth quadrant.
Under illumination, the dark curve will be shifted by the photo-generated current density
(JL). The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV curve of the solar cell diode
in the dark with the light-generated current. The light has the effect of shifting the IV
curve down into the fourth quadrant where power can be extracted from the diode.
Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark" currents in the diode.
I0 is the reverse saturation current, n is diode ideality factor and IL is light generated
current.
12
Figure 1.9 A typical current–voltage characteristic of a solar cell in the dark and under
illumination [11]
1.3.9 Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance

A real solar cell has a parasitic series (Rs) and shunt resistance (Rsh). There are several
physical mechanisms responsible for these resistances. Series resistance, Rs, is composed of
the bulk resistance of the semiconductor materials and that of the front and back contacts.
Shunt resistance, Rsh, is caused by leakage across the p–n junction and around the edge of the
cell. An ideal cell will have high shunt resistance (Rsh = ∞) and low series resistance (Rs = 0).
Modest Rs affects mostly the far–forward voltage region above Vmp but the open–circuit
voltage is not affected by Rs, because no current flows at Voc. The influence of Rsh is visible
in the low voltage range (near zero voltage). Both, Rs and Rsh can reduce the FF by a
predictable amount. High values of Rs and low values of Rsh can also reduce Jsc and Voc
respectively [11].
13
Figure 1.10 Effect of series and shunt resistances on the J–V curves [11]
1.3.10 Effect of temperature

Solar cells work best in certain weather conditions, but since the weather is always changing
and as engineers are installing solar panels all over the world in different climate regions,
most panels do not operating under ideal conditions. The study of the behavior of solar cells
with temperature (T) is important as, in terrestrial applications, they are generally exposed to
temperatures ranging from 15 oC (288 K) to 50 oC (323 K). Most semiconductor modelling is
done at 300 K since it is close to room temperature and a convenient number. However, solar
cells are typically measured almost 2 degrees lower at 25°C (298.15 K). In most cases the
difference is insignificant (only 4 mV of Voc) and both are referred to as room temperature.
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in
temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the
material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a
semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore
increasing the temperature reduces the band gap.
14
In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.
Figure 1.11 The effect of temperature on the IV characteristics of a solar cell [10].
The solar cell performance is determined by its parameters, viz., short circuit current density,
open circuit voltage, fill factor and efficiency. The open-circuit voltage decreases with
temperature because of the temperature dependence of reverse saturation current density (I0).
It is an important diode parameter as it controls the change in performance parameters with
temperature. The equation for I0 from one side of a p-n junction is given by [11],
15
Chapter 2
CdS/CdTe Solar Cell
16
2.1 Thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell
Thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell has been an attractive alternate of traditional silicon solar cell
because of their low cost. The fabrication of CdS/CdTe heterojunctions for solar power
generation has gradually evolved to provide a cell with higher efficiency. Thin-film cadmium
telluride (CdTe) is now regarded as one leading material for the development of cost-
effective photovoltaics (PV) and one of best choices for CdTe cells are heterojunction
structures with n-type cadmium sulfide (CdS) as a transparent window layer; they are
generally fabricated in a superstrate configuration. Despite the lattice mismatch of 10%
between CdTe and CdS, the formed heterojunction has an excellent electrical behavior,
leading to a high fill factor of 0.77 in produced solar cells.
2.1.1 Material property

p-type CdTe absorbing layer
Among the II-VI compounds, CdTe is one of the most promising absorbers for use in cheap
semiconductor solar cells. CdTe is used as the P type material of CdS/CdTe thin film
photovoltaic device. CdTe is an optimum material to be used in thin film solar cells for its
basic physiochemical properties. CdTe is a direct band gap semiconductor with a high optical
absorption coefficient (> 5 × 105 cm-1) and its optical band gap of Eg = 1.45 eV at room
temperature is well matched to the AM1.5 spectrum. CdTe photovoltaic have superior
tolerance to high energy irradiation and are more suitable for space applications. CdTe solar
cells fabricated in laboratories have reached a new high efficiency record of 17.3%,
confirmed by NREL in 2011.
Above 500 ℃, the stoichiometric compound of CdTe is the stable solid phase. In the high
temperature phase a slight nonstoichiometric is present in the form of a slight Cd deficiency,
leading to a native p-doping of films. This property makes it relatively easy to produce CdTe
films suited for thin film solar cells. So, as long as the substrate temperature is sufficiently
high CdTe films need nothing much.
However, in polycrystalline thin films, doping becomes more difficult because of the
enhanced compensation and segregation effects at the grain boundaries. In fact, because of
these characteristics of the doping mechanism, the grain boundaries in polycrystalline CdTe
thin films can be made more p-type than the bulk, reducing and the minority carrier
17
recombination at the grain boundaries. Difficulties encountered in doping of CdTe do not
affect its PV performance, but they create problems in making a low-resistance ohmic contact
to the material.
A representation of the zinc-blende crystal structure for CdTe (with lattice constant, a) is
shown in Fig 4.1. This structure is formed by two intersecting face centred cubic sub-lattices
(one for the Cd atoms and one for the Te atoms in this case), with one shifted ¼ of a unit cell
along the <111> direction from the other (the co-ordinate system is shown in Fig 4.1) [13].
Fig 2.1 Unit cell crystal structure of CdTe [13]
n-type CdS window layer

The CdS layer is typically highly n-type (n ~ 1017 - 1019 cm-3). However, since CdS has a
much wider band gap (~ 2.4 eV) than CdTe, it allows a significant proportion of the spectrum
(λ > 500 nm) to pass, hence the term window layer. To further enhance transmission into the
absorber layer the CdS layer may be grown very thin, i.e. < 80 nm, but problems can arise if
the CdS is too thin as the presence of CdS pinholes can lead to the formation of weak
CdTe/ITO diodes which are detrimental to VOC. The electron affinity of CdS is comparable to
that of CdTe. A representation of the hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure (with lattice
constants c and a) which CdS typically adopts, is shown in Fig 4.2. The structure consists of
two overlapping close-packed hexagonal sub-lattices, one for the Cd atoms and one for the S
atoms [13].
18
Fig 2.2 Unit cell crystal structure of CdS [13]
2.1.2 Structure of thin film CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

A thin film solar cell is normally consisted of several thin layers with thickness ranging from
a few of nanometers to dozens of micrometers. Sun light shines on the glass substrate; goes
through transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer; and then absorbed by P type layer CdS
and N type layer CdTe. Sun light photons are either absorbed in CdS/CdTe junction and
CdTe layer or transferred to thermal energy. The materials for making back contacts are
copper or a mix of copper and graphite. TCO layer is usually deposited with Tin Oxide or
Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) [14].
Figure 2.3 Typical CdS/CdTe Solar Cell Structure
Fabrication methods for CdS/CdTe layers could have a significant effect on cell efficiency
and cost. Samples have been obtained successfully by several common techniques: radio
frequency sputtering (R. F. Sputtering), close-spaced sublimation (CSS), and chemical bath
deposition (CBD) for CdS preparation, while electrodeposition (ED), screen printing (SP)
19
and CSS for CdTe thin-film formation. However, these methods are still not sufficient good
due to their inherent drawbacks.
Currently, the emerging problems related to fabrication mainly focus on
(1) The short circuit of TCO and the CdTe layer caused by the partial grain covering and
pinholes in CdS with extremely small thickness
(2) Short minority carrier life time due to the defects inside the CdTe layer.
Fortunately, several modifications to conventional methods and new techniques have been
explored to improve the problems above these years. Nanostructured geometries are believed
to be the most promising method to achieve high efficiency and low cost from structural
aspect. In this project we will employ nanowire CdS instead of planar CdS layer [15].
2.2 Implementation of Nanowires in Solar Cell

Over the past decade, both solar cell research and nanowire research have become hot topics
within science and engineering. The need for higher solar cell efficiencies at lower cost has
become apparent, and at the same time synthetic control in nano-science has improved such
that high-performance electronic devices are becoming possible.
2.2.1 Nanowire
Nanowires are slender structures that are only a few billionths of a meter in diameter but
many thousands or millions of times longer. They exist in many forms — made of metals,
semiconductors, insulators and organic compounds. Due to their extreme slenderness
nanowires are essentially one-dimensional.
Nanowires of a particular substance may behave quite unlike much larger ‘bulk’ samples of
the same material. Nanowires are of great interest in photovoltaics because of their large
surface area, high aspect ratio (long and thin), intrinsic antireflection effect (which increases
light absorption), and ability to direct light absorption with specifically designed arrays.
More importantly, core-shell nanowires, which operate based on radial p-n junctions,
represent a revolution in photovoltaics by decoupling light absorption from carrier collection
pathways: light is absorbed vertically, whereas carriers are separated radially. This separation
liminates the once-fundamental trade-off between light absorption and carrier collection [16].
20
2.2.2 CdS nanowire
The structure of nanowire CdS received most of the attentions on nano-structured
photovoltaic devices due to its optical advantages and large potential energy conversion
efficiency. CdS is a direct bandgap material exhibiting efficient absorption in the wavelength
range of 300–510 nm. On the other hand, silicon is an indirect bandgap material with less
efficient absorption.Thus, in CdS, enhanced absorption caused by increased optical scattering
from the nanostructure may not be as important a factor as in the case of silicon. The
absorption coefficient has a large value.
2.3 Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

2.3.1 The structure of Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell
The structure of nanowire CdS received most of the attentions on nano-structured
photovoltaic devices due to its optical advantages and large potential energy conversion
efficiency. Sunlight directly shoots on glass substrates and photons are absorbed in CdS nano
fibers and P type CdTe layer. To control the growth of CdS nanowires, the electrochemical
synthesis in templates has been considered as one of the most efficient methods. Through
this, the CdS nanowires generation was controllable through time duration and values of
current and deposited CdS nanowires were perfectly mounted in the direction perpendicular
to the substrate surface. Generally CdS nanowire layer of thickness 70-100 nm is used where
the diameter nanowires are 40nm [14].
Figure 2.4 Structure of CdS Nanowire Solar Cell

21
In nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cells, CdS nanowires as window layer have enabled light
transmission gain in the window layer so that light absorption was enhanced in CdTe
absorber. The nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cells have further showed a nearly ideal spectral
response of quantum efficiency and their reliability was improved by approximately 3 times.
2.3.2 Comparison between nw CdS/CdTe SC and Thin film CdS/CdTe

Solar Cell
In nw CdS/CdTe SC, the CdS–CdTe interface has only a fraction (typically half to one-
fourth) of the junction area compared to the case of traditional thin film solar cells because
CdS only forms a junction with CdTe at the top end of each CdS nanowire. This reduced
junction area results in a reduced loss current caused by interface state recombination, a
smaller effective reverse saturation current (I0) and hence a higher open circuit voltage (Voc)
than in the case of the traditional, planar film of CdS, as quantified by equation below [14] :
Actual improvement of the open circuit voltage depends on the effective value of the diode
ideality factor A, which is characterized by the ratio of the optical area and the junction area
and the prevailing dark current at the CdS–CdTe interface.
This enhancement in Voc will be relatively large when the dominant junction current
mechanism in the dark is due to the interface state recombination; this is indeed the case for
the majority of thin film CdS–CdTe hetero-junction devices. On the other hand, enhancement
in Voc will be small when the dominant junction current mechanism in the dark is diffusion
and/or space charge layer recombination. This is because the role of interface state
recombination will then be reduced.
Note that, even though the junction area is reduced substantially, the effective area for light
absorption remains the same, because those photons which pass through the aluminum oxide
instead of CdS will still get absorbed in the CdTe layer.
The nanowire-CdS layer has higher transmitivity than the traditional planar CdS window
layer. It has been observed by EDRL researchers that the absorption peak of CdS nanowires
is slightly shifted towards the blue region of the sun light, from 512 nm for traditional thin
22
film CdS solar cells to 480 nm for nanowire CdS solar cells. Therefore, more photons were
absorbed by CdTe layer and light generated current is increased [17].
Figure 2.5 Transmittance of CdS nanowire versus thin film [17]
It is proven by experiment that thinner nanowire CdS film shows the minimum absorbance
when compared with thicker nanowire CdS film and the planar CdS film of same thickness.
In general, thinner films show lower absorbance because shorter transmission path reduces
the probability of interaction between an incoming photon and the CdS film. Therefore, it is
interesting to note that the thicker CdS nanowire film has lower absorption than the thinner
planar CdS film. This is attributed to the facts that,
(i) planar CdS film is solid while the nanowire CdS film has gaps between nanowires,
which are totally transitive to the sunlight photons;
(ii) effective energy bandgap of nanowire CdS film is higher than its planar CdS film
counterpart because CdS nanowires are really stacks of very thin nano-discs, Thickness of
these nanodiscs is less than the Bohr’s radius for cadmium sulfide, which is estimated to
be 4 nm. Thus CdS nanowires are able to exhibit quantum confinement effects, which
result in higher energy band gap and substantially reduced absorption in the ultra-violet
portion of the solar spectrum [14].
23
Chapter 3
Previous works on modelling

& Introduction to SCAPS-1D
24
3.1 Numerical Modeling
Numerical models have become indispensable tools for the design of any kind of efficient
solar cells. They have contributed greatly to our understanding of cell operation and are
necessary for future cell improvements. This turn toward numerical solution techniques has
removed the need to make unrealistic simplifying assumptions in order to obtain a solution.
3.2 Literature Review
The earliest simulation work was done by Lee using a 1D numerical solar cell simulation
program, ADEPT developed in Purdue. Here, Lee and Gray examined the effects of non-ideal
back contact, influence of grain boundaries and determined a set of parameters consistent
with measured cell performance.
Some starting simulation parameters were described by Fahrenbruch in which he sets CdTe
baseline. This simulation study describes the effect of a thin layer of CdS between the TCO
and CdTe regions. Simulation was done for finding J-V curves. The program used was
AMPS software which was written by S. Fonash and coworkers of Pennsylvania State
University.
In this software, all parameters are independent of temperature. It is possible to simulate the
graded junctions. When the definition of the device is completed, the user can simulate J -V
in dark and light as well as spectral response measurements. However, AMPS is slow in
solving the problem compared to other simulation programs [18].
There are several solar cell simulation programs available at present. Mark S. Lundstrom
developed the first solar cell simulation program as a part of his PhD Thesis. Other programs
are Thin-Film Semiconductor Simulation Program (TFSSP), Solar Cell Analysis Program in
1Dimension (SCAPS lD), Solar Cell Analysis Program in 2 Dimension (SCAP 2D), PUPHS,
and PUPHS2D. These have been used to model a number of solar cells -thin-film Si: H,
CdS/CIS, CdS/CdTe, Si, Ge, & GaAs cells in one spatial dimension and high efficiency Si
and GaAs solar cells in two-dimensions [19].
This project is focused on one-dimensional simulation and SCAPS-1D has been used as the
tool for the simulations of thin film CdS/CdTe and nw-CdS/CdTe solar cell.
25
3.3 Introduction to SCAPS-1D
SCAPS-1D is a one dimensional, windows application solar cell simulation program

developed at the department of Electronics and Information Systems (ELIS) of the University
of Gent, Belgium. SCAPS is originally developed for cell structures of the CuInSe2 and the
CdTe family. Several extensions however have improved its capabilities so that it is also
applicable to crystalline solar cells (Si and GaAs family) and amorphous cells (a-Si and
micromorphous Si) [20].
In SCAPS-1D up to seven semiconductor layers can be added and almost all parameters can
be graded: Eg, χ, ε, NC, NV, vthn, vthp, µn, µp, NA, ND, all traps (defects) Nt. There are four
charge types. Such as: no charge (idealisation), monovalent (single donor, acceptor), divalent
(double donor, double acceptor, amphoteric), multivalent (user defined).
Parameters like the band gap and the mobility are independent of temperature. We can define
upto three deep levels for each layer and three interface states can be placed in between these
three layers. These deep levels can be energetically distributed in the forbidden zone (single
level, uniform, gauss or exponential tail). The deep bulk levels can also vary spatially inside
the layer (uniform, step, linear or exponentially). All other properties are spatially uniform for
each layer. So, in order to introduce the graded junctions in the device, several layers must be
used.
Back and front contacts can be defined and tunneling can also be allowed. For illumination, a
variety of standard and other spectra included. Such as AM0, AM1.5D, AM1.5G, AM1.5
Gedition2, monochromatic, white etc. Illumination might be from either the p-side or the n-
side.
The working points for calculations are voltage, frequency and temperature. The program
calculates energy bands, concentrations and currents at a given working point, J-
characteristics, ac characteristics (C and G as function of V and/or f ), spectral response (also
with bias light or voltage). Moreover, batch calculation is possible for presentation of results
26
and settings as a function of batch parameters. It is to be noted that the loading and saving of
all settings can be done in SCAPS-1D.
The program is organized in a number of panels, in which the user can set parameters or in
which results are shown. The program opens with an àction panel', where the user can set an
operating point (temperature, voltage, frequency, illumination), and an action list of
calculations to carry out (I-V, C-V, C-f, QE). In each calculation, the running parameter (V, f
or l) is varied in the specified range, whilst all other parameters have the value specified in
the operation point. Also, the user can directly view previously calculated results: I-V, C-V,
C-f, QE. Each measurement can be calculated for light or dark conditions and as a function of
temperature. During the process of solving the simulations, the energy band diagram and the
charge and currents in the device are shown on screen for each intermediate bias voltage or
wavelength. These intermediate solutions can then be saved to a file. When the simulation is
completed, the characteristics can be viewed and compared with characteristics from other
simulations, which also can be saved to a file. This feature makes SCAPS a very interactive
program.
A script language including a free user function gives a very intuitive user interface. A script
language facility is added to run SCAPS-1D from a "script file" and all internal variables can
be accessed and plotted via the script. SCAPS-1D has a built-in curve fitting facility and a
panel for the interpretation of admittance measurements.
3.4 Mathematical model: Basic Equations used in SCAPS-1D
In principle, any numerical program capable of solving the basic semiconductor equations
could be used for modelling thin film solar cells. The basic equations are: Current –density
equations, the Poisson equation- relating the charge to the electrostatic potential and the
continuity equations for electrons and holes.
27
3.4.1 Current – density equations
The current conduction mainly consists of two components, namely drift component, which
is caused by the electric field and diffusion component, which is caused by the carrier
concentration gradient. These are also called as the constitutive equations [21].
The equations are as follows:
where, ℰ- Electric field

𝜇𝑛, 𝜇𝑝 -Mobility of electron and hole respectively
𝐽𝑛, 𝐽𝑝- Electron and hole current density respectively
𝐷𝑛, 𝐷𝑝-Diffusion coefficient for electrons and holes respectively
𝐸𝐹n, 𝐸Fp- Quasi-Fermi level for electron and hole respectively
3.4.2 Continuity equations
In semiconductor, there are various carrier transport mechanisms. The continuity equations
include the time-dependent phenomena such as generation, recombination and low-level
injection. The effect of drift, diffusion, indirect or direct thermal generation or recombination
give rise to the change in carrier concentration with respect to time. The net change of carrier
concentration is the difference between generation and recombination, plus the net current
flowing in and out of the specified region. The continuity equations are given by [19]:
Where,
G- Generation rate
𝑈𝑛, 𝑈𝑝-Net recombination/generation rate
28
3.4.3 Poisson equation
Poisson equation gives the starting point in obtaining the qualitative solution for electrostatic
variables in a semiconductor. It is given by [19],
Where, 𝑞(𝑝 – 𝑛 + 𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴) = 𝜌 (charge density), considering the dopants to be fully

ionized.
𝑁𝐷,𝑁𝐴 - Donor and acceptor impurity concentration respectively.
3.5 Physical Model
3.5.1 Deep bulk levels

In each layer, the type (donor or acceptor) and density of one shallow level can be
defined; it is completely ionized and does not contribute to recombination. Also, up to
three deep levels can be defined. Recombination in these levels and their occupation, is
described by the Schockley-Read-Hall (SRH) formalism, and charge is defined by the
occupation of the level and its type (donor or acceptor, or `neutral', i.e. a hypothetical
center carrying no charge). The levels can be energetically distributed in the forbidden
zone (single level, uniform band, Gau beta, or exponential tail). The concentration of the
shallow or deep states can vary spatially uniform, step, linear or exponential) [22].
3.5.2 Interface states and band discontinuities

The quasi-fermi levels are allowed to be discontinuous at the interfaces. To handle this
mathematically, an extra node at each interface is introduced in the discretization. For
interface recombination, SCAPS-1D uses Pauwells Vanhoutte model. The model
considers four bands for interface states i.e. conduction and valence bands of both
semiconductors at the interface. This theory considers the recombination of electrons of
one semiconductor with holes of another semiconductor along with the standard
recombination of electrons with holes within the same semiconductor. Here, the most
29
important recombination path is the recombination of window electrons with the absorber
holes. The total charge in the interface states equals the discontinuity in the dielectric
displacement at the interface [22].
Fig. 3.1 Pauwells Vanhoutte Model for interface recombination. In this case, relevant for a
CdS/ CdTe cell, the dominant recombination path is between electrons and holes [22].
In our SCAPS program, the interface states can be distributed in energy, in the same way as are
the bulk states. At the metal-semiconductor interfaces (contacts), transport of majority carriers is
described by thermionic emission (Bethe theory).
Thermionic emission current for electrons for two direct band gap semiconductors with
identical effective masses, is given by,
Where, 𝑗𝑡ℎ 𝑛=particle current from semiconductor 1 to 2

𝑣𝑡ℎ 𝑛 = thermal velocity of electrons
𝑛(1), 𝑛(2)= electron concentrations
Δ𝐸𝑐= conduction band discontinuity
Similarly, thermionic emission current for holes can be calculated.
At the metal semiconductor contact, the boundary equations are imposed on the continuity
equation for the electrons:
Where,
𝑛𝑒q is the number electrons at the contact in equilibrium [19].
30
Chapter 4
Modelling and simulation

results of thin film CdS/CdTe
& nanowire CdS/CdTe solar
cells
31
4.1 Modelling and simulation of thin film CdS /CdTe Solar
Cell
SCAPS-1D was used for doing the simulating the J-V characteristics of thin film CdS/CdTe
solar cell. In each layer, specific parameters are to be entered. Between any two layers,
interface layer can be defined and up to seven defects can be added.
Table 4.1 Parameters used for simulation of CdS/CdTe solar cell in SCAPS-1D
Parameters CdTe CdS CdS i-SnO2 ITO
/CdTe
interface
thickness (μm) 5 0.1 0.100 0.150
bandgap (eV) 1.5 2.42 3.600 3.650
electron affinity (eV) 3.9 4.000 4.400 4.800
dielectric permittivity 9.4 10.000 9.000 8.900
(relative)
CB effective density of states 1.000E+18 8.000E+19 2.200E+19 5.200E+18
(1/cm3)
VB effective density of states 8.000E+18 8.000E+18 1.800E+19 1.000E+18
(1/cm3)
electron thermal velocity 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 2.000E+7
(cm/s)
hole thermal velocity (cm/s) 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7
electron mobility (cm²/Vs) 5.000E+2 1.000E+2 1.000E+2 1.000E+1
hole mobility (cm²/Vs) 4.000E+1 2.000E+1 2.500E+1 1.000E+1
Allow Tunneling Yes
Effective mass of electrons 1.900E+1
Effective mass of holes 8.000E+1
shallow uniform acceptor 1.000E+16 1.000E+15
density NA (1/cm3)
shallow uniform donor density 1.150E+17 1.000E+15 1.000E+15
ND (1/cm3)
absorption constant A (1/cm 9.600E+5 9.600E+5 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
eV(½))
Defect type Single acceptor
Acceptor
Capture cross section electrons 1.000E-15 1.00E-13
(cm²)
capture cross section holes 1.000E-12 1.00E-13
(cm²)
energetic distribution Single single
reference for defect energy Above Ev Above Ev
level Et of CdTe
energy level with respect to 0.090 0.100
Reference (eV)
Nt total (1/cm3) uniform 9.900E+13 1.60E+12
32
Table 4.2 Parameters for back and front contact for simulation of thin film CdS/CdTe solar
cell
Parameters Back contact Front contact
Thermionic Emission/ surface
recombination velocity (cm/s)
electrons 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
holes 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
Metal work function (eV) 5 5.0216
Majority Carrier barrier
height(eV)
relative to Ef 0.4 0.2216

relative to Ev 0.2271 0
Figure 4.1 I-V curve for dark (red) and light (blue) condition for CdS/CdTe solar cell
Table 4.3 Efficiency of nw CdS/CdTe solar cell for temperature 300K
Open circuit voltage, Voc (V) 0.6908

Short circuit current, Jsc (mA/cm2) 26.397512
Fill Factor, FF (%) 77.59
Efficiency (%) 14.15
33
4.2 Observing the Optical properties of CdS nanowire
Scattering and absorption cross sections for parallel and perpendicularly polarized excitation
obtained from Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) simulations.
4.2.1 The scattering cross-section

The scattering cross-section is defined as,
σscat (ω) = Pscat(ω)/Iinc(ω)

Where,
Pscat is the total scattered power [W]
Iinc is the incident intensity [W/m2]
In 2D, power is described per unit length [W/m], and thus the scattering cross-section has
dimensions of length.
The total scattered power can be calculated by summing the power flowing outward through
the four power monitors located in the scattered field region of the Simulation Area [23].
Fig 4.2 Variation of scattering cross section with the change of diameter of CdS nanowire
For nanowires of diameter 10nm-100nm, effect of light wavelength and scattering cross
section was obsevered. From the graph we can say that, scattering decreases with the increse
34
of wavelength. We know, solar radiation with wavelengths of 380 nm to 750 nm (violet to
red) strike the cell with enough energy to knock electrons from their weak bonds and create
an electric current. From graph we can see that from 400nm to 600nm, as diameter increases
scattering also increases at a high rate. For using a nanowire for solar cell it must be able to
absorb light as much as it can and scattering of light should be minimum. Thus high
diameters should be avoided here. Generally nanowires of 40nm diameter are used for solar
cell fabrication. Here we see that scattering is very small for 40nm. So this graph is in accord
with the experimental procedure.
4.2.2 The absorption cross-section
The absorption cross-section is defined as,
σabs (ω) = Pabs(ω)/Iinc(ω)

Where,
Pabs is the total power absorbed by the particle
The power absorbed by the particle can be calculated by calculating the net power flowing
inward through the four monitors located in the total field region of the Simulation Area [23].
(a) (b)
35
(c) (d)
(e)
Fig 4.3 Variation of absorption cross section with the change of diameter of CdS nanowire
(a) for 10nm, 20nm (b) for 30nm, 40nm (c) for 50nm, 60nm (d) for 70nm, 80nm (e) for
10nm – 80nm
For nanowires of diameter 10nm-80nm, effect of light wavelength and absorption cross
section was obsevered.
36
From the above graphs we can understand that, as the diameter of the CdS NW increases the
oscillatory motion of the graph also becomes stronger. This oscillatory motion implies that
the absorption cross section changes abrupty as the wavelength increases. One exception is
seen in Fig (b) where the oscillating nature has almost faded between wavelengths of 575-
675nm.
In Fig (e) we can see the comparison between the diameters 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and
80nm. As stated earlier the same trait is followed here i.e oscillating shape increases with
diameter. Thus we can conclude that for Photovoltaic Solar Cell applications, a CdS window
layer of diameters 10-40nm is more preferable.
4.3 Modelling and simulation of thin film CdS /CdTe Solar

Cell
4.3.1 SCAPS-1D simulation

SCAPS-1D was used for doing the simulation of the I-V characteristics of nanowire CdS-
CdTe solar cell. The parameters of all the layers in nw-CdS/CdTe device were entered in the
SCAPS-1D, including the front and back contact.
The material properties of the layers and contacts were selected from literature [19],[24]-[27]
and in some cases such as interface state density, defect density, surface recombination
velocity, bulk resistance, effective state densities and metal work function, were estimated
and adjusted in order to get the curve fit to the experimental I-V curve at 300K.
It is to be noted here that SCAPS-1D only takes the thin layer parameters, the nanowire-
CdS layer was presented as the thin layer with the higher absorption constant (9.6x10^5).
37
The definition panel for this simulation is shown below:
Figure 4.4 SCAPS 1D definition panel for CdS nw/CdTe solar cell
For 300k temperature Specific parameters are entered in each layer and between CdTe and
CdS nw layer an interface layer is defined. A defect was added in CdTe layer.
38
Table 4.4 Parameters used for simulation of nw CdS/CdTe solar cell in SCAPS-1D
Parameters CdTe CdS nw CdS- i-SnO2 ITO

nw/CdTe
interface
thickness (μm) 8 0.090 0.100 0.150
bandgap (eV) 1.5 3.490 3.600 3.650
electron affinity (eV) 3.9 4.000 4.400 4.800
dielectric permittivity 9.4 9.000 9.000 8.900
(relative)
CB effective density of 1.000E+18 8.000E+19 2.200E+19 5.200E+18
states (1/cm3)
VB effective density of 8.000E+18 8.000E+18 1.800E+19 1.000E+18
states (1/cm3)
electron thermal 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 2.000E+7
velocity (cm/s)
hole thermal velocity 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7 1.000E+7
(cm/s)
electron mobility 5.000E+2 1.000E+2 1.000E+2 1.000E+1
(cm²/Vs)
hole mobility (cm²/Vs) 4.000E+1 2.500E+1 2.500E+1 1.000E+1
Allow Tunneling Yes
Effective mass of 1.900E+1
electrons
Effective mass of holes 8.000E+1
shallow uniform 1.000E+16 1.000E+15
acceptor density NA
(1/cm3)
shallow uniform donor 1.150E+17 1.000E+15 1.000E+15
density ND (1/cm3)
absorption constant A 9.600E+5 9.600E+5 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
(1/cm eV(½))
Defect type Single acceptor
Acceptor
Capture cross section 1.000E-15 1.00E-13
electrons (cm²)
capture cross section 1.000E-12 1.00E-13
holes (cm²)
energetic distribution Single single
reference for defect Above Ev Above Ev
energy level Et of CdTe
energy level with 0.090 0.100
respect to Reference
(eV)
Nt total (1/cm3) uniform 9.900E+13 1.60E+12
39
Table 4.5 Parameters for back and front contact
Parameters Back contact Front contact

Thermionic Emission/ surface
recombination velocity (cm/s)
electrons 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
holes 1.000E+5 1.000E+5
Metal work function (eV) 5 5.0216
Majority Carrier barrier
height(eV)
relative to Ef 0.4 0.2216
relative to Ev 0.2271 0
When we click on the “Calculate” button, the energy bands panel opens and the calculations
start. SCAPS shows the movie how the conduction band, valence band and fermi levels are
evolving. Once it is completed, energy band and current densities are shown.
Figure 4.5 SCAPS energy bands panel
To get the I-V curve “Calculate: single shot” was used for dark and light condition. I-V
curves can be seen after clicking on the “I-V” buttons.
40
Figure 4.6 I-V curve for dark (red) and light (blue) condition for nw CdS/CdTe solar
cell
For 300K temperature short circuit current, open circuit voltage, fill factor and efficiency
were observed.
Table 4.6 Efficiency of nw CdS/CdTe solar cell for temperature 300K
Open circuit voltage, Voc (V) 0.7889

Short circuit current, Jsc (mA/cm2) 25.762087
Fill Factor, FF (%) 77.26
Efficiency (%) 15.70
4.3.2 Effect of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
Table 4.7 Effect of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
Red curve Blue curve

Series resistance (Ω.cm2) 0 8
Shunt resistance (Ω.cm2) 1000 250
Voc (V) 0.7873 0.7824
Jsc (mA/cm2) 25.762300 24.585133
Fill Factor, FF (%) 75.14 55.08
Efficiency (%) 15.24 10.60
41
Figure 4.7 Effect of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
So, the simulated result is in accord with chapter 1.3.9 .
4.3.3 Temperature dependency
I-V measurements were obtained at dark and light for the temperatures 270K, 275K, 295 K,
300k, 350k, 400k and 450 K.
Figure 4.8 Effect of temperature (red curve for 270K, blue curve for 300K, and green curve
for 320K)
42
Table 4.8 Temperature dependency
Temperature(K) Voc (V) Jsc (mA/cm2) FF(%) Efficiency(%)

270 0.80760 25.827348 74.29 16.26
275 0.83999 25.823591 74.92 16.25
295 0.79870 25.779485 77.05 15.86
300 0.78890 25.762300 77.26 15.70
320 0.74920 25.671924 77.42 14.89
350 0.68900 25.478511 78.48 13.42
400 0.58740 25.032179 73.51 10.81
450 0.48440 24.495002 69.43 08.24
So, from simulation results it can be said that efficiency decreases with the increase of
temperature.
4.3.4 Effect of interface state density

To study the effect of interface state density on I-V characteristics, the interface state
densities (Nit) between nw-CdS and CdTe layers were varied in the simulations from the
range of 5.88x1011 to 6.35x1014 cm-2. This range related to the simulated J-V curves obtained
by SCAPS-1D with no convergence failure. In this model, the defect type for the interface
state is considered as an acceptor with single level energetic distribution [19].
Figure 4.9 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for Nit: 5.88 x1011cm-2 for dark (red) and
light (blue) condition
43
Figure 4.10 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for Nit: 5.00 x1012cm-2 for dark (blue)
and light (red) condition
44
Figure 4.12 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for Nit: 5.00 x1013cm-2 for dark
(blue) and light (red) condition
Figure 4.13 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for Nit: 1.00 x1014cm-2 for dark (red)
and light (blue) condition
45
Table 4.9 Effect of interface state density

Nit Voc Jsc Fill Factor Efficiency
5.88E11 0.8009 28.782263 82.24 18.96
6E11 0.8005 28.783624 82.11 18.92
1E12 0.7942 28.194834 78.58 17.60
5E12 0.7734 16.065179 73.28 9.10
1E13 0.7607 9.4770353 70.21 5.06
5E13 0.7267 1.4299999 68.04 0.71
1E14 0.7195 0.6573098 72.69 0.34
3E14 0.7259 0.6575765 81.19 0.22
6.35E14 0.7376 0.3332092 83.23 0.20
46
Figure 4.15 Simulated light J-V curves of nw-CdS/CdTe device at various interface state
densities
From simulation results, it is evident that efficiency decreases with the increase of interface
state density.
4.3.5 Effect of interface surface recombination velocity
Surface recombination velocity is an important parameter that affects the dark saturation
current and the quantum efficiency of a solar cell. Interfaces introduce band of electronic
states in the band gap that can be ascribed to broken or strained bonds and impurities.
The surface recombination velocity at the interface is given by,
𝑆𝑛 = 𝜎𝑛 𝑣𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑖t - For electrons

𝑆𝑝 = 𝜎𝑝 𝑣𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑖t -For holes
Where,
𝑁𝑖t - Density of interface traps
𝑣𝑡ℎ - Thermal velocity
𝜎𝑝, 𝜎𝑛 –Capture cross section of holes and electrons, respectively
47
Capture cross section of holes/electrons,
𝜎 = S/( 𝑣𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑖t )
The interface recombination velocities were varied in the simulations from the range of
6x 102 -6x 107 cm/s and simulations were performed [20].
Figure 4.16 Simulated light I-V curves of nw-CdS/CdTe device at various interface
recombination velocity
Table 4.10 Effect of interface surface recombination velocity

Red curve Blue curve Green curve
𝑆𝑛,p 1.6E6 8.8E6 1.6E7
Voc 0.7889 0.7367 0.7155
Jsc 25.762087 18.161314 13.555378

Fill Factor 77.26 65.12 58.89
Efficiency 15.70 8.71 5.71
Thus, efficiency increases as the interface recombination velocity decreases.
48
4.3.6 Effect of CdS effective density of states (Nc)
The density of states in the conduction/valence band are temperature dependent. T0 is the
default temperature (at which the parameter value should be defined in SCAPS and equals
300 K) [20].
As Nc/ Nv increases, the dark saturation current increases, thus open circuit voltage Voc
decreases. Therefore, the efficiency of a solar cell decreases. In order to verify the simulated
model, the effective density of states in the conduction band of CdS-nw was varied from the
range 8 x 1018 to 8 x 1019 cm-3 and I-V simulations were performed.
Figure 4.17 Simulated light I-V curves of nw-CdS/CdTe device for Nc = 8.000E+18 cm-3 (blue)
and Nc = 8.000E+19 cm-3 (red) of CdS-nw
49
Table 4.11 Effect of CdS effective density of states (Nc) of CdS-nw
Blue curve Red curve
Nc of CdS-nw 8.000E+18 8.000E+19
Voc 0.8938 0.7889
Jsc 25.759785 25.762087

Fill Factor 72.80 77.26
Efficiency 16.76 15.70
As can be seen from figure 4.16 and table 4.11, as Nc increases in CdS-nw, the open circuit
voltage reduces and the efficiency is reduced.
4.3.7 Effect of CdTe effective density of states (Nv)
The effective density of states in the valence band (Nv) were varied 8 x 1018 to 8 x1019 cm-3
and I-V simulations were performed.
Figure 4.18 Simulated light I-V curves of nw-CdS/CdTe device for Nv = 8.000E+18 cm-3
(red) and Nv = 8.000E+19 cm-3 (blue) of CdTe
50
Table 4.12 Effect of CdTe effective density of states (Nv)
Nv of CdTe 8.000E+19 8.000E+18
Voc 0.7779 0.7889
Jsc 24.685187 25.762087

So, when Nv increases in CdTe, the open circuit voltage reduces and the efficiency is
reduced.
4.3.8 Effect of trap density of CdTe (Nt)

In SCAPS-1D, in the bulk of a semiconductor layer, three different kinds of recombination
processes can be introduced: through defects, radiative and Auger. SCAPS-1D allows the
user to specify the defect at each layer. The acceptor defect is simulated in CdTe layer for this
model. The trap energy level Et is 0.09 above the valence band of CdTe. The trap densities
were varied from the range 9.9 x1013 to 9.9 x1017 cm-3 and simulations were performed at 300
K.
Figure 4.19 Simulated light I-V curves of nw-CdS/CdTe device at Nt =9.9E+13 cm-3(blue) &
Nt =9.9E+17 cm-3(red) in CdTe
51
Table 4.13 Effect of trap density of CdTe (Nt)
Nt of CdTe 9.9E+17 9.9E+13
Voc 0.7975 0.7889
Jsc 24.006795 25.762087
It shows that as Nt increases in CdTe, the short circuit current decreases and the efficiency is
reduced.
4.3.9 Effect of metal work function

In the photoelectric effect, the work function is the minimum amount of energy (per photon)
needed to eject an electron from the surface of a metal. The metal work function Φm (for
majority carriers) can be input by the user. When the layer adjacent to the contact is n-type
Eq. (1) is used, when it is p-type Equation(2) is used, when it can be considered to be
intrinsic Eq.(3) is used[20].
Where,
Φm = metal work function
χ = electron affinity
Eg = energy bandgap
Nc = conduction band density
Nv = valance band density
NA = acceptor density
ND = donor density
52
The back contact can be ohmic or Schottky depending upon the work functions of metal and
CdTe. An ohmic contact will allow the transfer of free carriers while the Schottky contact
will have a barrier at the back contact for the transfer of carriers.
We have done simulations using silver (Ag), iron (Fe), niobium (Nb), copper graphite alloy,
nickel (Ni) and platinum (Pt).
Figure 4.20 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for metal work function 4.74 eV for dark
(red) and light (blue) condition
Figure 4.21 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for metal work function 4.81 eV for dark (red)
and light (blue) condition
53
Figure 4.22 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for metal work function 4.87 eV for
dark (red) and light (blue) condition
54
Figure 4.24 Simulated J-V characteristics at 300 K for metal work function 5.50 eV for
dark(red) and light(blue) condition
55
Table 4.14 Effect of metal work function
Back Ag Fe Nb Cu- Ni Pt
contact graphite
material alloy
Φm 4.74 4.81 4.87 5.00 5.50 5.70

Voc 0.6712 0.7377 0.7763 0.7889 0.7902 0.7902
Jsc 25.369150 25.526137 25.642778 25.762087 26.399662 26.399757
Fill Factor 66.08 68.18 71.18 77.26 78.69 78.69
Efficiency 11.15 12.84 14.17 15.70 16.42 16.42
Figure 4.26 Effect of metal work function on I-V characteristics
So, efficiency increases with the increase of metal work function.
56
4.3.10 Crossover effect
A more interesting feature of the I(V) curves is the fact that at high forward bias, the
illuminated curves lie above the dark curve, and the curves intersect in one point. Cross-over
is the phenomenon that the dark and illuminated I-V curves intersect.
Our baseline configuration, which we believe reasonably approximates CdTe cells, includes
CdTe that is fairly depleted in the dark since deep donors compensate shallow acceptor
levels. Under illumination, the compensation is partially lifted which leads to a cross-over of
the light and dark I-V curves [28].
The crossover effect has been attributed to various causes. Such as,
When light is absorbed by CdS and CdTe, their electrical conductivity increases and this
leads to reduced series resistance and hence higher light current compared to the dark
current is observed at voltages higher than the crossover point.
Generation of electron-hole pairs after absorption of photons with sufficient energy in the
neighborhood of the back contact is proven to be important for the cross-over. These
extra electron (minority) currents seem to be responsible for the crossover effect, and as a
consequence for the slight drop in Voc. The latter current is also responsible for the time-
dependent changing of the I-V curves under illumination.
When light falls upon CdS-CdTe heterojunction, junction potential barrier might reduce
and hence higher light current compared to the dark current is observed at voltages higher
than the crossover point.
Some sunlight generated electrons reach the interface between the CdTe layer and i-SnO2
layer, and then recombine via traps and interface states. This increases the value of the
effective reverse saturation current (j0) in light compared to the value of (j0) in the dark,
and leads to higher light current compared to the dark current at voltages higher than the
crossover point. Here we focused on this effect only [19].
Simulations for observing cross over effect was done according to parameters given by
Rasika Ganvir and thus similar I-V characteristics was observed.
57
Table 4.16 Parameters for realizing Crossover effect
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Thickness of CdS-nw(µm) 0.1 0.09 0.09
Effective density of states(1/cm^3) 2.200E+18 2.200E+18 2.200E+18
of i-SnO2
Defect 1 of i-SnO2
defect type Donor Donor Removed
capture cross section electrons (cm²) 1.00E-15 1.00E-15
capture cross section holes (cm²) 1.00E-12 1.00E-12
energetic distribution single single
reference for defect energy level Et Below Ec Below Ec
energy level w.r.t reference (eV) 0.2 0.2
Nt total (1/cm^3) uniform 1.00E15 1.00E15
Figure 4.27 Simulated J-V curve (dark and light) at 300 K with CdS thickness-100 nm [19]
58
Figure 4.28 Simulated J-V curve (dark and light) at 300 K with CdS thickness-90 nm
Figure 4.29 Simulated J-V curve (dark and light) at 300 K with CdS thickness-90 nm without
i-SnO2 defect
59
Table 4.17 Crossover effect on I-V characteristics
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Voc 0.9304 0.8845 0.9286
Jsc 16.160382 16.086430 16.208893
Fill Factor 79.43 77.85 80.49
Efficiency 11.94 11.08 12.11
We can conclude from here that the removal of defect in i-SnO2 increases the Jsc at particular
voltage, thus producing the crossover effect. Further, reducing the thickness of CdS layer
reduced the overall resistance, thus increasing the current Jsc.
4.3.11 Rollover effect

Modern thin film solar cells and nanowire solar cells have a quite complicated electronic
structure. The line-up of the bands can show discontinuities, interface states may be present
between the layers, and deep states in the semiconductors may carry charge. These effects
can give rise to a fan of effects not encountered in crystalline solar cells such as: roll-over and
cross-over of the I-V characteristics.
Roll-over is the phenomenon that an I-V curve shows a kink and the current levels of at
higher voltage [22].
Roll-over is easily explained by the assumption that the back contact of the CdTe layer
behaves as a rectifying Schottky contact, which is reverse biased when the CdS/CdTe solar
cell is at forward bias. This simple model of two diodes back-to-back can explain the gross
features of the I-V curves: It predicts that the I-V curves level off at the reverse saturation
current of the Schottky contact back contact; measurement of the thermal activation energy of
this saturation current yields the contact barrier [28].
Because of the relatively high work function of p-CdTe, it is rather difficult to make an
ohmic contact to it. Many times, the solar cell, as made has a conducting contact between
CdTe and the top electrode, but the contact degrades with time into a Schottky diode type
because of insufficient encapsulation and the resultant oxidation of the CdTe surface. As this
happens, the solar cell begins to behave like two back-to-back diodes. One diode is made up
of the main p-n hetero-junction between n-CdS and p-CdTe, and the other is the Schottky
60
diode between the surface of p-CdTe and the top electrode. It is assumed that the current
transport across the CdTe back contact is limited by drift and diffusion. In that case, the
saturation current is proportional to both the electric field at the metal contact (which depends
on the voltage over the contact diode) and the Boltzmann factor exp(-qΦB/kT), explaining the
observed voltage and temperature dependence of the saturation current [22],[29].
These theories are for the planar CdS-CdTe solar cell device rely upon the presence of a
diode at the junction between the surface of CdTe and the top electrode. To check the validity
of these theories for the nanowire CdS-CdTe device, we simulated the effect of varying the
height of the Schottky barrier on the current-voltage characteristics of the solar cell. The
barrier height (energy difference between the metal Fermi level and the top of the valence
band) was altered from 0.7 eV to 0.4 eV.
Figure 4.30 Rollover effect when majority carrier barrier height was increased from 0.4eV
(red) to 0.5eV (blue)
61
62
The curve corresponding to the 0.5-0.7 eV barrier exhibits a strong rollover effect, while this
effect has disappeared when the barrier was reduced to 0.4 eV.
Table 4.15 Rollover effect

Red curve Blue curve Green curve Sky blue curve
Majority carrier barrier 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
height
[relative to Ef ](eV)
Majority carrier barrier 0.2271 0.3271 0.4271 0.5271
height
[relative to Ev](eV)
Voc 0.7889 0.7842 0.7287 0.6314
Jsc 25.762087 25.698076 25.504886 25.271889
Fill Factor 77.26 73.31 67.85 64.86
Efficiency 15.70 14.77 12.61 10.35
Figure 4.32 Roll-over effect on I-V curve
The current-voltage characteristics now display a saturation like behavior, which manifests as
an S-shaped curvature in the I-V curve at high voltages. This effect, called the Rollover
Effect.
63
Chapter 5
Conclusion and Future Work
64
CdS nanowires have various advantages over the thin film CdS such as the improvement in
open circuit voltage due to reduced junction area and improvement in short circuit current
due to higher optical transmission through CdS nanowires.
CdS/CdTe solar cells with planar CdS films and cells with nano-wire CdS are simulated and
we observed their efficiency and it is evident that CdS nanowires have several advantages
over the planar CdS in solar cell. Several parameters were varied for observing I-V
characteristics. The modeling of the nw-CdS/CdTe was studied by using SCAPS-1D to
evaluate the parameters responsible for improving the efficiency of this solar cell.
The effects of various parameters including temperature, series and shunt resistance, interface
state density, CdS and CdTe state densities, trap concentration, metal work function on light
I-V curves were studied without convergence failure and with no crossover or rollover effect.
We also found the values of parameters for which crossover and rollover effect occurs so that
these effects can be avoided while fabrication. The rollover effect has been explained by
using back to back diode model and the simulations were performed in order to validate this
theory. The crossover effect was studied by considering the sensitivity of CdTe/i-SnO2 under
illumination. It was shown that the removal of defect in i-SnO2 is responsible for producing
the crossover effect.
Simulation of thin film CdS/CdTe solar cell SCAPS-1D is a suitable of the simulation of thin
film CdS/CdTe solar cell. However, it do not support the variation of diameter of nanowires.
As diameter of nanowire is related to its materials bandgap, so instead of using the bandgap
of bulk CdS which is 2.42eV, we used 3.49eV for diameter of 40 nanometer according to
experimental work done by Jianhao Chen and simulation done by Rasika Ganvir.
The ITO/i-SnO2 layer combination can be easily replaced by other materials such as the
Cd2SnO4/ZnSnO4 combination for future improvements in device performance [30]. A layer
of quantum dots can be produced above the nanowire layer to increase efficiency and it can
become viable enough to enter mass production and become a sound alternative to current
solar energy capturing technology.
65
APPENDIX
USED SOFTWARES
SCAPS 1D:
SCAPS (a Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator) is a one dimensional solar cell simulation
programme developed at the Department of Electronics and Information Systems (ELIS) of
the University of Gent, Belgium. This programme was originally developed for cell structures
of the CuInSe2 and the CdTe family. We used SCAPS 3.3.00 for the simulation of both thin
film CdS/CdTe solar cell and nanowire CdS/CdTe solar cell. SCAPS-1D only takes the thin
layer parameters, the nanowire CdS layer was presented as a thin layer.
Lumerical FDTD Solutions:

Finite-difference time-domain techniques primarily for electromagnetic propagation
problems.
Lumerical is a recognized leader in the fields of optoelectronic device simulation and
photonic integrated circuit design and have been used in more than 900 scientific
publications. We used FDTD solutions for the analysis of scattering and absorption cross
sections for a particular diameter. We observed scattering and absorption cross sections for
diameters of 10-80nm.
Origin® 2016
Origin is a proprietary computer program for interactive scientific graphing and data analysis.
It is produced by OriginLab Corporation, and runs on Microsoft Windows. Graphing support
in Origin includes various 2D/3D plot types. Data analyses in Origin include statistics, signal
processing, curve fitting and peak analysis.
We used this software for the graphical illustration of CdS nanowires scattering and
absorption cross sections for various diameters.
Microsoft Office Word 2013:

This is a document and word processing software.
66
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Industry” (2015)
[2] Renewables 2016 Global Status Report, http://www.ren21.net/status-of-
renewables/global-status-report/
[3] Morten Vesterager Madsen, “Solar cells - the three generations” (2011)
[4] Mohammad Tawheed Kibria, Akil Ahammed, Saad Mahmud Sony, Faisal Hossain,
Shams-Ul-Islam, “A Review: Comparative studies on different generation solar cells
technology” (2014)
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell#Emerging_photovoltaics
[6] http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/images/efficiency_chart.jpg
[7] Erik C. Garnett, Mark L. Brongersma, Yi Cui, Michael D. McGehee, “Nanowire Solar
Cells” (2011)
[8] Molecular Expressions Microscopy Primer: Physics of Light and Color,
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/solarcell/
[9] http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/image2.png
[10] Photovoltaic Education Network, http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-
celloperation/
quantum-efficiency
[11] Hongmei Dang, “Nanostructured Semiconductor Device Design in Solar Cells”,
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kentucky (2015)
[12] Vinod Babhale, “Solar Module Cell”
[13] Benjamin Luke Williams, “CdTe Nanowire Structures for Solar Cells” (2013)
[14] Jianhao Chen,“Investigation of CdS Nanowires and Planar Films for Enhanced
Performance as Window Layers in CdS-CdTe Solar Cell Devices” (2013)
[15] Zhou Fang, Xiao Chen Wang, Hong Cai Wu, and Ce Zhou Zhao, “Achievements and
Challenges of CdS/CdTe Solar Cells” (2011)
[16] Yu-Heng Lee, Lan Fu, Zhe Li, Steffen Breuer, Hoe Tan, Chennupati Jagadish and
Patrick Parkinson, “Nanowire solar cells for next-generation photovoltaics” (2013)
[17] Piao Liu,Vijay P Singh1,Carlos A Jarro and Suresh Rajaputra, “Cadmium sulfide
nanowires for the window semiconductor layer in thin film CdS–CdTe solar cells” (2011)
[18] Gokul Muthuswamy, “Numerical modeling of CdS/CdTe thin film solar cell using
MEDICI” (2005)
67
[19] Rasika Ganvir, “MODELLING OF THE NANOWIRE CdS/CdTe DEVICE DESIGN
FOR ENHANCED QUANTUM EFFICIENCY IN WINDOWABSORBER TYPE SOLAR
CELLS” (2016)
[20] Marc Burgelman, Koen Decock, Alex Niemegeers, Johan Verschraegen, Stefaan
Degrave,
“SCAPS manual” (2016)
[21] S.M. Sze, K. K. N., “Physics of semiconductor devices” (2007)
[22] M. Burgelman, P. Nollet, S. Degrave, “Modelling polycrystalline semiconductor solar
cells” (2000)
[23] Lumerical Knowledge Base (2015)
[24] Saeed Khosroabadi, Seyyed Hossein Keshmiri, “Design of a high efficiency ultrathin
CdS/CdTe solar cell using back surface field and backside distributed Bragg reflector”,
Optics Express, 22, Issue S3, A921-A929 (2014)
[25] M. Burgelman, A. Niemegeers, “Effect of the Au/CdTe back contact on IV and CV
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2886 (1997)
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[27] M. Gloeckler, A.L. Fahrenbruch, J. R. Sites, “Numerical Modeling of CIGS and CdTe
solar cells: setting the baseline”, 3rd world conference on photovoltaic energy conversion,
Osaka, Japan, 1,491-494 (2003)
[28] Alex Niemegeers and Marc Burgelman, “NUMERICAL MODELLING OF ac-
CHARACTERISTICS OF CdTe AND CIS SOLAR CELLS” (1996)
[29] P. Nollet, M. Burgelman, S. Degrave, “The back contact influence on characteristics of
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[30] Xuanzhi Wu, “High-efficiency polycrystalline CdTe thin-film solar cells” (2004)
68
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Simulation and Performance Study of Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

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Keywords: Cadmium Sulfide, Cadmium Telluride, Solar Cells, SCAPS-1D, Simulation,

3.5.1 Deep bulk levels ....................................................................................................... 29

3.5.2 Interface states and band discontinuities .................................................................... 29

1.2 Developments in Solar Cell Technology

Figure 1.3 Different generations of solar cells [4]

1.2.1 Emerging photovoltaics

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) classifies a number of thin-film

Figure 1.4 The evolution of world-record efficiencies of laboratory cells [6]

CZTS thin film solar cells

Dye-sensitized solar cell

Organic solar cell

Perovskite solar cell

Polymer solar cell

Quantum dot solar cell

Nanowire Solar Cell

1.2.2 Comparison between planar and Nano-structured Solar Cell

1.3 Fundamentals of Solar Cell and Related Semiconductor

1.3.1 Solar Cell Structure

1.3.2 Photovoltaic effect

Figure 1.6 Structure of a Common Photovoltaic Device[9]

1.3.3 Quantum Efficiency

Figure 1.7 The quantum efficiency of a silicon solar cell [10]

1.3.4 Voltage and Current

1.3.5 Fill factor

Figure 1.8 Simple equivalent circuit for a solar cell

1.3.8 Current–Voltage curves

1.3.9 Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance

1.3.10 Effect of temperature

CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

2.1.1 Material property

Fig 2.1 Unit cell crystal structure of CdTe [13]

n-type CdS window layer

2.1.2 Structure of thin film CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

Figure 2.3 Typical CdS/CdTe Solar Cell Structure

2.2 Implementation of Nanowires in Solar Cell

2.3 Nanowire CdS/CdTe Solar Cell

Figure 2.4 Structure of CdS Nanowire Solar Cell

2.3.2 Comparison between nw CdS/CdTe SC and Thin film CdS/CdTe

Figure 2.5 Transmittance of CdS nanowire versus thin film [17]

Previous works on modelling

3.2 Literature Review

SCAPS-1D is a one dimensional, windows application solar cell simulation program

3.4 Mathematical model: Basic Equations used in SCAPS-1D

where, ℰ- Electric field

3.4.2 Continuity equations

Where, 𝑞(𝑝 – 𝑛 + 𝑁𝐷 − 𝑁𝐴) = 𝜌 (charge density), considering the dopants to be fully

3.5 Physical Model

3.5.1 Deep bulk levels

3.5.2 Interface states and band discontinuities

Where, 𝑗𝑡ℎ 𝑛=particle current from semiconductor 1 to 2

Modelling and simulation