Geometry

Problem booklet
Assoc. Prof. Cornel Pintea

E-mail: cpintea math.ubbcluj.ro

Contents
Week 12 1

1 Week 12. Transformations 1

1.1 Transformations of the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Examples of affine transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Scaling about the origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Shears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Module leader: Assoc. Prof. Cornel Pintea

Department of Mathematics,
“Babeş-Bolyai” University
400084 M. Kogălniceanu 1,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania

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MLE0014-Analytic Geometry, Tutorial ”Babeş-Bolyai” University, Department of Mathematics

Week 12

1 Week 12. Transformations

1.1 Transformations of the plane
Definition 1.1. An affine transformation of the plane is a mapping

L : R2 −→ R2 , L( x, y) = ( ax + by + c, dx + ey + f ), (1.1)

for some constant real numbers a, b, c, d, e, f .

The affine transformation (1.1) can be equally described by means of its equations
 0
x = ax + by + c
y0 = dx + ey + f .
By using the matrix language, the action of the map L can be written in the form
 0      
x a b x c
= + ,
y0 d e y f
or, equivalently
x0
    
a b c x
 y0  =  d e f   y  . (1.2)
1 0 0 1 1
In order to point out the theoretical background behind representations of type (1.2), we
identify the points ( x, y) ∈ R2 with the points ( x, y, 1) ∈ R3 and even with the punctured
lines of R3 , (rx, ry, r ), r ∈ R∗ . Due to technical reasons we shall actually identify the points
( x, y) ∈ R2 with the punctured lines of R3 represented in the form
 
rx
 ry  , r ∈ R∗ ,
r

and the latter ones we shall call homogeneous coordinates of the point ( x, y) ∈ R2 . The set
of homogeneous coordinates ( x, y, w) will be denoted by RP2 and call
it the real projective
y
plane. The homogeneous coordinates ( x, y, w) ∈ RP2 , w 6= 0 şi wx , w , 1 represent the same
element of RP2 .
Observation 1.2. The projective plane RP2 is actually the quotient set (R3 \ {0}) ∼, where 0 ∼0


is the following equivalence relation on R3 \ {0}:

( x, y, w) ∼ (α, β, γ) ⇔ ∃r ∈ R∗ a.ı̂. ( x, y, w) = r (α, β, γ).

Observe that the equivalence classes of the equivalence relation ∼0 are the punctured
lines of R3 through the origin without the origin itself, i.e. the elements of the real projective
plane RP2 . Such an equivalence class of
 
x
( x, y, w) ∈ R3 wil be denoted by [ x, y, w] or by  y  .
w

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Definition 1.3. A projective transformation is a linear transformation of R3 , say

      
x a b c x ax + by + cw
L : R3 −→ R3 , L  y  =  d e f  y  =  dx + ey + f w , (1.3)
w g h k w gx + hy + kw
where a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, k ∈ R, which maps the lines through the origin onto lines (obviosly through
the origin).
For example the linear invertible transformations L : R3 −→ R3 have such a property
and they might be restericted as L : R3 \ {0} −→ R3 \ {0}. Note that such a linear map
induces a map p ◦ L : R3 \ {0} −→ RP2 , where p : L : R3 \ {0} −→ RP2 stands for the
canonical projection. Also p ◦ L maps every punctured line through the origin onto the same
element of RP2 , which shows that p ◦ L induces a map L̃ : R3 −→ RP2 of the projective
plane RP2 . We shall denote L̃ by L and call it a projective transformation of RP2 . In other
words the transformation
      
x a b c x ax + by + cw
L : RP2 −→ RP2 , L  y  =  d e f  y  =  dx + ey + f w , (1.4)
w g h k w gx + hy + kw
is well defined, as and will be denoted by L. Indeed,
     
rx arx + bry + crw r ( ax + by + cw)
L  ry  =  drx + ery + f rw  =  r (dx + ey + f w)  .
rw grx + hry + krw r ( gx + hy + kw)
The projective transformation L is completely determined by its homogeneous transforma-
tion matrix  
a b c
[ L] =  d e f  .
g h k
If g = h = 0 and k = 1, then the projective transformation (1.4) is said to be affine. The
restriction of the affine transformation (1.4), which corresponds to the situation g = h = 0
and k = 1, to the subspace w = 1, has the form
      
x a b c x ax + by + cw
L  y  =  d e f  y  =  dx + ey + f w  , (1.5)
1 0 0 1 1 1
i.e.
x 0 = ax + by + c

(1.6)
y0 = dx + ey + f .
and it induces a transformation L : RP2 \ RP1xy −→ RP2 \ RP1xy
      
x a b c x ax + by + cw
L  y  =  d e f  y  =  dx + ey + f w  , (1.7)
1 0 0 1 1 1
where RP1xy stands for collection of all equivalences classes [ x, y, 0] of RP2 . Note that the
linear transformation (1.5) behaves on R3 \ xOy as a projective aplication, even when the
homogeneous matrix transformation
 
a b c
 d e f 
0 0 1

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is not invertible, i.e. evey punctured line through the origin of R3 \ xOy is mapped onto a
punctured line (obviously through the origine) in R3 \ xOy.

Observation 1.4. If L1 , L2 : RP2 −→ RP2 are two projective applications, then their product (con-
catenation) transformation L1 ◦ L2 is also a projective transformation and its homogeneous transfor-
mation matrix is the product of the homogeneous transformation matrices of L1 and L2 .

Indeed, if     
x a1 b1 c1 x
L 1  y  =  d 1 e1 f 1   y 
w g1 h 1 k 1 w
and     
x a2 b2 c2 x
L 2  y  =  d 2 e2 f 2   y 
w g2 h 2 k 2 w
then      
x a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 x
( L 1 ◦ L 2 )  y  =   d 1 e1 f 1   d 2 e2 f 2    y 
w g1 h 1 k 1 g2 h 2 k 2 w

Observation 1.5. If L1 , L2 : RP2 −→ RP2 are two affine applications, then their product L1 ◦ L2
is also an affine transformation.

Proposition 1.6. If ( aB − bA)2 + (dB − eA)2 > 0, then the affine transformation (1.1) maps the
line (d) Ax + By + C = 0 to the line

(eA − dB) x + (aB − bA)y + (b f − ce) A − (a f − cd) B + (ae − bd)C = 0.

 
f B−eC
If aB − bA = dB − eA = 0, then ae − bd = 0 and L is the constant map cB−B bC , B .

Definition 1.7. An affine transformation (1.1) is said to be singular if

 
 a b 
 d e  = 0 i.e. ae − bd = 0.
 

and non-singular otherwise.

Note that the affine transformation L is nonsingular if and only if it is invertible. In such
a case the inverse L−1 is a non-singular affine transformation and [ L−1 ] = [ L]−1 .

1.2 Examples of affine transformations

1.2.1 Translations
Definition 1.8. The translation of vector (h, k) ∈ R2 is the affine transformation

T (h, k) : R2 −→ R2 , ( T (h, k )) ( x, y) = ( x + h, y + k).

Its equations are

x0 = x + h

,
y0 = y + k

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or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates

 0    
 0       x 1 0 h x
x 1 0 x h 0
= + i.e. y = 0 1 k y ,
y0
    
0 1 y k
1 0 0 1 1

which shows that the homogeneous matrix transformation is

 
1 0 h
[ T (h, k)] =  0 1 k  .
0 0 1

Note that the translation T (h, k ) is non-singular (invertible) and ( T (h, k))−1 = T (−h, −k ).

1.2.2 Scaling about the origin

Definition 1.9. The scaling about the origin by non-zero scaling factors (s x , sy ) ∈ R2 is the affine
transformation
S(s x , sy ) : R2 −→ R2 , S(s x , sy ) ( x, y) = (s x · x, sy · y).

Its equations are

x0 = sx · x

,
y0 = sy · y
or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates
 0    
 0     x sx 0 0 x
x sx 0 x 0
= i.e. y = 0 sy 0 y ,
y0
    
0 sy y
1 0 0 1 1

which shows that the homogeneous matrix transformation is

 
  s x 0 0
S(s x , sy ) =  0 sy 0  .
0 0 1

Note that the scaling about the origin by non-zero scaling factors (s x , sy ) ∈ R2 is non-
singular (invertible) and (S(s x , sy ))−1 = S(s− 1 −1
x , s y ).
The scaling SP (s x , sy ) by non-zero scaling factors (s x , sy ) ∈ R2 about an arbitrary point P( x0 , y0 )
acts in a similar way as S(s x , sy ), but the role of the origin is played bt P. Thus

SP (s x , sy ) = T ( x0 , y0 ) ◦ S(s x , sy ) ◦ T (− x0 , −y0 ),

i.e. its homogeneous transformation matrix is

     
  1 0 x0 sx 0 0 1 0 − x0 s x 0 (1 − s x ) x0
S P ( s x , s y ) =  0 1 y0   0 s y 0   0 1 − y0  =  0 s y (1 − s y ) y0  .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

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1.2.3 Reflections
Definition 1.10. The reflections about the x-axis and the y-axis respectively are the affine trans-
formation
r x , ry : R2 −→ R2 , r x ( x, y) = ( x, −y), ry = (− x, y).
Their equations are
x0 = x x0 = −x
 
rx : and ry :
y0 = −y y0 = y
or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates
 0      0    
x 1 0 x x −1 0 x
rx : = and ry : = i.e.
y0 0 −1 y y0 0 1 y
 0      0    
x 1 0 0 x x −1 0 0 x
rx :  y 0  =  0 −1 0   y  and ry :  y 0  =  0 1 0   y 
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
which shows that the homogeneous matrices transformations are
   
1 0 0
−1 0 0
[r x ] =  0 −1 0  and ry =  0 1 0  .
0 0 1 0 0 1

Note that r x = S(1, −1) and ry = S(−1, 1). Thus the two reflections are non-singular
(invertible) and r − 1 −1
x = r x , ry = ry .

Definition 1.11. The reflection rl : R2 −→ R2 about the line l maps a given point M to the point
M0 defined by the property that l is the perpendicular bisector of the segment MM0 . One can show
that the action of the reflection about the line l : ax + by + c = 0 is
 2
b − a2 a2 − b2

2ab 2ac 2ab 2bc
rl ( x, y)= 2 x− 2 y− 2 ,− 2 x+ 2 y− 2 .
a + b2 a + b2 a + b2 a + b2 a + b2 a + b2

Its equations are 

b2 − a2 2ab 2ac
 x0 = x− 2 y− 2


2
a +b 2 a +b 2 a + b2
2 2 ,
0 2ab a −b 2bc
 y =− 2 x+ 2 y− 2


a + b2 a + b2 a + b2
or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates
 
b2 − a2 2ab 2ac
 
 0 
x − 2  
a2 + b2 a + b2  x −  a + b2
2
 
=  i.e.

0

y  2ab 2 2
a −b  y
 2bc
− 2
a + b2 a2 + b2 a + b2
2

 
b2 − a2 2ab 2ac
 0 
x 2 2
− 2 2
− 2 
x

 a +b a +b a + b2
 
 y0  = 

2
a −b 2  y ,
 − 2ab − 2
2bc 
1  a2 + b2 2
a +b 2 a + b2  1
0 0 1

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which shows that the homogeneous matrix transformation is

 
b2 − a2 2ab 2ac
 2 2
− 2 2
− 2 2
 2
b − a 2 − 2ab − 2ac

 a +b a +b a +b 

1  −2ab a2 − b2 −2bc  .
[r l ] = 
 − 2ab a2 − b2 2bc  = 2 2
− 2  a +b
 a2 + b2 a2 + b2 a + b2  0 0 a2 + b2
0 0 1

Note that the reflection rl is non-singular (invertible) and rl−1 = rl .

1.2.4 Rotations
Definition 1.12. The rotation rotθ : R2 −→ R2 about the origin through an angle θ maps a point
M ( x, y) into a point M0 ( x 0 , y0 ) with the properties that the segments [OM] and [OM0 ] are congruent
\ 0 ) = θ. If θ > 0 the rotation is supposed to be anticlockwise and for θ < 0 the
and the m( MOM
rotation is clockwise. If
( x, y) = (r cos ϕ, r sin ϕ), then the coordinates of the rotated point are
r cos(θ + ϕ), r sin(θ + ϕ) = ( x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ ), i.e.

rotθ = ( x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ ).

Its equations are

x 0 = x cos θ − y sin θ

,
y0 = x sin θ + y cos θ
or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates
 0    
 0     x cos θ − sin θ 0 x
x cos θ − sin θ x 0
= i.e. y = sin θ cos θ 0 y ,
y0
    
sin θ cos θ y
1 0 0 1 1

which shows that the homogeneous matrix transformation is

 
cos θ − sin θ 0
[rotθ ] =  sin θ cos θ 0  .
0 0 1

Note that the rotation rotθ is non-singular (invertible) and rot− 1

θ = rot−θ .

The rotation rotθ ( P) about an arbitrary point P( x0 , y0 ) acts in a similar way as rotθ , but
the role of the origin is played bt P. Thus rotθ ( P) = T ( x0 , y0 ) ◦ rotθ ◦ T (− x0 , −y0 ), i.e. its
homogeneous transformation matrix is
   
1 0 x0 cos θ − sin θ 0 1 0 − x0
[rotθ ( P)] =  0 1 y0   sin θ cos θ 0   0 1 −y0 
 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
cos θ − sin θ x0 (1 − cos θ ) + y0 sin θ
=  sin θ cos θ − x0 sin θ + y0 (1 − cos θ )  .
0 0 1

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1.2.5 Shears
Definition 1.13. Given a fixed direction in the plane specified by a unit vector v = (v1 , v2 ), consider
the lines d with direction v and the oriented distance d from the origin. The shear about the origin of
factor r in the direction v is defined to be the transformation which maps a point M( x, y) on d to the
point M0 = M + rdv. The equation of the line through M of direction v is

v2 X − v1 Y + (v1 y − v2 x ) = 0.

The oriented distacnce from the origin to this line is v1 y − v2 x. Thus the action of the shear Sh(v, r ) :
R2 −→ R2 about the origin of factor r in the direction v is

Sh(v, r )( x, y) = ( x, y) + rd(v1 , v2 )
= ( x, y) + (r (v1 y − v2 x )v1 , r (v1 y − v2 x )v2 )

= ( x, y) + −rv1 v2 x + rv21 y, −rv22 x + rv1 v2 y

= (1 − rv1 v2 ) x + rv21 y, −rv22 x + (1 + rv1 v2 )y

Its equations are

x 0 = (1 − rv1 v2 ) x + rv21 y

,
y0 = −rv22 x + (1 + rv1 v2 )y
or, by using the matrix language and the homogeneous coordinates
 0  
rv21
 
 0   2
  x 1 − rv1 v2 0 x
x 1 − rv1 v2 rv1 x 0 2
= i.e. y = −rv2 1 + rv1 v2 0 y ,
y0 −rv22
    
1 + rv1 v2 y
1 0 0 1 1

which shows that the homogeneous matrix transformation is

rv21
 
1 − rv1 v2 0
[Sh(v, r )( x, y)] =  −rv22 1 + rv1 v2 0  .
0 0 1

The shear Sh P (v, r ) about an arbitrary point P( x0 , y0 ) of factor r in the direction v acts in a
similar way as Sh(v, r ), but the role of the origin is played bt P. Thus Sh P (v, r ) = T ( x0 , y0 ) ◦
Sh(v, r ) ◦ T (− x0 , −y0 ), i.e. its homogeneous transformation matrix is

rv21
   
1 0 x0 1 − rv1 v2 0 1 0 − x0
[Sh P (v, r )] =  0 1 y0   −rv22 1 + rv1 v2 0   0 1 −y0 
 0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1
1 − rv1 v2 rv21 rv1 ( x0 v2 − y0 v1 )
=  −rv22 1 + rv1 v2 rv2 ( x0 v2 − y0 v1 )  .
0 0 1

1.3 Problems
1. Consider a quadrilateral with vertices A(1, 1), B(3, 1), C (2, 2), and D (1.5, 3). Find the
image quadrilaterals through the translation T (1, 2), the scaling S(2, 2.5), the reflec-
tions about the x and y-axes,
the√clockwise andanticlockwise rotations through the
√ 
angle π/2 and the shear Sh 2/ 5, 1/ 5 , 1.5 .

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2. Find the concatenation (product) of an anticlockwise rotation about the origin through
an angle of 3π
2 followed by a scaling by a factor of 3 units in the x-direction and 2 units
in the y-direction. (Hint: S(3, 2) R3π/2 )

3. Find the homogeneous matrix of the product (concatenation) S(3, 2) ◦ R 3π .

2

4. Find the equations of the rotation Rθ ( x0 , y0 ) about the point M0 ( x0 , y0 ) through an

angle θ.

5. Show that the concatenation (product) of two rotations, the first through an angle θ
about a point P( x0 , y0 ) and the second about a point Q( x1 , y1 ) (distinct from P) through
an angle −θ is a translation.

References
[1] Andrica, D., Ţopan, L., Analytic geometry, Cluj University Press, 2004.

[2] Galbură Gh., Radó, F., Geometrie, Editura didactică şi pedagogică-Bucureşti, 1979.

[3] Pintea, C. Geometrie. Elemente de geometrie analitică. Elemente de geometrie

diferenţială a curbelor şi suprafeţelor, Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2001.

[4] Radó, F., Orban, B., Groze, V., Vasiu, A., Culegere de Probleme de Geometrie, Lit. Univ.
”Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, 1979.

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