U m V S R S IT Y OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

A CRITICISM OF CHINESE ETHICAL SYSTEMS

BUDDHISM, TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM

A D issertation

Su bm itted to the C ou n c il on Graduate

Study and R e s e a r c h

In Candidacy f o r the Degree of

D o c to r o f P h i l o s o p h y

DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY

By
C l a r e n c e C, Hahn

May, 1928
 UMI Number: DP29594

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This thesis, having been approved by the
special Faculty Committee, is accepted by the
Council on Graduate Study and Research
of the University of Southern California,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree o/. Doctor _of Phi los ophj .

Secretary

Dean

D ate Cune 1928

 FOREWORD

What i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n ? What
m a k e s t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e ? To me a c i v i l i z a t i o n o r a n y
s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e i s an o u t w a r d e x p r e s s i o n o f a l i f e -
e n e r g y w h i c h , i n t h e w o r d s o f S p i n o z a , " i s i n i t s e l f and
i s c o n c e i v e d through i t s e l f . " C i v i l i z a t i o n i s th e d i r e c t
e x p r e s s i o n and a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h i s s e ] f - d e p e n d e n t c o s m i c
r e a l i t y . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r i s e and t h e d e c l i n e o f
a c i v i l i z a t i o n , we m u s t f i r s t o f a l l u n d e r s t a n d i t s m o v i n g
p r i n c i p l e . The m o re we u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x t e r n a l e x p r e s s i o n s
%mod e s i , t h e m o re we u n d e r s t a n d t h e L i f e ( S u b s t a n c e ) , " f o r
m o d e s a r e wa ys i n w h ic h S u b s t a n c e i s e x p r e s s e d . " T
The m a i n p u r p o s e o f o u r work i s t o u n d e r s t a n d what i s
r i g h t a n d what i s w r o n g w i t h C h i n e s e c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e b a c k ­
b o n e o f t h e A s i a t i c wa y s o f l i f e . With t h i s p u r p o s e i n m i n d ,
th e w r ite r se e k s to f i n d a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e C h in e s e mind i n c i v i l i z a t i o n th r o u g h t h e s t u d y o f
C h i n e s e C l a s s i c s , f o r h e i s d e e p l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t no o b j e c t
o r e v e n t t a k e s p l a c e w i t h o u t an u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e f o r i t , and
t h a t no p h e n o m e n a l c h a n g e c a n b e made w i t h o u t an i n t e r n a l
change o f l i f e .

The p l a n o f t h e work w i l l b e c l e a r f r o m t h e a r r a n g e ­
m e n t o f t h e c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t two c h a p t e r s d e a l w i t h t h e
g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f t h e C h i n e s e m in d w h i c h e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f
in th e t h r e e C h in e s e e t h i c a l s y s t e m s o f T aoism . Buddhism,
and C o n f u c i a n i s m . To e a c h o f t h e s e s y s t e m s two c h a p t e r s
a r e d e v o t e d , one i s d e s c r i p t i v e and t h e o t h e r c r i t i c a l .
In C h a p t e r IX L a o t z e a n d C o n f u c i u s a r e c o m p a r e d . The t h r e e
f i n a l c h a p t e r s a r e m ore o r l e s s a r e v i e w o f t h e f o r e g o i n g
s t u d i e s , s e p a r a t e l y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e g e n e r a l t o p i c s o f Man,
God. a n d F a m i l y r e s p e c t i v e l y .

C .C . H .

TSp i n o z a ' s E t h i c s , V, 24-.

 11

CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. In tro d u ctio n : th e N atu re o f C h in ese E t h i c s - - - - - - - - I

C h i n e s e P h i l o s o p h y and O r i e n t a l L ife - - - - - - — - - - - 2<

D ivision o f C h i n e s e T h o u g h t - - - - - - - - - — ----------- 4
C o n f u c i a n i s m a s a G u i d e o f L i f e - - - - - - - --------- - - - - - - 5

O b stacles to C h in ese T h o u g h t ----------------- ---7

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C h in ese E t h ic s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 0

II. The C h i n e s e Mind i n t h e L i g h t o f W e s t e r n Dynamic

Ideas ------ 13

P r e s e n t C h i n e s e A w a k e n i n g and i t s Causes ------------- I 3

D ifferen ce o f C h i n e s e and W e s t e r n Though t s - - - - - - 1 6

C h i n e s e F o r m a l i s m and P r a g m a t i s m ------------------------- 19

C h in ese C on servatism A n a l y z e d --------- 24

C o n clu sio n --------------------- --26

III. I n d i a n B u d d h ism i n C h in a ----- - 2 9

The Buddha *s R e f l e c t i o n upon L i f e - - - - — ----------29

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f H indu Thought - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 I

B u d d h is t View o f L i f e - - S u f f e r i n g and

E m ancipation -------- 33
The Four N o b l e T r u t h s -----^ - - - - - - - - - - - 3 5

The C h i n e s e B u dd hism : Mahayana an d i t s

D evelop m ent--— ----------------------------------------------- 41

C h a ra cteristics o f C h i n e s e B u d d h ism — --------- - - - 4 3

 iii

Chapter Page

B uddhist I n f l u e n c e upon C h i n e s e L i f e - - - - - - - - - - 4 6

IV . C riticism of C hinese B u dd hism ---- -- - - - 4 8

Change a n d P e r m a n e n c e - — ------------- —

E xam ination of t h e F o ur B u d d h i s t T r u t h S - - - - - - - 5 C

Karma a n d N i r v a n a - - - - - - - - ------ ^6

C riticism o f C h i n e s e B u d d h ism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ^8

E a s t e r n and W estern C i v i l i z a t i o n - - - - - - - - --60

V . Taoism: t h e D o c t r i n e o f T a o - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - - - - - - - - - - 6 2

T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o r Ban K i o ----- 62

The P l a c e of T a o ism -------- — -------— - - - - - 6 4

e L ife of L aotze, O ld P h i l o s o p h e r - - - - - - - - 6^

Tao Teh C h i n g - - C l a s s ! c o f Tao a n d Teh- — - - - - - - 6 6

P h ilo so p h ic a l T a o - - - - - - - - - - - - - — - - - - - - - - - -67

E th ica l T a o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -69
L a t e r T a o i s m - - C h u a n g t z e - - - - - - ---------------- --72

D egen eration of T a o ism ------ ----- - - - - 7 6

VI. C ritica l E x a m i n a t i o n o f Wu W e i , N o n - a c t i o n ---------- - - 7 9

D i f f e r e n t M eanings o f T a o i s m - - R e l i g i o n , and

P h i l o s o p h y o f Tao ----- 79
Two T e n d e n c i e s i n C h i n e s e P h i l o s o p h y - - - - - - - - - - 8 2

C riticism of N on -action - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 3

E ffects o f N o n - a c t i o n - - - - - - - -------- 87

R e co n str u c tio n : R esto ra tio n of W ill- - - - - - - - - - - 8 9

 IV

Chapter Page

V II. The E t h i c a l System o f C d n f u c i i i B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 ^

In trod u ctory R e m a r k - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---•*-9^

The L i f e and Works o f C o n f u c l u s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 5

The P o l i t i c a l World o f C o n f u c i u s ’ T i m e - - - - - - - - - - 9 9
P h ilo so p h ica l I m p lic a t io n o f the T e a c h in g - - - - - - 1 0 3

The D o c t r i n e o f the "S up erior M an"-- —-----I05

S y s t e m o f Human R e l a t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I I P

V III. C r i t i c a l Re mark s on C o n f u c i a n E t h i c s - - - - - - - - - - - - I I 7

P o p u l a r i t y o f C o n f u c i a n E t h i c s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I 17

The P r i n c i p l e of R ecip ro city ----- - 1 2 1

A u to cra tic B a sis o f C on fu cian E t h i c s - - - - - - - - - - - 124

S t r e s s upon O u tw a r d C o n d u c t and C e r e m o n i a l i s m - - 1 2 6

S y n o p s is o f C on fucian T e a c h i n g - - - - - - - ------- 1 2 8

W o r s h i p o f C o n f u c i u s - - - - - - - - ----------- ---133

I X . A C o m p a r i s o n o f L a o t z e an d C o n f u c i u s - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 3 4

Summary S t a t e m e n t o f L a o t z e ’ s E t h i c a l I d e a s - - - - I 3 4

' O rig in o f the L ao tzian T h e o r y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I 3 6

> C o m p a r i s o n o f L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s ------------------------- 1 3 8

C r it ic a l E valu ation of C o n f u c ia n is m - - - - -- - - - - - - I 4 2

W e a k n e s s e s i n L a o t z e ’s E t h i c s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 4 6

E th ics o f Y a n g t z e and Moh T i h - ----------- «148

E v a l u a t i o n o f Moh T i h ’s T h o u g h t - - - - - - ------------ IJ3

 V

Chapter Page

X, The C h i n e s e I d e a o f M a n - - - - - - - - - - ----------- -154

The Word Tao i n C h i n e s e T h o u g h t *----------------------- 155

The O r i g i n and N a t u r e o f M a n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------1^6

S t a t e m e n t s on t h e G o o d n e s s o f Human N a t u r e - - - - - - - 1 5?

D i v e r g e n t V i e w s o f Human N a t u r e -------------------------------- »------- 1 59

D o c t r i n e o f F i v e V i r t u e s and t h e i r C F a s s i f i c a t i o n - - - 1 64

Idea o f I m m o r t a l i t y and A n c e s t o r w o r s h i p ---------------------1 66

X I, The C h i n e s e I d e a o f G o d - - - - - ---------------- ----..--169

An im ism i n C h i n e s e R e l i g i o u s T h o u g h t - -----------------------------1 69

D ifferen t R elig io n s o f C h i n a - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----^ - - - - - - . . - 1 7 0

The R e l i g i o n o f S h a n g t i - - - - - - - - --------- iy2

The T a o i s t R e l i g i o n o f M a g i c --------------------------------------------- - 1 7 3

The N a t u r e o f the C h in ese Id ea o f H e a v e n - - - - - - - - ---- - 1 7 5

The C h r i s t i a n God a nd t h e C h i n e s e H e a v e n - - - ---------- - - - I 80

C o n c l u s i o n - - W h a t s h a l l we d o ? --------------- - - l 82

X I I , C o n c l u s i o n : The F a m i l y and O t h e r B a s e s o f C h i n e s e

C iv iliz a tio n — --------------- --------18 4

The F a m i l y a s F o u n d a t i o n o f C h i n e s e C i v i l i z a t i o n - - - - l 8 4

C o n s e q u e n c e s o f F a m i l y C u l t u r e ----------------------- 186

M a t e r i a l i s t i c Bent o f t h e F a m i l y - - ------------ -«-----187

The D o c t r i n e o f E q u i l i h r i u m a n d C r i t i c i s m ------------- --------190

C o n clu sio n ---- ---------------------- 193

B i b l i o g r a p h y ----------- - - Î 94
 A CRITICISE! OP CHINESE ETHICAL SYSTEMS:

BUDDHISM. TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION: THE NATURE OF CHINESE ETHICS

P h i l o s o p h y may h e d e f i n e d t o mean a s y s t e m a t i c and

co n sisten t r e fle c tio n about the t o t a l i t y o f o n e *s onn ,ex-

p erien ce.P What i s t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f man ♦s e x i s t e n c e

and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e u n i v e r s e ? What i s th e m eaning

of h is e x i s t e n c e and e x p e r i e n c e t h e r e o f ? A s y s t e m a t i c

tre a tm en t o f th e s e u l t i m a t e problem s c o n s t i t u t e s a system

of p h ilo so p h y .

The r i s e of p h ilo so p h ica l r e fle c tio n s e e m s t o demand

(l) a developm ent o f s u f f i c i e n t power o f t h i n k i n g r e f l e c ­

tiv ely ; ( 2 ) s t r e n g t h and c o u r a g e to take the r i s k of

thin king; (3) some e l e m e n t o f p e r s i s t e n c e ; (4) p ow er o f

lo g ic a l dem onstration; and ( 5 ) l e i s u r e f o r r e f l e c t i o n .

Thus, a s F. Ueberweg h a s s a i d . ^ p h i l o s o p h y a s scien ce of

r e fle c tio n could o r ig i n a t e e a s i l y n e i t h e r among t h e p e o p l e s

o f the N orth, who w e r e e m i n e n t f o r s tr e n g th and c o u ra g e, but

d evoid of c u lt u r e , n o r among t h e O r i e n t a l s , who, though

su scep tib le o f the elem en ts o f h ig h e r c u ltu r e , were c o n t e n t

s im p ly to rem ain t h e m s e lv e s i n t h e s p i r i t of con servation

and p a s s i v e r e s i g n a t i o n , - - b u t o n l y among t h e in te llec tu -

l l n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , what we c a l l t h e s i o m - t o t a l o f a l l
human e x p e r i e n c e i s n o t h i n g m ore t h a n an i n d i v i d u a l e x ­
p e r i e n c e . C f. F . P a u ls e n , I n t r o , t o P h i lo s o p h y , 19.
2F. U eberw eg, H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y , I , 1 4 .
a l i S tic H ellen es, who h a r m o n i o u s l y c o m b i n e d t h e e n d u r i n g

a nd c o u r a g e o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f both. The g e o g r a p h i c a l

and p o l i t i c a l en v iro n m en ts o f th e H e l l e n e s were a l s o

favorab le fo r r e f l e c t iv e life .^

S trictly sp eak ing, t h e O r i e n t a l s h a v e d e v e l o p e d no

system s o f p h ilo so p h y . T h eir t h o u g h t s a r e u n o r g a n iz e d and

d esu lto ry . T h o u g h t s w h i c h we c a n g a t h e r f r o m t h e C l a s s i c a l

book s o f t h e E a st^ l a c k th e m ost im p o rta n t te n d e n c y to

str ict d e m o n s t r a t i o n and l o g i c a l c o h e r e n c e b o th o f w hich

are e s s e n t ia l fo r th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f any system o f p h i l o ­

sophy. It i s very d i f f i c u lt to f i n d any s c i e n t i f i c character

i n them. Even i f t h e r e w e r e some p h i l o s o p h i c a l elem en ts o f

c o n s i s t e n c y and s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n t h e y w ould b e d i s c o n n e c t e d

and l a r g e l y b l e n d e d w i t h m y t h o l o g i c a l n o t i o n s . T h is i s

v e r y t r u e o f C h in e s e and I n d i a n thought. The t e a c h i n g s

o f e a r l y C h in ese t h i n k e r s , lik e C o n fu ciu s, L a o t z e and t h e i r

d iscip les, c o n s i s t m er ely o f p r a c t i c a l p r e c e p t s o f E p icurean

tendency. Even t h e s e were n o t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y wrought o u t .

I C f . A .W .B e n n , The G reek P h i l o s o p h e r s , I , 1 - 5 2 .
2The m o s t i m p o r t a n t E n g l i s h c o l l e c t i o n o f p r i m a r y s o u r c e s
on t h e E a s t e r n t h o u g h t i s Th e S a c r e d B o o k s o f t h e E a s t ,
e d i t e d b y Max M u l l e r ( O x f o r d , 1 8 7 9 ) . A c o m p l e t e c o l l e c t i o n
o f a l l E a s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e s i n any one o f O r i e n t a l l a n g u a g e s
i s n o t y e t a t t e m p t e d . For a q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y l i s t o f
s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s a n d r e c e n t s t u d i e s on t h e r e l i g i o u s
s y ste m s o f th e E a s t , c o n s u l t Lehrbuch der R e l i g i o n s g e s c h t e ,
b y De l a S a u s s a y e .
W he never t h o u g h t i s not sc ien tifica lly organized i t

u s u a l l y t e n d s t o h e m y s t i c a l an d m i s l e a d i n g . The r i c h b u t

im m oderate f a n c y o f t h e H indus g e n e r a t e d , on t h e b a s i s o f

a p a n th eistic c o n c e p tio n o f the w orld, a m u ltip lic ity of

d iv in ities, w i t h o u t i n v e s t i n g them w i t h h a r m o n i o u s f o r m

and i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r . The p r a c t i c a l m i n d e d C h i n e s e , on

the o th e r hand, v irtu a lly d eified e v e r y t h i n g b o t h n a t u r a l and

su p ern a tu ra l. And t h u s , the th in k in g l i f e of the O r ie n ta ls

may r i g h t l y b e c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g s o f m y t h o l o g y

and r e l i g i o n . The t e r m p h i l o s o p h y , a s a c o m p r e h e n s iv e and

sy stem a tic view of l i f e and t h e u n i v e r s e , i s h ard ly f i t

t o d e s c r i b e t h e O r i e n t a l mode o f t h i n k i n g . Sin ce the O r ie n ta l

r e l i g i o n s a l l aim t o t e a c h a good and happy l i f e here as w ell

a s beyond, they are a ls o e th ica l.

O rien ta l p h ilo so p h y , th e r e b y m eaning the w hole t h in k in g

life o f t h e O r i e n t a l s , may b e d i v i d e d i n t o two m a i n b r a n c h e s ,

C h i n e s e a n d I n d i a n . 1 By C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h y we mean c h i e f l y

Taoism and C o n f u c ia n i s m , a n d b y I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y we l a r g e l y

im p ly Buddhism . O rien tal thought i s s a id thus to co n sist of

three e lem en ts, nam ely, Taoism , C on fu cian ism , and Buddhism.

T h i s a n a l y s i s may b e s i m i l a r to th a t o f O c c id e n ta l thought

w hich i s s a i d t o b e made up o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f H e l l e n i s m ,

Romanism , and H ebraism . When H e l l e n i s m w a s t a k e n up b y t h e

i C f . Hu S h i h , O u t l i n e s o f t h e H i s t o r y o f C h i n e s e
P h i l o s o n h . v . 1 , 5-6*
 4

e a r l y Roman and H e b r e w t h i n k e r s , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f H in d u

B u d d h ism w as i n t r o d u c e d i n t o C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h y . T h is

in tro d u ctio n and a b s o r p t i o n o f B u d d h i s m b y t h e e a r l y

C h in ese t h in k e r s h a s r e s u l t e d in a p e c u l i a r C h in ese

con cep tion o f l i f e and t h e w o r l d , w hich i s fun dam entally

b a s e d upon t h e f o r e g o i n g t h r e e b r a n c h e s o f O r i e n t a l thoughts

Our s t u d y i n th is t h e s i s h a s t o do w i t h the e t h i c a l a sp ec t

o f C h in ese t h o u g h t . i

C h in ese p h ilo s o p h y , thus d e fin e d , may be a g a i n d ivid ed

in to three p erio d s: a n cien t, m ed ieval, and m odern. The

a n c ie n t p e r io d o f th e C h in ese p h ilo s o p h y b e g in s w ith L a o tz e,

t h e fo u n d e r o f Taoism , and e x t e n d s t o t h e Han D y n a s t y ( a b o u t

the six th cen tu ry, B .C .); t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d f r o m t h e Han

D ynasty to t h e Song D y n a s t y ; t h e modern p e r i o d from th e Song

D ynasty to t h e M in g D y n a s t y . The f i r s t p e r i o d i s character­

i z e d by t h e t e a c h i n g s o f L a o t z e and h i s d iscip les, or m y s t i ­

cism and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m . The s e c o n d p e r i o d i s dom inated

by the r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p r e v i o u s Taoi s t th in k ers

a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f B u d d h ism f r o m I n d i a . The t h i r d p e r i o d

is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e s u b m e r s i o n o f B u dd hism a n d t h e r i s e

o f C o n f u c ia n is m and i t s sch ools. C on fucian ism th u s h a s been

m o s t p o p u l a r and i n f l u e n t t t a l o f a l l the o th e r s.

C h in ese p h ilo s o p h y , a s d e f i n e d a b o v e , may mean i n a

f

i T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e C h i n e s e C l a s s i c s may b e
f o u n d i n D r. J a m es L e g g e ^ s Th e S a c r e d B o o k s o f t h e E a s t ,
e s p e c i a l l y v o l u m e s I I I . XVI, XXVII, X X V I I I .
way p r a c t i c a l l y th e w hole t h i n k i n g l i f e of the O rien ta l

p eop les. B u d d h ism ( # i i c h is n oth in g hut a r e -sta te m e n t of

Brahm anism ) , Taoism , and C o n f u c i a n i s m a b s o r b e d t h e m e n t a l

e n e r g ie s of O rien tal r a ces l i v i n g east of A fgh an istan . The

eth ica l d octrin e o f C on fu ciu s has predom inated th e l i v e s of

a ll the E a ste r n O r i e n t a ls ( c h i e f l y C h in e s e , K orean, an d

Japanese). C on fu cian ism h a s been th e so le guide o f th eir

m oral l i f e . The n u m e r o u s p r o v e r b s i n w h i c h C o n f u c i u s e m b o d i e d

h is eth ica l id e a ls have s u b s t a n t i a l l y m olded th e l i f e of

th ese p eop les. H is e t h i c s h a s been th e f i x e d standard o f

O rien tal c iv iliz a tio n for the l a s t two a n d a h a l f thousand

years. The C o n f u c i a n p r o v e r b s a r e c o n s t a n t l y r e p e a t e d i n

s p e e c h e s and w r i t i n g s . They a r e t h e b a s i s o f C h in ese educa­

tio n . Any o n e who f a i l s t o q u o t e some o f them t o i l l u s t r a t e

h is s p e e c h or h i s w r i t i n g i s c o n sid e r e d a poor s c h o la r . The

more C o n fu c iu s* sayin gs are quoted, the b e tte r is th e speech

or th e w r i t i n g .

P o litica lly . C o n f u c i a n i s m g a v e C h in a an u n b r o k e n u n i t y

of n ation al ex isten ce through i t s d octrin e of " filia l p iety"

and r e v e r e n c e f o r the a n c e s t r a l p a s t . Of t h i s coh esive fo rce

of n ation al l i f e , "the C on fu cian w r i t i n g s a r e th e d a i l y

food, and t h e l i t e r a r y c la ss the c o n sta n t f u n c t i o n a r i e s .

I t h a s p e n e tr a te d the u n p o e tic l i f e o f C h in a w i t h an e n n o ­

b lin g sen tim en t, and s o f t e n e d i t s h ard r o u t i n e w i t h t h e

i n e s t i m a b l e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e w h ole p a s t sh ould be dear

and s o c i a l f o r its germs o f p r e s e n t b l e s s i n g s . I t h as brought
o u t a n o b l e c o n s e q u e n c e imbedded i n ’f i l i a l p iety * , by

m aking p o l i t i c a l h o n o r s f l o w , n o t a s i n t h e West f r o m t h e

p a r e n ts to th e c h ild r e n , b u t from t h e c h i l d r e n t o the parents?^

C on fucian ism , eth ica lly , p r o t e c t e d China th r o u g h a l l h e r

c iv il tu rb u len ce, from f a l l i n g in to l i c e n s e and c o n f u s i o n

by i t s te a c h in g o f fundam ental so cia l d istin ctio n s, and

natu ral obedience to th e h i g h e r c l a s s in so ciety . C on fuciu s

s tr o n g ly rep u d ia te d the id e a l o f e q u a l i t y a n d i n s i s t e d upon

an a b s o l u t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n h i g h and low c l a s s e s . It

h a s been th e c e n t r a l c r e e d o f C on fucian ism th a t " th is i s

governm ent, where p r i n c e i s p rin ce; and m i n i s t e r , m in ister;

and f a t h e r , father; son, son.

How f a r th e C onfucian c i v i l i z a t i o n o f C h in a h a s s b e e n

p o p u l a r i z e d i n t h e A s i a t i c w o r l d c a n b e shown b y t h e f o l l o w ­

in g p assage:3

C h i n e s e c u l t u r e h a s s p r e a d and s p r e a d u n t i l a l l
E a s t e r n A s i a bows t o i t . N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y f l o u r i s h e d
t h e r e a n d v a n i s h e d . The J e w s o f K a i f e n - f u l o s t t h e i r l a n g u a g e
a n d r e l i g i o n a n d b e c a m e C h i n e s e i n a l l b u t p h y s i o g n o m y . The
c o n q u e r i n g Manc h u s h a v e f o r g o t t e n t h e i r l a n g u a g e a n d
l i t e r a t u r e . C hina, i t h a s b e e n f i t l y s a i d , i s a s e a w h ich
s a l t s everyth in g that flo w s in to i t .

T h e r e w e r e many i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s which p r e v e n t e d

t h e C h in e s e p e o p l e from m a k in g t h a t h ead w ay i n t h e i r p h i l o ­

so p h ica l s p e c u l a t i o n w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e e a r l y G reek s.

^ S a m u e l J o h n s o n , Or i e n t a l R e l i g i o n s — C h i n a . 6 3 0 .
§ L im Y u . or Confuc i a n A n a l s o t s . X I I . I I .
3 ERA. R o s s , The C h a n g i n g C h i n e s e . 2 7 .
O nly a fe w o f t h e s e f a c t o r s or l i m i t a t i o n s w hich C h in e s e

p h ilo so p h y su ffered w ill he p o i n t e d o u t i n th e f o l l o w i n g

pages, w h ile a c r it ic is m o f them w i l l h e p o s t p o n e d t o t h e

next chapter.

F ir st, t h e common s e n s e o f t h e C h i n e s e p r e v e n t e d them

from g o i n g b eyond t h e sen sa tio n of th in gs. They c o n s t a n t l y

keep to th e l e v e l road o f d a i l y s e n s i b l e e x p e r ie n c e . A bstract

th in k in g or r e a s o n in g i s foreign to t h e i r m e n t a l i t y . Hence

t h e d i s t i n c t mark o f a l l th eir lite r a tu r e is the presence

o f c o n c r e t e and p r a c t i c a l sense th in k in g . The C h i n e s e p e o p l e

are p ic t o r ia l, and h e n c e a r e l a c k i n g i n a p r o f o u n d im a g in a ­

tiv e a b ility w hich can d e a l w ith t h e t h i n g s s p i r i t u a l and

etern a l. T h i s common s e n s e f i n d s i t s h i g h e s t illu stra tio n

i n t h e f a m o u s " D o c t r i n e o f t h e Mean" a n d i n t h e t e a c h i n g s

o f C o n fu c iu s and h i s d iscip les. I n Ch u n g Yu ng, the "D octrin e

o f t h e M e a n ," C o n f u c i u s c o n f e s s e s that "to p r a c t i c e w on ders

to be h o n o r e d i n f u t u r e a g e s i s what I w i l l n o t do. I w ill

n o t go t o e i t h e r e x t r e m e b u t f o l l o w th e m idd le p a th .

Common s e n s e i s p r o n e t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h th in g s as

they are. It d o e s n o t w a n t t o go b e y o n d a n d t o c h a n g e t h e

sen sib le ob jects. It seldom l e a d s one beyond im m ediate

in d iv id u a lism . Why b u i l d a r o a d when y o u may n e v e r t r a v e l

t h i s way a g a i n ? Why p l a n t a t r e e when y o u may n o t l i v e to
gath er the f r u i t ? So t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e n c e o f common s e n s e .

1 Chung Yung. X I ; Lun Yu. V II. 20.

 8

the a b s o r p tio n in th e p r e s e n t, and l a c k o f c i t i z e n s h i p in

the f u t u r e , th e C h in ese p e o p le a r e d e s t i t u t e o f any k in d

of a seriou s in t e lle c t u a l u n d ertak in g.

Secon d ly, we m u s t c o n s i d e r the p e s s im i s t i c bent o f

th e C h in e s e m ind. When o n e i s w illin g t o d e p e n d on h i s

senses he i s lik e ly to be p e s s i m i s t i c , f o r our s e n s e s seem

to c o n v i n c e u s t h a t t h e r e i s more p a i n than p l e a s u r e i n th is

a c t u a l w o r l d . P e s s i m i s m means a s i g n o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t or

l a c k o f cou rage to overcome o b s t a c l e s in l i f e . For p e s s i m i s t s ,

deep in q u i r y in t o the v a lu e s o f l i f e is u seless, th o u g h a

certa in d eg r ee o f know ledge about th e u s e l e s s n e s s o f t h i s

w orld i s r e q u ir e d to be p e s s i m i s t i c . The o p t i m i s t , on t h e

oth er hand, i s not on ly w il li n g to in d u lge in th e in q u ir y

in to t h i n g s w ith a v ie w to c o n t r o l th e m , b u t a l s o h i s

i n q u i r y g i v e s him a f u r t h e r hop e o f d o in g s o m e t h in g p o s i t i v e

f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f human l i f e . C on seq u en tly, f o r an a c t i v e

m i n d e v e r y t h i n g u s u a l l y t u r n s o u t t o be g o o d and b e n e f i c i a l .

B u t when t h e r e i s no i n q u i r y a n d a c t i v i t y , the p e s s im is t ic

resu lt is in ev ita b le. Thus, i n C h i n a we h a v e many po e m s a n d

sto ries w ritten sim p ly to preach the v a n it y o f l i f e ; N a k ed

we come, n a k e d we g o . The G r e a t W a l l s s t a n d ; the b u ild e r is

gone; and so f o r t h . P e s s im is m and i n c a p a c i t y to conquer th e

o b sta cles in l i f e se em t o b e c a u s a l l y r e l a t e d .

T h ird ly , the C h in ese la n g u a g e , w h ic h h a s b e c o m e t h e

r o o t o f many A s i a t i c lan gu ages, is o f a n a t u r e which r a t h e r
o b s c u r e s our t h i n k i n g . I t k e e p s t h e m i n d on t h e l e v e l of

p icto ria l th in k in g. It does not e n a b l e t h e m ind t o detach

itse lf from c o n c r e t e im ages. It is id iograp h ic. w h olly un-

in flected . I t may b e a d e q u a t e p e r h a p s f o r the d e s c r i p t i o n

of concrete o b je c ts, but w h o lly h e l p l e s s to rep resen t

abstract co n cep tio n s. Sin ce the verb s are not subject to

c o n j u g a t i o n and t h e n o u n s a r e in d eclin a b le, a correct

ex p ressio n is a lso im p ossib le. The p i c t o r i a l nature o f the

l a n g u a g e and the in a d e q u a c y o f c o r r e c t e x p r e s s i o n h e l p to

m y stify t h o u g h t s t h a t were o t h e r w i s e c l e a r and d i s t i n c t .

The m y s t i c a l t e a c h i n g s o f L a o t z e and th e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l

p h i l o s o p h y o f Yi C h i n g w hich a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e C h in e s e

langu age are l i k e l y to be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e and i n c o n s i s t e n t .

It is therefore d i f f i c u lt to d e c id e th e d e f i n i t e m eaning

and p u r p o s e o f C h in e s e l i t e r a t u r e s .

F ou rth ly, there is the la c k o f p ro p er m eth o d o lo g y or

lo g ic. The C h i n e s e n e v e r d e v e l o p e d l o g i c in the s t r i c t sense

of the term . Sin ce t h e r e i s no l o g i c , we h a v e no m e a n s o f

testin g fa lla c ie s of reason in g. It se e m e d u s e l e s s to the

p r a c t i c a l m inded C h in e s e t o g e t en tan gled in the m eshes o f

verbal s u b t l e t y and a b s t r a c t l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g * A system a­

tiza tio n was n o t d e s i r e d . T heir t h i n k i n g was p i e c e m e a l . W ith

t h i s a t t i t u d e o f m i n d a s y s t e m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y was n a t u r a l l y

im p ossib le. I t may b e s a i d t h a t A r i s t o t l e d i d much t o make

system s o f p h ilo so p h y p o s s ib le in t h e West b y s e t t i n g f o r t h

 10

t h e m e t h o d o f t r u e r e a s o n i n g and p o i n t i n g o u t t h e danger

o f m istaken r ea so n in g .

These v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w h ich p r e v e n t e d th e C h in ese

m ind from i n d u l g i n g i n a b s t r a c t m e t a p h y s i c a l sp ecu la tio n s

have le d it to concern i t s e l f w ith th e p r a c t i c a l b u s in e s s o f

d a ily l i f e . Thus, t h e C h in e s e mind i s b y n a t u r e e t h i c a l and

w orld ly. S in c e a good and happy l i f e is p o ssib le through

government and r e g u l a t i o n , as the C h in ese s a g e s thought,

th eir system s o f e t h i c s are a ls o p o l i t i c a l . P o l i t i c s and

e th ic s are id en tica l in th e ir w orld ly te a c h in g s. How t o

make t h i s l i f e happy and c o m fo r ta b le is t h e c h i e f aim o f

the C h in ese. As a r e s u l t , m o s t o f them a r e m e r c h a n t s and

f a r m e r s who a r e r a n k e d f a r a b o v e s o l d i e r s , f o r f o o d an d

c lo th e s are the b a s i s o f l i f e . The a i m s o f t h e i r governm ent,

too, a re to prom ote th e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e and th e

m a te r ia l w e lfa r e o f the n a tio n .

C on seq u en tly, the system s o f C h in ese e t h i c s ch iefly

e m p h a s i z e m a n ’s d u t y t b man r a t h e r t h a n man *s d u t y t o God.

Even th e r e l i g i o n s h a v e a m a t e r i a l b e n t . The C h i n e s e p e o p l e

pay t h e i r r e l i g i o u s dues as a r u le w ith the s p e c i f i c pu rp ose

of g ettin g b lessin g s in th is l i f e or i n the l i f e to come.

T h eir w orsh ip i s on t h e p r i n c i p l e of g iv in g th at t h e y may

g et. T heir o f f e r i n g s to s p i r i t s and g o d s a r e p r i n c i p a l l y

for tem poral success, for h ea lth , for ch ild ren . B u t when

th e y th in k o f th e w orld to come, it is ch iefly a s an

 II

ex ten sio n of c th is l i f e . To t h e m , ex cep tin g p o s s ib ly the

B u d d h i s t s i n C hina, th is l i f e is n o t a p a s s i n g shadow, but

a r e a lity to con sid er. In s h o r t , C h in e s e m inds a r e n o t

accu stom ed to in d u lge in tra n scen d en ta l sp ecu la tio n .

A nother f e a t u r e o f th e C h in ese eth ica l system s is the

su b o rd in a tio n o f the in d iv id u a l to th e group or s o c i e t y .

The s t a t e or th e f a m ily is a ll-im p o rta n t. The i n d i v i d u a l is

c o u n te d a mere puppet a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e f a m i l y and

so ciety . H is w i l l to a s s e r t h i m s e l f above the group i s

suppressed. A ll l e a r n i n g and e d u c a t io n h a v e had a s th eir

fin a l aim t h e s e r v i c e and w e l f a r e o f th e f a m i ly and s o c i e t y ,

not the c u ltu r e of the in d iv id u a l or th e know ledge o f th e

A b solu te. O bedience i s the c o re o f C h in ese m oral i d e a l s .

The common p e o p l e m u s t o b e y t h e r u l e r ; the son, the fa th e r ;

the younger, the eld er ; the w ife , th e husband. Any v i g o r o u s

sp irit of r eb ellio n and r e v o l t is suppressed as fa r as

p o s s i b l e by t e a c h e r s and r u l e r s .

The r e a s o n f o r e m p h a s i z i n g t h i s sort of e th ica l life

seem s to l i e in th e f a c t that the C h in ese p e o p le have thou ght

that obedience i s essen tia l to s o c i a l p r o s p e r i t y , and t h e r e ­

fo re rig h teo u sn ess co n sists in su p p ression o f the v ig o r o u s

urge of l i f e . J u stic e , thus d efin ed , is a so cia l v irtu e

w h i c h b r i n g s w e a l t h a n d h a p p i n e s s t o men a nd t o the state.

It is therefore necessary for e v e r y man t o b e j u s t and

 12

hon est, n o t hy f o r c e o f an " o u g h t " h u t b y c o m p u l s i o n o f t h o s e

ih a u th o rity . J u s t i c e and h o n e s t y a p p ea r to them a s th e means

of a happy l i f e on t h i s earth. In t h i s sense, the C h in ese

th in k e rs preceded the u t ilit a r ia n is m of P la to and A r i s t o t l e .

A th ird fea tu re that c h a r a c te r iz e s the e t h i c a l thou ght

o f th e C h in ese i s its o r ig in a l character. C om paratively th e

C h in ese eth ica l thought i s in d ig en o u s. It i s not lik e W estern

thought o f com p osite but o f sim ple o r ig i n . To W e s t e r n c i v i l i ­

za tio n . B ab ylon ian s. E gyp tian s. C r e ta n s. Hebrews, G reeks,

Romans, N orthern Europeans have a l l con trib u ted a c e r ta in

elem en t o f c u l t u r a l tra its: as, f o r exam ple, th e Hebrews

have given it r elig io n , the Greeks th e b a s i s o f W estern

p h ilo so p h y , art, and s c i e n c e , a n d t h e Romans t h e f o u n d a t i o n s

o f W estern la w and g o v e rn m e n t. But th e C h in e se r e c e i v e d

r e l a t i v e l y f e w c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . No

in tim a te c o n ta c t betw een d i f f e r e n t cu ltu ra l groups h a s been

p o ssib le. T h i s i s o l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s may b e du e t o

( I ) geograp h ical b a r r ie r s l i k e the P a c i f i c Ocean i n t h e

E a s t e r n f r o n t and t h e m o u n ta in s in th e r e a r ; (2) b ig o te d

contem pt o f the C h in ese f o r the c u ltu r e o f oth ers; and ( 3 )

fee lin g of se lf-sa tisfa ctio n w i t h what t h e y p o s s e s s e d .

In th e n e x t c h a p t e r we s h a l l a t t e m p t a f u r t h e r c r i t i c i s m

and c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the g en era l n atu re o f th e C h in e s e m ind.

T h i s we d o , because the f a c t s in the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l

p r o v e t h e s t a t e m e n t s made i n t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y .
 13

CHAPTER I I

THE CHINESE MIND IN' THE LIGHT OP

- WESTERN DYNAMIC IDEAS

At th e tim e o f w r i t i n g , m o st o f t h e Par E a s t e r n p e o p l e s

are in a v i o l e n t state of d isco n ten t. China w it h a p o p u l a t i o n

o f more than f o u r h u n d red m i l l i o n h a s b e e n f i g h t i n g f o r t h e

r ig h t of ex isten ce th a t h a s been d en ied h er l a r g e l y by the

W estern pow ers h a v in g i n t e r e s t s in C h in a. The t h r e e h u n d r e d

and f i f t y m illio n In d ian s are still in a s ta te o f d istu rb ance

sin ce Mahatma Gandhi s t a r t e d a p o l i t i c a l a g ita tio n b a s e d on

the s o - c a l l e d p r i n c i p l e s o f n o w e s i s t e n c e and n o n - c o o p e r a t i o n .

In d o-C hinese, K oreans, and numerous o t h e r s in that p a rt of

the earth c o n sta n tly a g ita te f o r freedom . The f e e l i n g of

r a c ia l u n ity i s becom ing a p p a r e n t. In s h o r t , to u se P r o f e s s o r

G id dingé ' p h r a s e , a ll of th e O r i e n t a l r a c e s a r e aw akening to

the " con sciou sn ess o f k i n d . "

r
Many c o n t e m p o r a r y E a s t e r n w r i t e r s ch a racterize the

p r e s e n t r a c i a l m o v em e n t i n t h e ;East a s a c o n f l i c t b e tw e en

t h e c o n q u er o r and t h e c o n q u e r e d , o r b e t w e e n t h e W est an d t h e

E ast. Some s o c i a l i s t i c w r ite r s d escrib e i t as a stru ggle

betw een c a p ita lis m and s o c i a l i s m , p u ttin g t h e West on t h e

c a p ita listic s i d e an d t h e E a s t on t h e p r o l e t a r i a t sid e. S till

o th e r s m ain tain that t h is is a b a t t l e betw een S o v ie t R u ssia

in d u c in g the s u b j e c t e d r a c e s o f th e O rien t to j o i n h e r in

e x p e llin g the i m p e r ia lis t ic W e s t e r n e r s f r o m t h e O r i e n t a nd

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t h e \ ¥ e s t e r n P o w e r s who h a v e a l r e a d y s e c u r e d u n w a r r a n t e d

p riv ileg es there. W h e th e r t h e s e com m ents a r e j u s t i f i a b l e or

not, one t h i n g seem s to u s p a l p a b l e ; that is, the p r e s e n t

ra cia l and n a t i o n a l crises i n C hina u n d e n ia b ly im p ly a

r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t what th e W e ste r n e r s h a v e done to h e r d u r in g

the l a s t fifty years.

The p r e s e n t map o f C h i n a s t i l l sh o w s t h a t the m ost

im p o r ta n t h a r b o r s and s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s a r e i n the c o n tr o l

o f W estern c o u n t r i e s such a s E n glan d, France, and P o r t u g a l ,

Japan w hich h a s m o d e le d i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s upon t h o s e o f the

West n o t o n l y m a i n t a i n s i t b u t a l s o h a s b e c o m e t h e mi s t r e s s

o f the E a st.^ The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e f r o m B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l

suggests some i d e a a s t o how t h e W e s t e r n e r s b e h a v e d th e m ­

selv es th e r e .2

In t h e p a s t , t h e W e s t e r n e r s h a v e gone t o t h e O r i e n t
w i t h t h r e e m o t i v e s ; t o f i g h t , t o make m o n e y , a n d t o c o n v e r t
t h e O r i e n t a l s t o t h e W e s t e r n r e l i g i o n . The s o l d i e r s , t h e
m e r c h a n t s a n d t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a r e a l i k e c o n c e r n e d t o sta m p
t h e i r c i v i l i z a t i o n u p o n t h e w o r l d . T h ey a r e a l l t h r e e , i n
a certa in sense, m ilita n t.

T h is i s a harsh c r i t i c i s m o f W esterners in the O rien t;

but there is some t r u t h i n t h e i n d i c t m e n t and t h e c h a r g e can

be su p p o r te d by a c t u a l f a c t s . We s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n m a n i f e s t e d
itse lf in t h e O r i e n t a s an e n e r g e t i c f o r m o f m i l i t a r i s m and

I C f . t h e w r i t e r *s a r t i c l e , "Open Door a n d t h e E x p l o i t a t i o n
o f C h i n a , " Ch i n e s e S t u d e n t s M o n t h l y , J a n . I 9 2 7 .
2b . R u s s e l l , P r o b l e m s o f C h i n a , 2 0 7 .
 15

im p erialism . To t h e i n n o c e n t m a s s o f the C h in ese p e o p le , the

West a p p e a r s a s n o t h i n g m ore t h a n a c o n q u e r i n g b a n d o f

m ilita rism and c o m m e r c ia lis m . E ith er to a c c e p t or to r e j e c t

the W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s been t h e i r l i f e - a n d - d e a t h

p r o b l e m . M o v e m e n t s f o r r e f o r m a l o n g many l i n e s ’f ia v e b e e n

started s i n c e W estern i n f l u e n c e e n t e r e d C hina. F ir st, new

m ilita ry d e v i c e s were th ou ght to be the s e c r e t of strength of

th e W estern Powers and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y s o u g h t to m old theiir

m ilita ry equip m en t a f t e r W estern m e th o d s . Reform o f t h e outworn

ty p e o f government f o l l o w e d . I n d u s t r i a l and m oral r e f o r m s to o

w e r e b e g u n on t h e b a s i s o f W e s t e r n i d e a l s a nd m e t h o d s . I t may

be said that a l l t h e s e r e f o r m s h a v e more or l e s s f a i l e d b e c a u s e

t h e C h in e s e m ind, a c c u s t o m e d s o many t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s t o

C o n fu c ia n a r i s t o c r a c y and c e r e m o n i a l i s m , could not adopt

ov ern ig h t the p r o g r e ss iv e and d e m o c r a t ic W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n .

F urther, C hina c a n n o t , lik e th e U n ited S t a t e s , make t h e change

w ith p l e n t y o f elbow room , but must a cco m p lish it in a c i v i l i ­

za tio n crowded w it h old t r a d i t i o n s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s a s w e l l

a s w ith a huge p o p u l a t i o n .i There i s how ever one v i s i b l e

resu lt from a l l t h e s e r e f o r m s and c o u n te r r e fo r m s ; and t h a t

is the steady W estern ization of China. The s p i r i t of conquest

and m e l i o r a t i o n of l i f e - c o n d i t i o n s b egin s to tak e the p la c e

of the o ld C h in ese sp irit of resig n a tio n and c o n s e r v a t i o n .

In t h i s in terch a n g in g p r o c e ss, t h e c o m m e r c i a l and i g i p e r i a l i s t i c

asp ects o f th e W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n are not ignored.

I C f . J o h n D ew ey , "New C u l t u r e i n C h i n a , " A s i a , XXI, J a n .I92I.

 16

B efore th e a d v en t o f W estern i n f l u e n c e , in d u stria lism

and i m p e r i a l i s m w ere p r a c t i c a l l y u n a p p r e c i a t e d i n C hina,

C ra ftsm en and s o l d i e r s were r e g a r d e d a s t h e l o w e s t so cia l

cla ss. But t h i s a t t i t u d e h a s been dying o u t. T h is i s perhaps

the d ir e c t outcom e o f c o n t a c t w ith t h e W estern p e o p l e s .

The O r i e n t a l W e s t e r n e r s h a v e a t l e a s t im pressed the n a t iv e

C h in ese th a t t h e W e s t e r n way o f l i f e is the b e s t . Most o f

t h e y o u n g C h i n e s e who h a v e b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h W e s t e r n

civ iliz a tio n a r e now u n a n i m o u s l y o f o p i n i o n t h a t W e s t e r n

p u sh and h u s t l e a r e t h e m o st d e s i r a b l e and i n e v i t a b l e th in gs

on e a r t h . To u s h o w e v e r , a lth o u g h a v ig o r o u s urge in l i f e

may b e i n e v i t a b l e * i t may n o t b e d e s i r a b l e w i t h o u t b e i n g

sy stem a tica lly co n tro lled .

For t h e p u r p o s e o f m a k in g c l e a r th e o r ig in a l nature

of th e C h in ese m ind, l e t us p oin t out some u n d e r l y i n g

d i f f e r e n c e s betw een the m ental l i f e of t h e W e s t e r n e r s and

th a t o f the C h in ese. I n many w a y s , t h e C h i n e s e mode o f

t h i n k i n g and l i v i n g i s p r i m a r i l y d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t o f the

O ccid en ta l. The f o r m e r s t a n d s f o r q u i e t i s m , su b m ission , and

m ysticism , and th e l a t t e r dem ands s t r i f e , in d u stria lism , and

em p iricism : in f a c t , a ll t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich a r e

em bodied in a s t r e n u o u s l i f e . A g a i n we q u o t e Mr. B u s s e l l who

has w ell d escrib ed the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f W estern c i v i l i -

 17

zation in th e f o l l o w i n g words

Our i n d u s t r i a l i s m , o u r m i l i t a r i s m , o u t l o v e o f p r o g r e s s ,
our m is s io n a r y z e a l , out im p e r ia lis m , our p a s s i o n f o r
d o m in a tin g and o r g a n i z i n g , e t c . , s p r i n g from a s u p e r f l u x o f
i t s itc h for a c t iv it y .

F urther he says :^

What we b e l i e v e t o b e a l o v e o f p r o g r e s s i s r e a l l y , i n
n i n e c a s e s o u t o f t e n , a l o v e o f p o w e r , an e n j o y m e n t o f t h e
f e e l i n g t h a t b y o u r f i s t we c a n make t h i n g s d i f f e r e n t , m o n e y
b e i n g t h e means o f en jo y m en t; t h e r e f o r e money i s p a s s i o n a t e l y
d e s i r e d . With u s , m o n e y i s d e s i r e d a s a m e a n s t o p o w e r .

W hether t h i s c r itic a l r e m a r k upon t h e n a t u r e o f W e s t e r n

c iv iliz a tio n b y s u c h an e m i n e n t th in k er a s B ertrand R u s s e ll

is w e l l fo u n d e d or n o t , it s e e m s t o me c l e a r t h a t t h e dom inant

ch a ra cteristic of th e W estern m ind i s the stru g g le in h eren t

in l i f e . It is the p r e v a ilin g b e l i e f in t h e West t h a t we human

b e i n g s c a n make o u r e n v i r o n m e n t f i t o ur human w i s h e s r a t h e r

than v i c e versa. Thus, the n atu re o f the c i v i l i z a t i o n which

i s p r o d u c e d by a dynam ic mind m u st be dynamic and p r o g r e s s i v e .

The C h i n e s e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , liv e s accord in g to t h e v e n e r ­

a b l e Tao, o r t h e O r d e r o f N a t u r e . He a d o r e s a n d w o r s h i p s

N a t u r e . Re d r e am s o f m a k i n g h i m s e l f f i t it, r a th e r than o f

m aking i t f i t him .

The W e s t e r n e r i s an a c t i v i s t . The C h i n e s e i s d is p o s e d to

be a p a c i f i s t . The f o r m e r b y v i r t u e o f h i s a c t i v i s m tends to

be p o s i t i v i s t i c and t h e l a t t e r by v i r t u e of h is q u ietism is

p r o n e t o b e o p p o r t u n i s t i c and m y s t i c a l . P o sitiv ism lead s the

i R u s s e l l , on. c i t . , II.
2 l b i d . , 214.
 18

one to w o r s h ip scien ce and q u ietism le a d s the oth er to

adore l i t e r a r y p e t t i n e s s . T h is i s a general com parison

of t h e two m i n d s . The c o n t r a s t i s so s t r i k i n g t h a t many

are w i l l i n g to s u b s c r ib e to K i p l i n g f a m o u s dictum th a t

E a s t i s E a s t a n d West i s W e s t ,
And n e v e r t h e t w a i n s h a l l m e e t .

To b e g i n w i t h , we m a y . s u g g e s t that th is dictum i s w h o lly

untrue. P o r we a l r e a d y know t h a t t h e E a s t a n d t h e West h a v e

m et. The w o r l d a s a w h o l e i s b e c o m i n g u n i f i e d , i . e.W estern ized .

We h a v e m e n t i o n e d how t h e W e s t e r n i z i n g o f C h i n a a n d o t h e r

O rien tal co u n tries is p r o c e e d in g both s p o n t a n e o u s l y and

a r b itra r ily . The su p r e m e p r o b l e m now i s w hether th e W estern

in flu en ce w ill u ltim a te ly e lim in a te the o r i g i n a l C h in ese

cu ltu re a lto g e th e r , or whether by means o f t h e m i n g l i n g o f

t h e two m i n d s a t h i r d f o r m o f c u l t u r e w i l l resu lt. A very

h elp fu l th in g , however, for th e C h in ese to d o , a s we t h i n k ,

is to adopt f r e e l y the b e st in W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n and t o

employ i t n o t a s an e n d b u t a s an i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o r m e a n s

t o b u i l d up a r e j u v e n a t e d C h i n e s e C u l t u r e . It is th e problem

o f th e m ethod to be u s e d in th e develop m en t o f C hinese

m en ta lity . The m e t h o d o f p o s i t i v e ex ertio n , doin g, i s more

essen tia l than r e s i g n a t i o n .

As t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l in d ica te, I b eliev e

that t h e W e s t e r n way o f l i f e , at le a st that elem en t o f

striv in g , i s m ore o r l e s s in strict agreem ent w ith the

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a c tiv e nature of the u lt i m a t e r e a l i t y o f the u n i v e r s e . T h is

s t a t e m e n t d o e s n o t mean, h o w e v e r , that t h e C h i n e s e way o f

life . i.e . q u ietism , is a l t o g e t h e r wrong, and t h a t there

is no e l e m e n t o f s t r iv in g in it. We s h a l l see that there are

many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C h i n e s e t h o u g h t w h ic h a r e sim ila r to

th o se o f th e O ccid en t. The m e r e f a c t o f t e n d in g toward a

life o f q u i e t i s m a n d p r o p r i e t y i m p l i e s an e l e m e n t o f striv ­

in g . The p r e s e n t a w a k e n i n g m o v em e nt o f t h e C h i n e s e w h i c h i s

la rg ely du e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e du rin g the

l a s t h a l f cen tu ry i s the proof that th e n a tu r e o f C h in ese

life is a lso e s s e n t i a l l y an a c t i v i t y . The p r e s e n t a g i t a t i o n

is a sign of lib era tin g a l i f e which h a s b e e n s u f f o c a t e d by

ru les o f p r o p r i e t y and t h e u n n a t u r a l d i s c i p l i n e of n eg a tiv ism .

The w i d e s t c hasm w h i c h s e p a r a t e s C h i n a f r o m t h e W e s t , as

h a s been in d ic a t e d , is the la c k o f p o s i t i v e in d iv id u a lism ,

nam ely, self-co n scio u s a c tiv ity in C h in ese l i f e . True, there

i s p len ty of in d iv id u a lism in C hina, but th a t in d iv id u a lism

i s b a s e d up o n t h e f a t a l i s t i c id ea o f r e s ig n a tio n . It is a

k in d of E p icu rean egoism , w hich s a y s that sin ce every th in g

in the w orld i s lik e dew i n th e m orning, the b e s t th in g fo r

e v e r y man t o do i s to g e t the m ost p l e a s u r e ou t o f th e p r e s e n t

life , for t o m o r r o w we d i e a n d n o t h i n g o f u s w i l l rem ain. Thus

the sp irit of resig n a tio n , dependence, to g e th e r w ith the

p r e v a ilin g p h ilo so p h y o f q u ietism , g rip p ed the m e n t a lit y o f

C hina. The d e n i a l o r t h e c o m p l e t e - s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f the w i l l

to l i v e . El a n V i t a l , w h i c h h a s p r e v a i l e d u n d e r B u d d h i s m ,
 20

Taoism , C on fucian ism , and o t h e r C h i n e s e " ism s.” i s fatal

t o t h a t v i g o r o u s p u s h w h ic h h a s w r o u g h t W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n .

In o t h e r w o r d s , the sp irit of s e lf - d e t e r m in a t io n has been

t o t a l l y l a c k i n g in C h in a. E xternal r e g u la tio n s of fa m ily

a nd s t a t e c o m p e lle d i n d i v i d u a l s t o rem ain s u b o r d in a te d . In

th e words o f H e g e l, r ea lity was d or m an t a nd p a r a l y z e d b y

p a tria rch al r e la tio n s. H egel is q u i t e r i g h t when h e says

The C h i n e s e r e g a r d t h e m s e l v e s a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e i r
f a m i l y , a n d a t t h e same t i m e a s c h i l d r e n o f t h e S t a t e . I n
the f a m ily i t s e l f th e y are n o t p e r s o n a l i t i e s , f o r the
c o n s o l i d a t e d u n i t y i n w h i c h t h e y e x i s t a s m em b ers o f i t i s
c o n s a n g u i n i t y a n d n a t u r a l o b l i g a t i o n . In t h e S t a t e t h e y h a v e
a s l i t t l e in d ep en d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y ; f o r t h e r e the p a t r i a r c h a l
r e l a t i o n i s p r e d o m i n a n t , a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s b a s e d on t h e
p a t e r n a l m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e E m p e r o r , who k e e p s a l l d e p a r t m e n t s
o f the S ta te in o rd er.

A l l human c i v i l i z a t i o n is an a c h i e v e m e n t o f s e l f -

d eterm in ation . A ll achievem ent i s e f f e c t e d b y d y n a m ic e f f o r t

o f human i n t e r e s t . It is the l i v i n g in terest o f man t h a t

makes him f i g h t and c o n q u e r and s t r u g g l e . T h is fundam ental

o f h u m a n ' n a t u r e was s u p p r e s s e d i n the O r ie n ta l. As a r e s u l t ,

t h e y were u n a b le to exp lore, to invent, to la b o r , to seek

know ledge, to d is c o v e r truth, to c r e a te o b j e c t s both o f use

and b e a u t y - - in a word, to a c h ie v e .^

We m u s t n o t b e d i s a p p o i n t e d a t the O r ie n t a l r a c e s f o r

IG .W .F .H egel, P h ilo s o p h y o f H i s t o r y , 182.

2L.P.W ard, Pure S o c i o l o g y . 32; f o r t h e r e l a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t
a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n , c o n s u l t L. G u m p l o w i c z , P e r R a s s e n k a m o f , and
J o h n D e w e y , E x p e r i e n c e and M a t u r e , -pa s s i m .
 21

th eir past in ca p a ci ty fo r achievem en t, w h ic h is due l a r g e l y

to the m is d ir e c t io n of life -fo r c e s under th e i n f l u e n c e s o f

q u ietistic p h ilo so p h ie s. Nowhere d i d p h i l o s o p h y d i r e c t the

liv e s o f t h e p e o p l e more c o m p l e t e l y than i n C hina. It is

t h e r e f o r e e r r o n e o u s to assum e t h a t the C h in ese p e o p le a re

in h e r e n t ly degenerate^ and w h o l l y i n c a p a b l e o f self-d eterm i­

n a t i o n a nd p r o g r e s s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , th ey had develop ed

c o m p a r a tiv e ly w e l l - o r g a n i z e d form s o f so c iety before the

W estern r a c e s began to l i v e an o r g a n i z e d l i f e . T heir a d o p tio n

of the W estern ways o f l i v i n g and t h i n k i n g d u r i n g t h e l a s t

fifty years proves the f a c t that they are capable of

a c c o m p l i s h i n g w h at t h e W est h a s a c h i e v e d , p rovid ed th ey are

a lso given equal o p p o r tu n itie s .

In a d d i t i o n to the la c k o f the v ig o r o u s l i f e of the

W est, th e fundam ental tra its o f t h e C h i n e s e m i n d a r e common-

s e n s e and c o n s e r v a t i s m . T h e s e two m e n t a l t r a i t s u s u a l l y go

togeth er. Common s e n s e h a t e s to c h a n g e th e c u sto m a r y ways

of th in gs, and i s pron e to be c o n t e n t w ith th in g s a s they

are. C on servatism b e g in s to p r e v a il in th is state of se lf-

com placency w ith p r e s e n t co n d itio n s. H o t h i n g new c a n b e

c r e a t e d and a c c o m p l i s h e d . As a r e s u l t , o f s c i e n c e and p h i l o ­

sophy in th eir strict sense th e m ind o f t h e p a s t China h a s

produced none. Even w h a t i t has produced in the l i n e of

e t h i c a l p r e c e p t s d o e s n o t go b e y o n d t h e l i m i t o f common­

p lacen ess. The v a r i o u s eth ica l and r e l i g i o u s sayin gs of

 22

th e e a r l y C h in ese t h i n k e r s a t t e s t our remark. S t r i c t m eta­

p h y sica l s p e c u l a t i o n and s c i e n t i f i c in v e s t ig a t io n never

e n t e r e d im to th eir heads, Even t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l id ea lism

of L aotze, in stead of flo w e r in g out, r a p id ly faded in to low

form s o f c o n ju r in g w ith s p i r i t s and i d o l s . The e t h i c i s m of

C on fu ciu s, too, fa ils to d evelop itse lf in to the h i g h e s t

eth ica l id e a ls of S o c r a t e s and J e s u s , but h o ld s f a s t to the

so lid ground o f p r a c t i c a l e th ics and p o l i t i c a l o rg a n iza tio n .!

When we come t o study the m ental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

C h in ese, we o b s e r v e t h a t l e a r n i n g i s r e g a r d e d a s s o m e t h i n g

independent o f l i f e , and y e t is to be a c q u i r e d a s a s o r t o f

d ecoration of l i f e . C on fu ciu s did n o t a t t r i b u t e any i n t r i n s i c

worth to l e a r n i n g in i t s e l f . In t h e G reat L e a r n i n g , it is

sa id :^

IVhat t h e G r e a t L e a r n i n g t e a c h e s i s to i l l u m i n a t e
i l l u s t r i o u s v i r t u e , to r e n o v a t e t h e p e o p l e and to r e s t i n
t h e h i g h e s t g o o d . The p o i n t o f r e s t b e i n g know n, t h e o b j e c t
o f p u r s u i t i s d e t e r m i n e d . And t h a t b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d , a c a l m
u n p e r t u r b e d n e s s may b e a t t a i n e d .

A ccordin g to t h i s C on fucian p a s s a g e , lea rn in g i s co n sid er­

ed a s a means t o a r e s t f u l life . B u t m o s t o f t h a t w h ic h the

C h in ese sages ta u g h t became a s e t o f m onotonous r u l e s o f

c o n d u c t w h i c h w as due t o ( I() t h e f o r m a l i s t i c character of

t h e i r t e a c h i n g s and ( 2 ) th e C h in ese ten dency to r e v e r e th e

p a s t . The b u l k o f t h e s e m o r a l p r e c e p t s , i.e . fo rm a lities.

^ C f . Samuel J . o h n s o n , Or i e n t a l R e l i g i o n S T - C h i n a , 7«
2"The T e x t o f C o n f u c i u s , " The G r e a t L e a r n i n g . I , 1 - 2 .
 23

s u b s e q u e n tly ap p ears to be dead, a m ind -crush ing lo a d . Since

it further s i m u l a t e s k n o w le d g e and a u t h o r i t y and t h e r e b y

d e v e lo p s the p o is o n o f c o n c e it i n h i m who a c q u i r e s it, it

h a s become a m ost p o w e r f u l o b s t a c l e t o t h e g r o w t h and

p r o g r e s s o f C h in ese c i v i l i z a t i o n . Any t e a c h i n g w h i c h i s n o t

con n ected w ith in crease of actu al efficien cy in a c tio n , and

w i t h l e a r n i n g more a b o u t o u r s e l v e s and t h e w o r ld i n which

we a r e t o a c t , c erta in ly has s o m e t h i n g w r o ng w i t h i t .

When t h i n k i n g c o m e s t o b e t h o u g h t a m er e d e c o r a t i o n

and n o t a v i t a l elem en t o f l i f e , a system atic treatm ent of

t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s and i t s valu es to l i f e w i l l n a t u r a l l y be

n eg lected . Form alism a b ou t th e ways o f d a ily conduct w ill

m u l t i p l y a p a r t from th e n a t u r e o f c o n d u ct itse lf. T h eo ries

of l i f e and th e u n i v e r s e w i l l b e n o t h i n g m ore t h a n an

aggregate of r u le s of l i f e on t h e l e v e l of sen se-th in k in g .

Genuine m e t a p h y s i c a l t h e o r i e s w i l l be s u p e r flu o u s . The d a i l y

b u sin ess of liv in g is the e n t i r e c o n c e r n o f men. The C h i n e s e

m ind t h u s p r e f e r s to be c o n t e n t w ith t h e p r e s e n t in hand.

I t h a s no f u t u r e .

We m u s t h e r e d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e p r a c t i c a l i t y of

t h e C h in e s e and t h a t o f t h e W e s t e r n e r . In C hina, a s h a s been

sa id , there is no o n t o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n and t h e r e a r e no

c o s m o l o g i c a l h y p o t h e s e s w h ich can be compared w i t h the

co sm o lo g ica l system s of th e e a r l y G reeks. The Yi C h i n g may

 24

indeed cla im to be an e a r l y C h in e s e c o s m o lo g y . But the

co sm o lo g ica l d o c trin e con tain ed in t h a t b o o k i s m o re o r

less of the same n a t u r e a s t h e e a r l y G reek m y t h o l o g y w h i c h

preceded the Io n ic co sm o lo g ies. The t e r m p r a c t i c a l i t y

p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e C h in e s e mind r e a l l y sig n ifies th a t the

C h in e s e m ind i s c o n te n t w ith the l i f e in the p r e s e n t r a th e r

than in the fu tu r e . Its u n i v e r s a l axiom o f l i f e w ould be

b riefly som ething l i k e th is: E njoy l i f e t o - d a y a s much a s

you can, t o m o r r o w we d i e . T h is i s th e pop ular E p icurean ism

o f C o n f u c i a n i s t s and Y a n g t z i a n s . In th e c a s e o f th e W estern

m ind, p r a c t i c a l i t y seems to l i e in p r o v id in g f o r the f u t u r e ; ;

that i s to say, i n o r d e r t o e n j o y t h e p r e s e n t we s h o u l d make

p lan s fo r it. T h is p la n n in g l e a d s to i n v e s t i g a t i o n and d i s ­

covery. To b e s u r e , th ere are d o c tr in e s of the fu tu r e l i f e

i n C h i n e s e B u d d h i s m a n d T a o ism ; but th e se are c o n str u c ted

and b e l i e v e d i n on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l i f e can be

b e n e f i t t e d b y them. T h i s o v e r e m p h a s i s upon p r e s e n t w e l l ­

b e in g c a u se d the C h in ese r e l i g i o n s s u b s e q u e n t l y to be

red uced to a l l s o r t s of su p e rstitio n for g e ttin g im m orta lity

for th is l i f e .

C on servatism i s another ty p ic a l elem en t o f the C h in ese

m ind . E v e r y t h i n g which e x i s t s must be c o n s e r v e d . Change i s

s o c ia lly u n rea l. Any c h a n g e s e e m s t o b r i n g e v i l to th e

c o m m o n - s e n s e C h in a m a n . C o n se q u en tly th e C h in ese w orld i s

 25

the same a s i t was s e v e r a l thousand y e a r s ago- The p r e s e n t

C h in ese c i v i l i z a t i o n a p a r t from th e r e c e n t c o l o r i n g s o f

W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n i s j u s t what i t was i n the tim e o f

L a o t z e and C o n f u c iu s . The f a t h e r o f C h i n e s e c o n s e r v a t i s m is

C o n fu ciu s. What h e r e a l l y c o n tr ib u te d to th e C h in ese p e o p le

is alon g t h i s l i n e o f c o n s e r v in g the t r e a s u r e s o f a n t i q u i t y .

H is e t h i c a l sayin gs m ostly c o n s is t of the c o lle c t io n s of

what o t h e r s said . He w as a g r e a t c o l l e c t o r and c o n s e r v a t o r .

/ A m oderate c o n se r v a tism i s harm less sin c e w ithou t i t

n o t h i n g can be s t a b l e and e v e r y t h i n g w i l l be i n d i s o r d e r .

But c o n s e r v a t i s m , a s p r e a c h e d by C o n f u c i u s and h i s d iscip les,

makes c o n s e r v a t io n p r io r in im portance to c r e a t i v i t y . W ithout

c r e a t i o n or i n v e n t i o n t h e r e can be no p r o g r e s s and n o t h i n g

to be conserved. We u s u a l l y c o n s e r v e a t h i n g i n o r d e r t o
create som ething e l s e w ith it.

A gain, c o n se r v a tism alw ays te n d s backward r a t h e r th an

forw ard. The p a s t is alw ays g l o r i f i e d . The f u t u r e or change

is ign ored . The C h i n e s e w o r s h i p o f d e a d a n c e s t o r s is the

d irect outcom e o f th is sp irit of con servatism . I s h a ll have

more to s a y on t h i s subject o f a n c e s t o r w orsh ip in l a t e r

chapters. It s u ffic e s here to n o t i c e that the d i f f e r e n t

p h a se s o f th e C h in ese l i f e a re the m a n if e s t a t io n s o f the

sp irit o f c o n s e r v a t i s m and s e l f - c o m p l a c e n c y w it h the p r e s e n t.

 26

L aotze says: "The p a t h o f Tao i s b a c k w a r d , C on fu ciu s

s i m i l a r l y a s s e r t s : 2 To f o l l o w th e a n c i e n t ways i s an

ex cellen t q u a lity . Because of th is relu ctan cy o f changing

th in gs, t h e w h o l e C h i n e s e h i s t o r y w h i c h d a t e s b a c k t o m ore

than s i x thou san d y e a r s i s a s o t r y o f m onoton y and i n a c t i v i t y .

T h e r e w e r e no g r e a t w a r s n o r i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l

rev o lu tio n s i n China a s i n t h e W est. The p r e s e n t y o u t h m o v e ­

ment o f d i s c o n t e n t , a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f th e W estern i n f l u e n c e ,

is the f i r s t g r e a t u p h e a v a l in th e h i s t o r y o f C h in a. It is

d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e p r e s e n t m ov em e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e

w ithou t the in flu en ce of t h e dynamic n a t u r e o f W estern c u l t u r e

in con clu d in g t h i s short survey o f the n a tu re of the

C h in ese m e n t a l i t y , i t may b e f u r t h e r sa id that t h e C hinese

p eo p le have fo llo w e d l i n e s of th e ir own a n d c r e a t e d , as far

a s e x t e r n a l form i s concerned, a cu ltu re so u n l i k e that of

th e W estern r a c e s t h a t t h e r e i s seem in g]y very l i t t l e in

common b e t w e e n t h e m . The C h i n e s e a r e in clin ed toward

q u i e t i s m and c o n s e r v a t i s m . They n e g l e c t t h e dynamic sid e

o f human n a t u r e a n d t h u s t h e y h a v e a c q u i r e d v e r y l i t t l e

e n e r g y or e f f i c i e n c y from s c h i e n t i f i c c o n q u e s t o f human

c a p a c i t i e s and t h e w o r ld . E sp ecia lly , th ey have not ca lled

n a tu re to th eir a ssista n c e and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y a r e

^^be _ U p n f u c i a n A n a l e c t ^ . i, 12,
 27

p r a c t i c a l l y p o w e r l e s s when b r o u g h t i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h

W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n . The C h i n e s e l i v e s by f i t t i n g h im se lf

to h i s en v iro n m en t r a t h e r th a n by m aking i t fit to him . We

do n o t h o w e v e r c o n c l u d e t h a t the in d u s tr ia l effic ie n c y of

t h e W est i s t h e o n l y m e a n s o f human s a l v a t i o n , but the sp irit

o f work a n d s t r i f e , as ex h ib ited in W estern s c i e n t i f i c

effic ie n c y , is th e n e c e s s a r y elem en t o f a l l life . L ife is

esse n tia lly an a c t i v i t y and t h e m e c h a n i c a l a r t s c a n n o t be

e x c l u d e d from i t .

The O r i e n t a l dreams o f H ir v a n a or t r a n q u i l i t y o f sou l,

t h e L a o t z i a n d o c t r i n e o f wu w e i ^ a n d t h e C o n f u c i a n i d e a l

o f m oral p r o p r ie t y , must n o t be ov er e m p h a siz e d . In f a c t ,

the p r e s e n t u p r is in g o f the A s ia t i c races, as to ld at the

ou tset of t h is chapter, is a sure sign of g e tt in g r id of

the id e a l o f wu w e i or n o n - a c t i o n . T heir l i f e m u s t b e d y n a m ic

a n d n o t wu w e i . The W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n w hether s p i r i t u a l

or m a t e r i a l means work, dynam ic a c t i o n . The r a p i d W e s t e r n i ­

zation o f Japan, for exam ple, is d o u b t l e s s an i n d i c a t i o n of

what t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t w i l l be i n C hina, In d ia, and o t h e r

^T he C h i n e s e w o r d wu m e a n s " n o t - e x i s t e n c e " a n d t h e word

w e i s i g n i f i e s "doing" The two w o r d s c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e n mean
" n o t - e x i s t e n c e o f d o i n g , " o r n o n - d o i n g o r n o n - a c t i o n . The
p h r a s e i n d i c a t e s t h e i m m o b i l i t y o r " p e t r i f a c t " o f O swald
S p e n g l e r ; o f . S p o n g i e r , Th e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t . I , 3 6 - 3 7 .
 28

O rien ta l c i v i l i z a t i o n . The w o r l d i s W estern izin g . In t h i s

dynam ic str e a m o f c o n s t r u c t i v e l i f e , th e weaker o n e s o f

t h e human r a c e w i l l h e s i m p l y a b s o r b e d i n t h e m a s s o f

O ccid en ta l l i f e w hich i s r a p i d l y f l o w i n g and o v e r r u n n i n g

a ll th e rem o te c o n t i n e n t s and th e i s l a n d s o f th e sea. The

w h ole w o rld t h u s i s g r a d u a lly con vergin g in to one g i g a n t i c

f l o w o f human l i f e w h e r e t h e E a s t a n d t h e West s h a l l m e e t

perm an en tly in th e realm o f c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i o n .

 29

CHAPTER I I I

INDIAN BUDDHISM IN CHINA

In t h i s w orld o f m u l t i p l e t h i n g s v e r y few se e k to

r e f l e c t upon t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r e x isten ce . The g r e a t

m a j o r i t y o f men a n d women, b e in g ign oran t of th eir own

c o n d i t i o n s and s u r r o u n d i n g s , m e r e l y s e e k the s a t i s f a c t i o n

of t h e m om en t. T heir wheel o f l i f e seem s t o r e v o l v e ete rn a lly

w i t h o u t an a p p a r e n t d i v e r s i o n . But, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , there

are some w h o , l i k e Gotama B u d d h a , ^ h a v e known b y m e a n s o f

r e flec tio n that s o m e t h i n g m u s t b e d o n e i n t h e way o f r e c o n ­

stru ctio n in th is e t e r n a l r e c u r r e n c e o f hijunan l i f e , if

ex isten ce is t o mean a n y t h i n g . These fe w h a v e sought fo r

some way o f e s c a p e , some n e w d o c t r i n e of lif e , by th e

r ea liz a tio n o f w h i c h e x i s t e n c e may b e c o m e r i c h e r a n d f u l l e r

o f j o y and b l i s s .

The f o l l o w i n g n a r r a t i v e a b o u t Gotama Buddha *s r e a s o n

fo r le a d in g the a s c e t i c life i s w e l l k n o w n . One d a y when

h e was e i g h t e e n y e a r s o f a g e , h e l e f t h is p alace to v i s i t

c e r t a i n p l e a s u r e g a r d e n s and g r o v e s . P a ssin g the e a s t gate

i T h e word Bu ddha when i n t e r p r e t e d m e a n s t h e One who k n o w s ,

o r t h e E n l i g h t e n e d , t h e S a g e . Gotama w a s b o r n i n o r a b o u t
t h e y e a r $43 B . C . He t h u s w a s c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h C o n f u c i u s
and L a o tz e .
 30

o f t h e c i t y h e saw t h e r e a D e v a o r g h o s t who h a d a s s u m e d

t h e f o r m o f an o l d m an, w i t h w h i t e h a i r a n d c r o o k e d h a c k .

The p r i n c e Buddha t h o u g h t s a d l y on t h e r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h

men g r o w o l d . Th ey b e c o m e a g e d l i k e lig h tn in g , and y e t a r e

not a fr a id . G o in g o u t a g a i n , the same d i v i n i t y p r e s e n t e d

h im self at the south g a te in th e d isg u ise o f a s i c k man,

w ith la n g u id f e a t u r e s and s w e l l e d p au n c h . At t h e w e s t g a t e

he saw a d e a d man, a n d t h e m em b er s o f h i s f a m i l y l a u g h i n g

a s t h e y f o l l o w e d him t o the grave. He w e n t o u t o n c e m o r e ,

a n d saw a t the north g a te a b eg g in g p r i e s t . He w o r e t h e

garb o f an a s c e t i c and c a r r ie d a b ow l. A s t a f f was i n h i s

hand. The p r i n c e a s k e d h i m who h e w a s . He r e p l i e d , "I am a

B ikshu, p ra ctisin g sacred d u tie s, and a lw a y s o b t a i n i n g th e

r e w a r d o f f r e e d o m f r o m a c t i o n . "1

R e f l e c t i n g up o n t h e s e human p h e n o m e n a t h e Buddha

con clu d ed : "I f e a r l e s t I may b e p r e s s e d down b y o l d a g e ,

sick n ess, death, the m i s e r i e s I have w itn e sse d . T h is B ikshu

has arrived at the p e r c e p tio n o f my f e e l i n g s . He s h o w s me

the path o f d e l i v e r a n c e . ”2 From t h i s tim e th e p r i n c e began

to d esire the a s c e t ic life . Su bseq uently he l e f t h i s f a t h e r ’s

p g ila ce and r e s o l v e d to be a h e r m it , sayin g. "If the e ig h t

^ J . E d k i n s , C h i n e s e B u d d h i s m , 17; Max M u l l e r , The s a c r e d B o o k s

of th e E a s t , X L I x 7 1 f 6 T f .
2 C f . P a u l C a r u s , Th e G o s n e l o f B u d d h a . I I f f .
 31

m iseries (o ld age. b irth , death, sick n ess, lo v e, hatred,

ign oran ce, and l u s t ) be n o t aban don ed , w isd om c a n n o t b e

a t t a i n e d . " He l i v e d on t h e H i m a l a y a M o u n t a i n s i n so lita ry

sp ots, t r y i n g v a r io u s m ethods to a t t a i n m en ta l sa tisfa c tio n ,

b u t i n v a i n . He l i v e d on hemp a n d b a r l e y t i l l at th irty years

o f a g e h e came t o the p e r c e p tio n o f t r u e c o n d i t i o n and n e e d

o f m ankind. At l a s t h e sa id ;!

I t i s s t r a n g e t h a t a l l men w h i l e t h e y h a v e w i t h i n th em
J u la i ( t h e c a p a c it y o f p e r c e iv in g the tru e n a tu re o f l i f e
a n d w o r l d l y p h e n o m e n a ) , a n d p o s s e s s k n o w l e d g e and v i r t u e a s
th e o r i g i n a l p r o p e r ty o f t h e i r n a tu r e , sh ould be e n ta n g le d
by d e c e p t i v e t h o u g h t s and rem ain in ig n o r a n c e o f t h e s e t h i n g s

T h e r e a r e two n o t i c e a b l e ch a ra cteristics in the co u rse

of the developm ent o f S a k y a m u n i’s p h i l o s o p h y . The f i r s t is

t h a t he becomes m ost c o l d l y m e t a p h y s ic a l, and expounds th e

d octrin e of salvation f o r man a n d a l l l i v i n g b e in g s in the

t r i u m p h a n t t o n e o f an i c y l o g i c . An a b s t r a c t sp ecu lation

a lo n e can te r m in a te the m is e r ie s o f human s o c i e t y . But in

t h e c l o s i n g p e r i o d o f B u d d h a ’s p u b l i c l i f e , he preached the

d octrin e o f N i r v a n a i n w h ic h t h e warmth o f human f e e l i n g s

predom inates. Sakyamuni becom es t h e s y m p a t h e t i c and t o u c h i n g

t e a c h e r f o r m ankind.

B e f o r e we d e s c r i b e t h e c o n t e n t s o f Buddhism a s t a u g h t

b y Gotama. let us b r i e f l y n o tic e the p r e v a ilin g thought in

1(^110t e d b y E d k i n s . on . c i t ., I8.
 32

In d ia in the tim e o f th e U p an ish ad s, that is, about 600 B , C , ^

At t h a t tim e, t h e r e were f o u r clea r c u r r e n ts in In d ian

r elig io u s l if e . The f i r s t is r itu a listic , m agical in character,

p a r t l y in ten d ed to p le a s e the gods, b u t s t i l l m o re t o coerce

them b y c e r t a i n a c t s and f o r m u l a e . The s e c o n d i s the stress

l a i d b y a l l H i n d u s on a s c e t i c i s m and s e l f - m o r t i f i c a t i o n , as

a means o f p u r i f y i n g th e s o u l and o b t a i n i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l

pow ers. Severer a u s t e r i t i e s give clea rer in sig h t in to d iv in e

m y s t e r i e s and c o n t r o l over the f o r c e s of nature. The t h i r d ,

the d e e p e st co n v ictio n o f H in du s in a l l ages, is that salva­

t i o n a n d h a p p i n e s s a r e a t t a i n a b l e b y k n o w l e d g e . He who k n o w s

God a t t a i n s t o God, n a y h e i s God. R i t e s and s e l f - d e n i a l

are but n ecessary p r e lim in a r ie s to such k n ow led g e. The f o u r t h

is t h e H in d u b e l i e f in m etem psych osis, the tra n sm ig ra tio n of

so u ls, or r e in c a r n a t io n . L i f e alw ays r e v o l v e s in a c i r c l e

lik e a lin k i n an i n f i n i t e series of liv e s , each o f w hich i s

c o n d i t i o n e d and d e t e r m in e d b y t h e a c t s done i n p r e v i o u s e x i s ­

tences (karm a). D e l i v e r a n c e from t h i s r o u n d o f l i f e is one

o f th e g r e a t problem s o f sa lv a tio n for t h e H in d u t h i n k e r s .

The Buddha u n q u e s t l o n a b l y w as i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s e

c u r r e n t s o f Hindu r e l i g i o u s th in k in g . Furtherm ore, in the

six th c e n tu r y B .C . when B u d d h i s m a r o s e , t h e w o r l d w as f u l l

of in te llec tu a l ferm ent. I n C h i n a L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s a r o s e ;

in G reece, P arm enides, E m pedocles, and t h e S o p h i s t s w ere

^ C h arles E l i o t , H in d u ism and Buddhism. I, x iii ff.

 33

on ly a l i t t l e la ter . Thus i n Gotama !s y o u t h . B ilia r , h is

n a tiv e town, was f u l l o f w a n d e r i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s who a p p e a r

to have been a t h e i s t i c and d i s p o s e d t o u p h o ld t h e b o l d e s t

paradoxes, in te lle c tu a l and m o r a l , Gotama w as i n t e r e s t e d in

th e se m ental s p e c u la tio n s of the tim e.

In a s e n s e a l l r elig io n is a p r a c tic a l a f f a i r because

it i s m a in ly th e d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f t h e l i f e ’s s t r i v i n g s

upon u p o n t h i s e a r t h . It is the r e a c tio n o f t h o s e who

im p lic itly , i f not e x p lic it ly , feel the ord in ary a c t i v i t i e s

of lif e t o b e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . H e r b e r t S p e n c e r w as p a r t l y
r i g h t when h e s a i d that r e lig io n w as du e t o f e a r a r i s i n g

from t h e u n c o n q u e r a b l e phenomena o f n a t u r e i n w h ich l i f e

e x ists. In t h i s sense, we may a s s e r t that the te a c h in g s of

Gotama w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l . B u d d h ism i s n o t an

a risto cra tic id e a l nor i s i t m a in ly o ccu p ied w ith p sy ch o ­

lo g ic a l th eo ries, a s may b e s u p p o s e d b y t h e r e a d e r who h a s

some a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h the B uddhist scrip tu res. In t h o s e

days, the in te llec tu a l c la sse s of In d ia not o n ly f e l t the

d a ily a c t i v i t ie s of l i f e u n sa tisfa cto ry , but a ls o thought

it natural to renounce th e w orld and m o r t i f y the f l e s h . The

p e o p le o f th e tim e a l l agreed a t le a s t in t h i s that it is

normal a s w e l l a s egjudable t h a t a man s h o u l d d e v o t e h i s

life to m ed ita tio n and s t u d y . The t e a c h i n g s o f t h e Buddha

c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h i s fra m e o f t h e H in du mind; and h e n c e they

are not u n so c ia l, im p ra ctica l and m y s t e r i o u s , b u t human.

b u s i n e s s f ^ l i k e and c l e a r . T h is i s one r e a s o n t h a t the p r a c tic a l

m inded C h in e s e l a t e r w elcom ed th e B u d d h ist t e a c h i n g s .

As we h a v e s e e n . Gotama was l e d to l i v e the a s c e t i c life

in order to sa v e h i m s e l f and h u m a n ity from th e s u f f e r i n g s of

th is l i f e . The ph en o m en o n o f human s u f f e r i n g was h i s m a i n

problem . Now w h e n c e d o e s the s u f f e r i n g come? C e n t e r i n g a r o u n d

t h i s p r a c t i c a l problem , t h e Buddha t a u g h t the f o l l o w i n g d o c 4 ;Z -

trin es: ( 1 ) He p r e a c h e d t h e a v o i d i n g o f e x t r e m e s o f e i t h e r

self-in d u lg en ce or s e l f - m o r t i f i c a t i o n . ( 2 ) He d e f i n e d the
m i d d l e way o r e i g h t - f o l d p a t h . ( 3 ) He e n u n c i a t e d t h e f o u r

truths of the n a tu re of su fferin g , its o rig in , its cessa tio n

and t h e m ethod o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t that c e s s a tio n , the m ethod

b e i n g no o t h e r t h a n the e i g h t - f o l d p a th . (4) Then h e made h i s

h e a r e r s u n d ersta n d th a t w h atever h a s a b e g in n in g m ust have

an end; t h i s know ledge i s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e p u r e and s p o t l e s s

E ye o f T r u t h . (5) The Buddha h a s t a u g h t t h a t there i s no s u c h

t h i n g a s t h e s e l f . I t was one o f t h e b o l d e s t a t t e m p t s o f th e
;
Buddha t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i d e a o f t h e s e l f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s
s c h e m e o f human s à l v a t i o n . T

The u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n in t h e s e t o p i c s o f G o t a m a ’s

tea ch in g i s the p o s i b i l i t y o f e m a n c ip a t io n from w o r l d l y

s u f f e r i n g and t r o u b l e . S u fferin g , its cause, its c essa tio n

and th e p a t h s l e a d i n g to i t s c e ss a tio n are the sk eleton of

T E l i o t , Hi n d u i s m a n d B u d d h i s m . I, x x i ; A .B .K e ith , Bu d d h i s t
Ph i l o s o p h y.4(p f f ;
 35

the w hole B u d d h ist thou ght. A lso these t h i n g s mean t h a t p r a c ­

tice is regarded a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f Gotama B u d d h a ’ s s y s t e m

of sa lv a tio n . In t h i s sense, it is w orld ly, because it d ea ls

w ith the su fferin g s of t h i s w orld. It is the n e g a t iv e sid e

o f hedon ism .

A c c o r d in g to t h e t e a c h i n g s o f th e Buddha, the u l t i m a t e

cause o f su ffer in g is ign oran ce. The Budd ha h a s won t h e truth

or s a l v a t i o n by u n d e r s ta n d in g th e u n i v e r s e . Knowledge makes

u s f r e e from b e i n g b o r n i n the e te r n a l m etem p sych osis. It

h elp s to e lim in a te the d e s ir e or w i l l to e x i s t an d t o

possess. We a r e h e r e f a c e to f a c e w ith th e f o u r n o b le t r u t h s

o f t h e Buddha. These n o b le t r u t h s a r e f o u n d i n e a r l y H indu

a n d Yog a p h i l o s o p h i e s . Gotama o n l y r e d i s c o v e r e d t h e m . We now

p r o c e e d t o exam ine them b r i e f l y .

The f i r s t tru th is that ex isten ce in v o lv es su fferin g :

such a s sick n ess, t e a r s a b o u t a m o t h e r ’s d e a t h , a s o n ’s d e a t h ,

old age, o r p a r t i n g f r o m w h at we l o v e . In t h i s l i f e we c a n

not get w h at we w an t a n d h e n c e w h at we g e t is on ly s u f f e r in g .

The w o r l d i s in f l u x and s u f f e r i n g and n o t h i n g i s p e r m a n e n t.

B u t t h e human m i n d c r a v e s a f t e r so m e th in g w hich i s p erm a n en t,

s o m e th in g o f w hich i t can s a y . T h is i s m ine. I t lo n g s to be

som eth in g or to produ ce s o m e t h i n g w h ic h is not p u rely t r a n s i­

t o r y a n d w h i c h h a s an a b s o l u t e v a l u e i n a n d f o r itse lf. But

n eith er in t h i s w o rld nor in any o th e r w orld a re such s t a t e s

and a c t i o n s p o s s i b l e . O n l y i n N i r v a n a do we f i n d a s t a t e
 36

w h ich r i s e s above the tr a n s ito r y because it r ises above d e sir e ,

m eth er th is tran q u il state orf* l i f e i s p o ssib le or n o t, is

n o t our co n c er n h e r e ; a n d we w i l l p o s t p o n e a g e n e r a l c riticism

of th is P la to n ic w orld o f i d e a s to be d e a l t w ith in a n o th er

chapter *
The s e c o n d truth of G ota m a *s t e a c h i n g i s co n c er n e d w ith

the o r ig in of su fferin g : "It i s the t h i r s t which c a u s e s

reb ir th , which i s a c c o m p a n i e d b y p l e a s u r e and l u s t and t a k e s

d e l i g h t now h e r e , now t h e r e ; nam ely, the th irst fo r p lea su re,

the t h i r s t fo r another l i f e , the t h i r s t for s u c c e s s . ”1 T h i s

th irst (tanba) is the c r a v in g fo r l i f e in the w id e st sense:

the c ra v in g fo r p le a s u r e w hich p r o p a g a t e s l i f e , the cra v in g

for ex isten ce in t h e d y i n g man w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t a n o t h e r

b irth , the c r a v in g f o r w e a lth , f o r power, fo r pre-em inence

w ith in the l i m i t s of the p r e s e n t l i f e .

The o r i g i n of the w h ole m ass o f s u ffe r in g in t h i s w orld

of change, as set forth in the d o c tr in e o f th e ch ain o f

cau sation is som ething a s f o l l o w s : 2

From i g n o r a n c e come t h e s a n k h a r a s . f r o m t h e s a n k h a r a s
c o m e s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s come n a m e - a n d - f o r m ,
f r o m n a m e - a n d - f o r m come t h e s i x p r o v i n c e s ( o f t h e s e n s e s ) ,
f r o m t h e s i x p r o v i n c e s come c o n t a c t , f r o m c o n t a c t c o m e s s e n ­
s a t i o n , fro m s e n s a t i o n c o m e s c r a v i n g , f r o m c r a v i n g c o m e s
c l i n g i n g , from c l i n g i n g com es e x i s t e n c e , from e x i s t e n c e comes
b i r t h , f r o m b i r t h come o l d a g e a n d d e a t h , p a i n a n d l a m e n t a ­
t i o n , s u f f e r i n g , sorrow , and d e s p a i r . T h is i s th e o r i g i n o f
t h i s w h o le m a ss o f s u f f e r i n g . But by t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
i g n o r a n c e , e f f e c t e d by th e c o m p le te a b s e n c e o f l u s t , th e
s an k h a ra s a r e d e s t r o y e d , by the d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e sankharas

Carus, Th e G o s p e l o f Buddha. 3 1 - 3 2 .
System s o f
 37

co n scio u sn ess i s destroyed, a n d so on t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e

chain backw ards.

The c h a i n i s a l s o known a s the tw elv e n id an a s or c a u se s.

It is clea rly the p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e f o r m s o f an a m p l i f i ­

cation of the f o l lo w in g s e c o n d and t h i r d tru ths r e sp e c tiv e ly ,

or p e r h a p s t h e y a r e a Ita m inous com p en diu m o f it. We m u s t a l s o

b e a r i n m ind t h a t the chain o f c a u sa tio n is n ot a gen ealog y,

b u t an a f f i r m a t i o n of the in te r-d ep en d e n c e of certa in stages,

of life -p r o c e s s . B irth , for exam ple, i s not the cause o f

death, a s m orning i s not the c a u se o f e v e n in g . The c h a i n o f

cau sation seems to b r i n g a b e i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e tw ice. A ll

the w orld i s a co n tin u al process o f com ing i n t o ex isten ce

and p a s s i n g a w ay . A ll th is process of ex isten ce d e p e n d s on

un a d a n a , w h i c h m e a n s l i t e r a l l y g r a sp in g or c l i n g i n g to.

E x isten ce can n o t c o n t i n u e w it h o u t the c li n g i n g to l i f e .

The c l i n g i n g to e x i s t e n c e in i t s t u r n d e p e n d s on t a n b a . the

th irst or c r a v in g f o r e x isten ce .

We may a s k h e r e what i s th is tanba. the c a u s e o f karma

and o f s o r r o w ? What i s th is in cessa n t, u n sa tisfied cravin g

f o r p o w e r i n o u r e x p e r i e n c e ? Many p a s s a g e s in the P ita k a s

and o t h e r B u d d h is t scrip tu res^ se e m t o j u s t i f y the id e a that

t h is cravin g for ex isten ce is an i m p e r s o n a l a p p e t i t e w h i c h

IC f. M u ller, Th e S a c r e d Books o f th e B a s t , XXXIV, 3 3 I f f .

 38

is an alogou s to the W ill of Schopenhauer. ; u; T a n b a i s not

a cosm ic f o r c e b u t sim ply a s t a t e of t h e human m i n d . It is

m e r e l y t h e human d e s i r e w h i c h c a u s e s su fferin g , and d e s i r e

is due to s e n s a t i o n s . T

When we s a y t h a t d e s i r e d e p e n d s on t h e s e n s e s a n d t h a t

ig n o ra n ce c a u se s p r e d i s p o s i t io n s ( s a n k h a r a s ) w hich a s s e r t s

itse lf in the n ext l i f e , we m u s t c o n c l u d e that sen sa tio n is

c lo se ly rela ted to ig n o r a n c e in B u d d h ist d o c t r i n e . Ignorance

or sen sa tio n then i s the cause of r e b i r t h . Ignorance i s not

t o know t h a t e v e r y t h i n g m u s t h a v e an o r i g i n a n d a c e s s a t i o n .

It is ign oran ce o f the tr u e n atu re o f th e w o r ld and th e t r u e

in terests o f m ankind t h a t b r i n g s a b o u t th e s u f f e r i n g w hich

we s e e a n d f e e l . We w e r e b o r n i n t o t h e w o rld b e c a u s e o f our

ign oran ce in our l a s t b i r t h and o f the d esire for resista n ce

w h i c h was i n u s when we d i e d .

The t h i r d o f t h e n o b l e truths of G otam a’s t e a c h i n g i s

the n e g a tiv e form o f the chain o f c a u sa tio n : as the l in k s

are broken, su fferin g d isap p ears.

The f o u r t h tru th, or t h e way w h i c h l e a d s t o the e x tin c ­

tio n of su ffer in g , gives p r a c tic a l d irectio n s to th is effect.

The way i s t h e N oble E i g h t f o l d P a t h , c o n sistin g of rig h t

v iew s, rig h t a sp ir a tio n s, rig h t speech, rig h t conduct, rig h t

liv e lih o o d , rig h t effort, r ig h t m in d fu ln ess, and r i g h t r a p ­

ture. The e i g h t f o l d p a t h is d eclared t o b e t h e o n l y way o f

^Cf. M u lle r , Th e S y s t e m s o f Indian P h ilo s o p h y . 392 f f .

 39

s a l v a t i o n from t h e d isea se of su fferin g . The r e s u l t of the

e ig h t f o ld path i s the a tta in m e n t o f N irv a n a ( s a i n t - l i f e ) ,

i n w hich there i s no b i r t h , age, sick n ess, death, p ain , or

d efilem en t. N irvana i s d ea th less, e n d l e s s and c h a n g e l e s s . It

is the w o rld o f e t e r n a l tra n q u illity and n o n - a c t i o n . "It i s

a cessa tio n of str iv in g for in d iv id u a l e x isten ce ." T

The s t r o n g e s t e m p h a s i s l a i d b y Gotama i n h i s teach in g

was th e d e n i a l o f the r e a l i t y o f the self or ego. The a s s e r ­

tio n of selfh ood is thought i n e v i t a b l y to i n v o l v e su ffer in g ,

and t h i s s u f f e r i n g w o u l d d i s a p p e a r o r b e e x p l a i n e d i f we
»
c o u ld c o n te m p la te our w orld a s fo rm in g p a r t o f a l a r g e r

u n iverse. Not o n l y t h i s n e c e s s i t y o f e li m in a t i n g un hap pin ess

dem ands t h e d e n i a l of self, but th ere is a stron ger reason

for t h is d en ia l eith er in f e e l i n g , p ercep tion , or in ex­

p erien ce. In a l l the w orld, o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c , there i s

n o t h i n g w hich i s sim ple, self-ex isten t, self-d eterm in ed , and

perm anent; everyth in g i s compound, r ela tiv e and t r a n s i t o r y .

Thus B u d d h i s t e t h i c s m i g h t b e s u m m a r i z e d a s t h e se lfle ss
] i f e .2

T h is s e l f l e s s life itse lf i s N ir v a n a which i s utter

b liss, w ith ou t p a in . A lthough its form , fig u re, d u ration .

Q-hQ-ry o f P h i l o s o p h y a n d P s y c h o l o g y . II, I78.

2C f. C a r u s , The Go s o e l o f B u d d h a . I 3 2 .
 40

or s i z e , cannot be e x p la in e d , yet s o m e t h i n g may b e s a i d of

its q u a lity . I t i s u n t a r n is h e d by e v i l d isp o sitio n s; it

co o ls the fe v e r a r is in g thence; it i s bou n d less; i t bloom s

w ithou t the flow ers of p u r ity , kn ow ledge, and e m a n c i p a t i o n .

As R a d h a k r i s h n a n r e m a r k s :^

I t i s i n f i n i t e , i s s a t i s f y i n g to a l l d e s i r e s , i t i s
v e r y e x a l t e d , and im m ovable. I t can be r e a l i z e d by fr e e d o m
from d i s t r e s s and d a n g er by p e a c e , ca lm , b l i s s , d e l i c a c y ,
a n d p u r i t y . T h e r e i s no p l a c e w h e r e N i r v a n a i s s t o r e d u p ,
save on ly r ig h t l i v i n g .

A lthough t h e H in d u s c h o o l s o f thought b e l i e v e d in the

u n iv ersa lity o f karm a; that i s , the p a s s in g o f th e im m ortal

soul from one b o d i l y tenem ent to a n o th er a c c o r d in g to i t s

d e e d s and i t s reb irth a g a i n and a g a i n , m e t e m p s y c h o s i s i n

B u d d h ism i s an i n c o r r e c t exp ression sin ce there is no s o u l

to t r a n s m i g r a t e and t h e r e is, str ictly sp eak in g, n o th in g but

karma. Buddhism " d e n ie s the e x is t e n c e o f a s o u l- substratum ,

of a m etap h ysical s o u l - e n t i t y b ehin d the sou l ; but not o f

the f e e l i n g , th in k in g, a sp irin g sou l, s u ch a s we know f r o m

exp erien ce o u rselv es to b e ." " S elf is the y e a r n in g f o r

p l e a s u r e and th e l u s t after van ity . . . . The e x i s t e n c e of

self is an i l l u s i o n . "2 What we c a l l sou l, a c c o r d i n g to

Buddhism, is a sum o f a c t s which m a n i f e s t s itse lf in another

g en era tio n .3

I s . R adhakrishnan. I n d ia n P h ilo a o n h v . I, 448.

S C a r u s . £2.* c i t . ■ 3 4 "
a n ^ L t i v e ° s e l f " o r ’' a g e n r p o ssib le w ithou t
 41

Gotama B uddha d e s c r i b e s th e s t a g e s by w hich h e a c q u i r e d

e n lig h te n m e n t and p r o m is e s the same e x p e r i e n c e s to t h o s e who

observe h is d iscip lin e: He f i r s t fo llo w ed the thread o f h i s

own p r e v i o u s e x i s t e n c e s through p a s t a e o n s, plum bing the

u n f a t h o m a b l e d e p t h s o f t i m e : n e x t t h e w h o l e o f e x i s t e n c e was

s p r e a d o u t b e f o r e him. L ik e a v i e w s e e n from a b o v e , and he:

saw b e i n g s p a s s i n g a w a y , from one bod y and t a k i n g sh ape in

another, a c c o r d in g to t h e i r deeds. O n l y when h e u n d e r s t o o d

both the p e r p e tu a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e and a l s o

the l i v e s and se q u e n c e i n which t h a t tra n sfo rm a tio n o ccu rs,

o n ly then d id he se e the fo u r tru th s as they r e a l ly a r e . 1

P rim itiv e I n d i a n B u d d h i s m w as l a t e r d ivid ed , as i t

sp rea d northw ard and s o u th a r d , in to two m a i n s c h o o l s , nam ely,

t h e H i n a y a n a a n d t h e M ahayana s c h o o l s . The H i n a y a n a s c h o o l

i s d a rg ely a g n o stic in regard to God a n d t e a c h e s t h a t man

must rem ain w h o lly s e l f - c e n t e r e d in h i s e ffo r ts after sp iritu a l

p ercep tion . The H i n a y a n a , or t h e L e s s e r V e h i c l e , is the

o rig in a l ty p e o f Buddhism , and i s dom inant i n In d ia. The

Mahayana, or the G reater V e h i c le , th erefore, w as unknown a t

first. T h is form i s a la ter d e v e lo p m e n t and m o d i f i c a t i o n of

Buddhism and a p p e a r s to have had i t s o r ig in m ain ly in c e n tr a l

A sia . Prom h e r e i t spread to C h in a, Korea2 and Japan3 r e s p e c -

T C f. M u l l e r , Th e S i x S y s t e m s o f I n d i a n P h i l o s o p h y , 4 2 5 - 4 2 7 .
2 P o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f B u d d h ism i n K o r e a , c f . P. S t a r r ,
Korean Buddhism .
3 I n J a p a n , M ahayana w h i c h i s d o m i n a n t i n t h a t l a n d was w e l l
d e v e l o p e d b y a J a p a n e s e B u d d h i s t , H i c h i r e n , who l i v e d a b o u t
sev en hundred y e a r s ago; Satom i, Jap an ese C i v i l i z a t i o n .
 42

t i v e l y a n d now p r e d o m i n a t e s i n these O rien tal cou n tries.

H in ayana, on t h e o th er hand, p r e v a ils in C eylon, Burma, and

Siam.

H isto rica lly , B u d d h ism was f i r s t brought t o C h i n a two

h u n d r e d and f i f t y years before C h rist by e ig h te e n B uddhist

m issio n a ries, although rep orts of i t s t e a c h in g had p ro b a b ly

r e a c h e d C h i n a a t an e a r l i e r date. The r e a l B u d d h i s t i c ev a n g eli

za tio n o f C h i n a h o w e v e r commenced i n A . D . 1 4 8 on t h e a r r i v a l

of the s e c o n d group o f m i s s i o n a r i e s from I n d i a . But th e d a te

of the in t r o d u c t io n o f Buddhism to C hina i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y

certa in . C h arles E l io t says that the t r a d i t io n a l date fo r

the in tr o d u c tio n o f B u d d h ism i s 62 A .D .T The^ C h i n e s e e m p e r o r

M ig g ti of t h e L a t e r Han D y n a s t y , i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f a dream ,

in w h ic h h e sa w t h e i m a g e o f a f o r e i g n God, sent m essengers

to I n d i a to a sk f o r B u d d h i s t b o o k s and s c r i p t u r e s . A n ative

of C entral I n d i a named K a s h i a p m a d a n g a , w ith others, accom­

p a n i e d them b a c k . 2

In 405 A .D ., an I n d i a n B u d d h i s t , Kumaraj i v a , w a s command­

ed by th e k i n g o f the T sin cou n try to t r a n s l a t e the sacred

books of In d ia. At t h i s tim e a C h in ese tra veler. P a h i e n , was

e x p l o r i n g I n d i a and c o l l e c t i n g w o r k s . I n t h i s way t h e expan­

sion of the r e l i g i o n that was t h e n p r o p a g a t e d w i t h such z ea l

a n d f a v o r v e r y much p r o m o t e d the m u tu al in terco u rse of A sia tic

l E l i o t , Hi n d u i s m a n d B u d d h i s m . I l l , 2 4 4 .
_ 2 C f . J . E d k i n s , C h i n e s e .B u dd hi am. 8 8 f f ; Lu C h i n g , A B rief
S t u d y on B u d d h i s t i c L i t e r a t u r e . 1 2 - 2 ] .
 43

co u n tries.
As C h i n e s e B u d d h i s m i h a s i t s r o o t m a i n l y i n M a hay a na .

it d iffers somwwhat f r o m p r i m i t i v e B u d d h i s m , and i t seems to

h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e d many e l e m e n t s f r o m o t h e r f a i t h s as w ell as

t o h a v e u n d e r g o n e e x t e n s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n s from w i t h i n . As f a r

as the fu n d am en tal n a tu r e o f Gotama^s t e a c h i n g i s concerned,

C h in e s e Buddhism , h o w e v e r , i s n o t much d i f f e r e n t from th e

o r i g i n a l . 2 The c h i e f r e a s o n f o r t h is p u r ity in d o c trin e is

that the rem ain in g s c h o o ls i n China were a l l f o u n d e d b y m em bers

of In ^d ian sects o r b y C h i n e s e who a i m e d a t scru pu lous im ita ­

t io n o f In dian m od els. U n til the e ig h t h c en tu ry , we h a v e an

a ltern a tio n of Indian or C e n t r a l A s ia n tea c h e rs a r r iv in g in

C h i n a to m e e t w i t h r e s p e c t a n d a c c e p t a n c e , and o f C h in e s e

e n q u i r e r s who v i s i t e d In d ia in order to d iscover the true

d o c t r i n e a n d p r a c t i c e a n d w e r e h o n o r e d on t h e i r r e t u r n i n

p r o p o r t i o n a s t h e y were b e l i e v e d to h a v e found i t . Thus t h e

^The B u d d h i s t s c r i p t u r e s e x t a n t i n t h e C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e
a r e known c o l l e c t i v e l y a s San T s a n g o r t h e t h r e e s t o r e - h o u s e s ,
t h a t i s t o s a y , T r i p i t a k a . But v e r y l i t t l e i s a n a l o g o u s to
th e P o l i canon or to any c o l l e c t i o n o f Sacred L i t e r a t u r e
known i n I n d i a . The San T s a n g o r T r i p i t a k a e n u m e r a t e s 1 6 6 2
works w hich a r e c l a s s i f i e d in fo u r g r e a t d i v i s i o n s , ( a ) S u t r a ,
( b ) V inaya, ( c ) A b h i n d h a r m a , ( d ) M i s c e l l a n e o u s . The f i r s t
th ree d i v i s i o n s c o n t a in t r a n s l a t i o n s on ly; the f o u r t h o r ig i n a l
C h in e s e w orks a s w e l l . For a f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
C h i n e s e T r i p i t a k a , s e e Lu C h i n g , pjo. c i t . : El i o t . o p . c i t . .
I l l , 2 8 9 - 3 0 2 ; I l a n j i o s * C a t a l o g u e o f t h e C h i n e s e T r m g i a ’t i o n
o f the B u dd hist T r ip ita k a ; Forke, K a ta lo g des P ek in g T r i p i t a k a .
2 E l i o t , op .. c i t . , 2 3 8 f f . ; J o h n s t o n , Ch i n e s e B u d d h i s m . 3 ? 2 .
 44

im ported id e a s , however c o r r u p t, were t h o s e o f I n d ia n

B uddhist sch o lars, not th e m ixed id e a s o f the In dian

laym an.
A l t h o u g h B u d d h i s m came t o C h in a a s e a r l y a s t h e f i r s t

cen tu ry a f t e r C h rist, it d i d n o t a c h i e v e an im m e d ia te

w idesp read p o p u la r it y . It was some c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e it

o b ta in e d a firm f o o t h o ld . The r e a s o n s f o r th is are ob viou s.

The v e r y n a t u r e o f B u d d h i s t d octrin e is too a b s t r u s e to

attract t h e laym an a t f i r s t g la n ce. In a d d i t i o n to th is

abstru seness, the C h in ese a r e n o t prone to pay any a t t e n t i o n

to t h i n g s transm undane. T h e r e fo r e th e o r i g i n a l d o ctrin e of

t h e Bu dd ha h a s to be in t e r p r e t e d p o p u la r ly in s u c h a way

th at it appears to d eal w ith the l i f e on t h i s earth. T h is i s

what a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d . I n many r e s p e c t s , C h in e s e Buddhism ,

as it i s b e l i e v e d by the m ass, c lo s e ly resem b les, in cere­

m onies, d o ctrin e, p riesth ood , and o r g a n i z a t i o n , the E astern

C h ristian Churches, a l t h o u g h no one h a s y e t p r o v e d that

e i t h e r h a s b o r r o w e d from t h e o t h e r . T h e r e a r e m onk s a n d n u n s

in m o n a s te r ie s. They i n s i s t that sa lv a tio n is p o ssib le only

by v i c a r i o u s su fferin g , lik e the C h r i s t i a n s in th e M id dle

A ges.

C h in e s e Buddhism, as fa r as i t is transform ed to su it

the C h in e s e m ind, is a d i s t i n c t i v e product o f the n a tio n a l

type. The c h i e f in tern a l c h a n g e s o f C h i n e s e Bud-ihism may h e
 45

summed up a s f o l l o w s : ^ F ir st, th e w orsh ip o f m ortu ary r e l i c s

w as e x c h a n g e d f o r the r i t e s of the sh in (sp ir it or g h o s t ) .

S e c o n d ] ., , the e a r th e n h o u s e , stupa, g a v e way t o the c h e e r fu l

ancestral sh rin e. T h i r d ] ,, the c o n c r e te p a r a d is e o f Ami-

t a h h a ^ was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e N ir v a n a o f s p e c u l a t i v e Buddhism .

F o u r t h j , -, la rg e p o rtio n s of the c o sm ica l and g e o g r a p h i c a l lo re

of the f a i t h w e r e b a s e d up on C h i n e s e tra d itio n s.

We m u s t a d m i t h e r e too that a f t e r s u ch a l t e r a t i o n s a s

the above, C h in e s e Buddhism t o - d a y i s a s t r a n g e and c o r r u p t

dégén érâtion . I t became l a r g e l y f o r m a l i s t i c and s u p e r ­

stitio u s. The m a s s o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d a r e i g n o r a n t and e v en

v icio u s. L a y a d h e r e n t s h a v e p r i n c i p a l l y b e e n women and

ch ild ren . A fa ir s t u d y o f B u d d h ism a s it ex ists at the

present tim e in C hina, and a f a i r estim ate of its in flu en ce ^

reveal the f a c t th a t w h ile a few B u d d h ist p r i e s t s have

succeeded in a t t a i n i n g by r e a so n a b le study to l i t e r a t u r e ,

and to l i v e s of serv ice, n ev erth eless th e ov erw h elm in g m ass

of p r ie s ts and n uns h a v e d e g r a d e d Buddhism i n t o a system of

g r o s s s u p e r s t i t i o n s and h a v e l i v e d upon th e f e a r s o f the

p e o p le .3

T h is f i n a l outcom e o f C h in e s e Buddhism i s not strange

I s . J o h n s o n , Or i e n t a l R e l i g i o n s , C h i n a , 7 5 2 ; J . L . S t e w a r t ,
Ch i n e s e C u l t u r e a n d C u r i s t i a n l T v . p a s s i m .
2 j t i s t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t name o f d e i t y i n t h e B u d d h i s m o f
**the g r e a t c o m p a s s i o n a t e H eart.**
• ’ B r a d f o r d , C h i n a : An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2 4 8 .
 46

when we know t h a t i n C hina th e s t r a n g e s t fo r m s o f m a g ic and

d ivin ation enjoy p u b lic esteem . The i d e a s w h i c h u n d erlie

pop ular p r a c t i c e and r i t u a l a r e worthy o f A f r ic a n sa y a g es.^

The a v e r a g e C h i n e s e t h o u g h an e x c e l l e n t c itiz e n , fu ll o f common

s e n s e and shrewd i n b u s i n e s s , is in r e l i g i o u s m a tter s a v ic tim

of fatu ou s s u p e r s t i t i o n and c o m p l e t e l y d i v o r c e d from t h e m oral

and I n t e l l e c t u a l s t a n d a r d s which h e o t h e r w i s e em ploys. Thus,

"the o r d in a r y C h in ese tem p le, w hether T a o is t or B u d d h is t , is

a g h o stly sh o p w h e r e , in retu rn fo r c e r e m o n i e s w h ic h i n v o l v e

n e i t h e r moral nor i n t e l l e c t u a l effort, th e custom er i s prom ised

good lu c k , o f f s p r i n g and o t h e r m a t e r i a l b l e s s i n g s .

The s p r e a d o f B u d d h i s m t o C h i n a , h o w e v e r , is im portant

from t h e r e l i g i o u s and e t h i c a l sta n d p o in t. It i s a lso h ig h ly

im portant b ecau se of the o th e r c u l t u r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s w hich

now r e a c h e d C h i n a , and p a s s e d thence t o K o r e a and J a p a n . It

was a v e h i c l e w h i c h b r o u g h t many i n n o v a t i o n s f r o m I n d i a .

B u d d h i s t a r t h a d a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e upon C h i n e s e c i v i l i ­

za tio n . The i m a g e s i n the tem p les, the p ic t u r e s of sa in ts ,

w ith th eir t r a d i t i o n a l B u dd hist form s, pagodas, and t e m p l e s

testify to the c o n t a c t w ith th e f o r e i g n e r . As h a s b e e n said ,

ï h e C h i n e s e made B u d d h i s m q u i t e th eir own a n d m o d i f i e d its

a r t and i t s th eology, but the f o r e ig n in flu en ce is still

very apparent.

I G f . E l i o t , Hi n d u i s m a n d B u d d h i s m , I I I , 23I.
2 Ib id . , III, 231.
 47

Even t h e C h in e s e l a n g u a g e is fu ll o f B u dd hist p h r a se o ­

lo g y .^ The same t h i n g i s true in p op ular so n g s and p r o v e r b s

a nd an i n s p e c t i o n of such e n t r i e s in a C h in ese d ictio n a ry as

Pa (B u d d h a ), Kwan Y i n . Ho S h a n g (m onk) w i l l sh ow how l a r g e a n d

a lto g eth er fla tterin g a part they p la y in p op ular speech.

Taoism and C o n f u c ia n is m , too, were n o t exem pt from i t s

a l l —p e r v a d i n g i n f l u e n c e . The C h i n e s e i d e a o f t h e f u t u r e l i f e

conform s more or l e s s c lo sely t o t h e B u d d h i s t h e a v e n and

h e ll. Both t h e n and i n su cceed in g c e n tu r ie s the p h ilo so p h y

o f C on fucian t h i n k e r s was t o show t h e e f f e c t of contact w ith

Buddhism , now i n a v i g o r o u s r e a c t i o n from i t a n d now i n the

adop tion o f some o f i t s id eas. C o n fu c ia n t e m p le s were e r e c t e d

in i n c r e a s i n g numbers and im a g e s or ta b lets o f C o n f u c iu s and

p r o m in e n t C o n f u c ia n s c h o l a r s were p l a c e d in th e m , p a r t l y , it

seem s l i k e l y , i n an a t t e m p t t o c o m p e t e w i t h T a o i s t and

Buddhist sh rin es.

A ll to ld . C h in ese l i f e was p r o f o u n d l y m o d i f i e d b y

B u d d h ism a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n co n trib u tio n s t h a t came w i t h it.

Buddhism h a s b e e n a g r e a t power i n C h in a , as g rea t perhaps

as C h r istia n ity in Europe, if we rem em ber how much E u r o p e a n

art, lite ra tu re , law ,an d s c i e n c e owe t o n o n - C h r i s t i a n

p
sources.

1 W a t t e r s . E s s a y s on t h e C h i n e s e L a n g u a g e . C h a n s . V I I I . I X.
2 K . S . L a t o u r e t t e . Th e D e v e l o p m e n t o f C h i n a . 4 7 .
 48

CHAPTER IV

CRITICISM OF CHINESE BUDERISM

Buddhism i s a spontaneous e x p r e ssio n o f man *s t e n d e n c y

toward p e a c e f u l n e s s . It is a d octrin e of s a l v a t i o n from

s amsara to N ir v a n a , from s t r u g g l e to p e a c e . Gotama Bu ddha

d e c l a r e s :^

Look a b o u t you and c o n t e m p l a t e l i f e . * E v e r y t h i n g i s

t r a n s i e n t and n o t h i n g e n d u r e s . T h e r e i s b i r t h a n d ^ea.'tkj
g r o w th and d ecay; t h e r e i s c o m b i n a t i o n and s e p a r a t i o n .

A gain, one o f h i s d iscip les speaks of h i s M a s t e r ; 2

B u d d h a , o u r L o r d , was g r i e v e d a t t h e i l l s o f l i f e . He
saw t h e v a n i t y o f w o r l d l y h a p p i n e s s a n d s o u g h t s a l v a t i o n i n
t h e one t h i n g t h a t w i l l n o t f a d e or p e r i s h , b u t w i l l a b i d e
f o r e v e r and e v e r .

A c c o r d in g to t h i s view o f l i f e , then, true h ap p in ess

and s a l v a t i o n lie in the " th in gs that w i l l n o t fa d e or p e r is h ,

but w ill a b i d e f o r e v e r a n d e v e r . *’ T h i s i s N irvan a. T h is i s

th e w orld o f P l a t o n i c I d e a w hich h a s e m a n c ip a te d i t s e l f from

man a n d t h e w o r l d o f c h a n g e ; **it h a s b e c o m e s o *i n d e p e n d e n t *

as to have l o s t a ll in tr in sic c o n n e c t i o n w i t h human k n o w i n g ;

i t has soared to so *s u p e r c e l e s t i a l * an Em pyrean t h a t human

e f f o r t a n d human a s p i r a t i o n c a n no l o n g e r f o l l o w i t . "3

The e s s e n c e of l i f e a n d t h e w o r l d a s we know them i s

change, sp on tan eity, crea tio n . To t h e senses, there i s no

2 1b i d Th e G o s p e l o f Bud d h a . 2.
3F .C .Û . S ch iller, Studl e s i n Humani mm. 5 7 ,
 4-9

such th in g as t h a t w h ic h a b i d e s f o r e v e r and e v e r . "When we

p u t back our b e i n g i n t o our w i l l , and our w i l l itse lf in to

the im p u lsion i t |)r o lo n g s , " a c c o r d in g to Henri B ergson.

"we u n d e r s t a n d , we f e e l , that r e a l i t y is a perpetu al grow th,

a c r e a tio n pursued w ithout e n d . "1

O r i g i n a l Buddhism , a s we h a v e s e e n in the f o r e g o in g

chapter, aim ed a t N ir v a n a and m oral im provem ent. T h i s aim

was t o b e a t t a i n e d b y i n c u l c a t i n g v i r t u e , e n co u ra g in g the

a scetic life , and u r g in g p e r s o n s o f a l l c a s t e s and b oth

sexes t o aim a t d e l i j i v e r a n c e from th e e v i l s of ex isten ce or

th e w orld o f change. I t based i t s t e a c h i n g on t h e e x i s t i n g

d o c t r in e o f m etem psychosis* of t h e g o d s and o t h e r c l a s s e s

o f b ein g , and o f h e a v e n and h e l l . By t h e t r a n s m i g r a t i o n o f

a lliso u lsi i n h e a v e n or e a r t h , w h e t h e r g o d s , m en , demons, or

in f e r i o r an im als, are lin k e d together in to one c h a in o f

anim ated e x i s t e n c e , a n d c o m p o s e one w o r l d . It is the b u s in e s s

o f a Bu dd ha a n d a B o d h i s a t t w a t o i n s t r u c t these b ein g s in

m oral tru ths, an d ^ ssist them t o e s c a p e f r o m a l l the s i x form s

of lif e , in to a s ta te of p erfect e n lig h t e n m e n t and t r a n ­

q u illity . To h e l p creatu res to e s c a p e from e x i s t e n c e , "to

c e a s e from a l l w rong-d oin g, to g e t v i r t u e , to c le a n s e o n e *s

own h e a r t , t h i s is the r e l i g i o n of the B u d d h a . "2

I B e r g s o n , C r e a t i v e E v o l u t i o n , 239; James, Th e W i l l to
Be l i e v e . 1 7 5 - I 7 6 .
S Q u o t e ' i b y Rh v s - D a v i d ' s BudiVil sm. 6 2 .
 50

The f o u r t r u t h s o f B u d d h i s m t h a t we h a v e e x p o u n d e d i n

t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r may h e s t a t e d sum m arily a s f o l l o w s ;

(I) S u fferin g i s reco g n ized as t h e s u p r e m e a nd u n i v e r s a l

r ea lity of l i f e ; ( 2 ) the cau se of s u f f e r in g i s d esire; (3 )

the a b o litio n of d esire is th e o n ly d e l i v e r a n c e from s u f f e r i n g ;

a n d ( a ) t h e way o f sa lv a tio n i s by means o f c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s

o f m e d i t a t i o n and a c t i v e d iscip lin e. In a l l th is, t h e w orld

is a s s u m e d t o b e c h a n g i n g and d e c a y i n g . In c o n n e c t i o n w ith

the s e c o n d and t h e th ird of these truths a r is e s th e problem

of th e m eaning o f k a rm a (d eed s) and N i r v a n a . Let us rev iew

c r itic a lly the grounds o f t h e s e fundam ental tru ths of

B u d d h i sm.

R egarding th e f i r s t truth, we may s a y t h a t i t is

d ecid ed ly a p a r t ia l view o f l i f e . E x is te n c e does n ot n e c e s­

sa r ily in volve su ffer in g or f a i l u r e . R e g a r d le ss w hether l i f e

resu lts in ev ita b ly in f a i l u r e o r i n ::.i. s u c c e s s , it is the

dynam ic a c t i v i t y that c o u n t s a s th e worth o f l i v i n g . In th e

words of A r i s t o t l e , "The a c t s o f w o r k i n g a r e w h at d e t e r m i n e

the ch a r a cte r o f l i f e . T h e s e n s a tio n o f s u f f e r in g i s n e ith e r

ve
o r i g i n a l nor purposi^. S u f f e r i n g or p a i n h a s o n l y b i o l o g i c a l

sig n ifica n ce for the o n -g o in g p r o c e s s o f l i f e . It is a sign

that there i s an o b s t a c l e or problem to be overcom e. It is

true that t h e human m i n d c r a v e s a f t e r s o m e th in g w hich is

p e r m a n e n t and f i x e d . Bu t l i f e itse lf is t h i s c h a n g i n g and

i T he Nicom achean E t h i c s , I, I9 .
 51

cravin g. What a p p e a r s p e r m a n e n t a n d f i x e d i s an i l l u s i o n

c r e a t e d by our c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g In tellect in view in g the on­

g o in g advance o f the c r e a t iv e im pu lse o f l i f e . ^

Everywhere there is a ctiv ity and c h a n g e . N oth in g i s

s o l i d and r i g i d . E v e n w h a t we c a l l m a t t e r i n the sense of

permanence d oes n o t e x i s t . The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e o f Paul sen

is worth q u o t i n g : 2

S p o n t a n e o u s a c t i v i t y e v e r y w h e r e . Your i n e r t , r i g i d m a t t e r ,
m o v a b le o n l y by im p a c t , i s a phantom t h a t owes i t s e x i s t e n c e ,
n o t to o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t to c o n c e p tu a l s p e c u l a t i o n . • . .
M odern n a t u r a l s c i e n c e h a s u t t e r l y d i s c a r d e d t h e i d e a o f s u c h
a b s o l u t e l y d ead and r i g i d b o d i e s . I t s m o l e c u l e s and atom s
a r e fo r m s o f t h e g r e a t e s t i n n e r c o m p l e x i t y and m o b i l i t y *
Hundreds and th o u sa n d s o f atom s a r e u n i t e d in t h e m o l e c u l e
i n t o a s y s t e m t h a t p r e s e r v e s a m o re o r l e s s s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m
by th e m utual i n t e r a c t i o n o f i t s p a r t s .

Thus, 7/hat i s n o t a c t i v e and d i r e c t i v e is an i l l u s i o n

du e t o a b s t r a c t sp ecu la tio n . The e s s e n c e of l i f e is se lf­

d irectiv e a n d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . 3 The l o g i c a l co n clu sio n of

B u dd hist d o c t r in e is the d i r e c t d en ia l of th is se lf-a c tiv ity

of l i f e . D eath and n o n - e x i s t e n c e w ou ld be o n ly i t s lo g ic a l

g o a l. It is further a f a ls e lo g ic t o a r g u e t h a t b e c a u s e we

c a n n o t g e t w h a t we w a n t i n th is life , w h a t we g e t is su fferin g .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is n o t alw ays true that w h e n e v e r we

get what we w a n t , we f e e l p leasu re. T here i s no p u r e p l e a ­

s u r e w hich d o e s n o t presum e t h e e x i s t e n c e of p ain . To a i m

O f. B e r g so n , M in d-E n ergy^ 17- I 8 , 2 3 .

2p. P au l s e n . I n t r o d u c t i o n to P h i l o s o n h y , lO I.
3 C f, B .P .B ow n e, M eta n h v sic% 6 5 ,
at p leasu re as the goal of l i f e is not the tru e con cep tion

of l i f e .

The m e r e f a c t o f w a n tin g any t h in g i n v o l v e s a c t i v i t y ,

and s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e a r e n e c e s s a r y c o u n t e r - p a r t s o f i t .

S u c c e s s and f a i l u r e are not t h e e n d s o f l i f e *s s t r i t n g . Bu t

the su cceed in g w ell and f a i l i n g n o b l y i s the supreme end o f

life . It is " p r e t t y much a k i n d o f l i v i n g w ell and d o in g

w e l l ."1 There i s on ly the a c t i v i t y of s t r i v i n g and d o in g

w h ich i s a l o n e perm anent and a b i d in g . "In t h e w o r l d o f m i n d

n oth in g i s a l r e a d y done, n oth in g i s because it is fin ish ed

and c o m p le te ; a ll is alw ays d o i n g . "2

The B u d d h i s t * s c l a i m that d esire is the c a u se of a ll

s u f f e r i n g may b e a s t r o n g p o i n t in h i s d octrin e. It is th is

p oin t o f v i e w i n w h i c h S c h o p e n h a u e r was i n t e r e s t e d . Schopen­

hauer, lik e a Buddha, in sists that the W ill is a perpetu al

d esire to b e , th e never en d in g sou rce o f the w orld o f

phenomena. As l o n g a s t h e r e is such a w i l l , there w ill be

a u n iv erse. Our i n n e r m o s t e s s e n c e i s th is w ill and i t never

^ A r i s t o t l e , on . c i t . . 14.
2 G e n t i l e , Th e T h e o r y o f Mind a s P u r e A c t . 2 0 ; t h i s i s no
p l a c e t o e x p o u n d e x t e n s i v e l y t h e t h e o r i e s o f l i f e a s an a c t i v e
t h i n g . E ven t h e t e a c h i n g o f Budd ha r e c o g n i z e s t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e w o r l d w i t h men i s c h a n g i n g a n d n o n - p e r m a n e n t . R i s m i s t a k e
l i e s i n t h e d e n i a l t h a t t h e o b j e c t s o f o u r human e x p e r i e n c e
a r e r e a l . C h r i s t i a n i t y , m o d e r n s c i e n c e , a n d a l l souAd
p h i l e e o p h i e s too a g r e e i n a s c r i b i n g b o th r e a l i t y and c h a n g e -
a b l e n e s s to th e o b j e c t s o f p e r c e p tu a l e x p e r ie n c e .
 53

d ies. The w i l l , b ein g the e n d le s s source of a l l life , is a lso

the o r ig in of a ll e v il. The w o r l d w h i c h i t produces, in stea d

of b ein g the " b est p o s s i b l e w orld" o f L e i b n i z , is the w orst

of a ll. The s a l v a t i o n f r o m t h i s W i l l to l i v e is p o ssib le

o n l y when t h e W i l l , e n lig h t e n e d by th e in te llig en ce as to the

in a n ity of l i f e and i t p l e a s u r e s , turns a g a in st itse lf, negates

itse lf, renounces b ein g, life , and en jo y m en t. T h is d o c t r in e o f

s a lv a t io n by n e g a tio n of the w i l l is u n d o u b te d ly borrow ed from

the g o sp el o f Buddhism .^

The n e g a t i o n o f the w i l l by i t s e l f , however, rem ains

fo rev er a m ystery, u n less the w i l l is regarded o r ig in a lly

a s a c o n s c i o u s and s e l f - d i r e c t i v e a ctiv ity . S u icid e, for

exam ple, is not don e b y a b l i n d d e s i r e or w i l l . The f a c t

that i t never occurs in t h e l o w e r a n i m a l s shows t h a t a

c o n s c i o u s w i l l h a s done i t , alth ou gh the a c t is sh o rt-sig h ted .

The w i l l is a lso a d esir e for ex isten ce. A c c o r d in g to

S c h o p e n h a u e r a n d Gotama, it is the source of everyth in g that

e x ists. It is the m otive fo r c e o f a l l crea tio n s. W ithout i t ,

n oth in g w i l l come t o e x i s t . To d e n y t h e c r e a t i v e f o r c e of

d esire, then, is to a n n i h i l a t e everyth in g. If a ll d esires

are to be n e g a te d , the d e s i r e f o r N ir v a n a a l s o m ust be
d en ied . N o th in g n ess, i.e . N irvana, is the o n ly l o g i c a l

outcom e o f Buddhism , i n w hich t h e r e i s no d e s i r e , an d no

IC f, D ie W elt a l s W i l l e und V o r s t e l l u n g . I, 3^9•

 54

self. "The e x i s t e n c e of the s e l f is an i l l u s i o n , and t h e r e

is no w r o n g i n th is w orld, no v i c e , no s i n , e x c e p t what

f l o w s from t h e a s s e r t i o n of se lf. . . . The a t t a i n m e n t of

truth is p o ssib le o n l y when s e l f i o r e c o g n i z e d a s an i l l u s l o n . l

A ll life h a s an i n t e r e s t in c o n f r o n t i n g t h e w o r l d and

th is in terest is what makes l i f e a s s e r t and d e s i r e . T h is i s

what m akes l i f e worth w h ile by s t r i v i n g a f t e r the n o t - y e t -

a tta in e d .^ T h is str iv in g or e x p e c t a n c y o f i n t e r e s t with i t s

w h ole p a s t p r e s s i n g a g a i n s t it g i v e s form and s u b s t a n c e to

the p r e s e n t a c tiv ity and i s c a r r ie d a lo n g in it. It is the

in co rp o ra tio n of p a st ex p erien ce in p r e sen t a c t i v i t y , and

not r e p e titio n , and n o t a l s o resem b lan ce o f p r e s e n t e x p e r ie n c e

to p ast e x p e r ie n c e . 3 w hich c o n s t i t u t e s r e c o g n i t i o n and

in te llig en ce . In t h i s way. the l i f e c o n tin u a lly in corp orates

t h e unknown i n t o t h e a l r e a d y known. T h is i s the c r e a tiv e

a ctiv ity of l i f e itse lf. T h is v iew i s u n a v o id a b le once i t is

granted that in terest or l i f e is e sse n tia lly a ctiv e a nd

te le o lo g ic a l.

The t h i r d tru th o f Buddhism, that of the d e liv e r a n c e

from s u f f e r i n g b y t h e a b o l i t i o n of d esire, is a doubtful one.

D esire does not lea d n e c e s s a r ily to su fferin g or f a i l u r e .

D esire, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , if c o r r e c t l y d i r e c t e d , may s e r v e

t o e l i m i n a t e much o f human s u f f e r i n g w h i c h i s due t o thw arted

^ P a u l C a r u s , Th e Go s o e l o f Buddha , 3 4 .
2 C f. H . B . P e r r y , A G e n e r a l T h eory o f V a l u e , 250
3H. W .Carr, A T h eory o f M onads, I 7 0 .
 55

d esires. "D esire is the so cia l force, and where t h e r e is no

d esire, no w i l l , there i s no f o r c e , no s o c i a l energy. C iv ili­

zation is the product o f the a c t i v e so cia l energy. To u s e

R atzen h ofer*s term in ology, t h e r e must he a l i v e l y in te r e st

or t h e r e c a n b e no a c h i e v e m e n t .

The f o u r t h t r u t h , o r t h e way w h i c h l e a d s to th e e x t i n c ­

tion of su fferin g , d e a ls w ith the n ob le e i g h t f o l d p a th s such

as r ig h t view , r ig h t conduct, a n d so f o r t h . O b v i o u s l y we do

n o t know what t h e word " r i g h t " m eans h e r e . From w h at t h e

Budd ha w a s wont to s a y : 2 "Come d i s c i p l e s , lead a h oly l i f e

for the com plete ex tin ctio n of su fferin g ,:" the "righ t" is

-the- -cempl e-fee- ex-fe-ine-feden- e f - e - u f f e«*4 n-gi -i*- -fehe-î'arê ght-i*- -i-e

an alogou s to t h e m e a n in g o f " h o ly . " H oly l i f e is a life

a c c o r d in g to the fo u r n ob le tr u th s w h ic h l e a d s to th e

ex tin ctio n of s e lf. "R ight v i e w , " for e x a m p le , means s i m p l y

a know ledge of th e fo u r t r u t h s . "R ight r e s o l v e " is to r e n o u n c e

p l e a s u r e s and d e s i r e s , t o b e a r n o m a l i c e a n d t o do no h a r m .

"R ight c o n d u c t ," is t o a b s t a in : , from t a k i n g l i f e , from s t e a l ­

in g, from im m o r a lity . But i t is q u e s t io n a b le whether th is

m o r a l i t y o f r e n u n c i a t i o n can l e a d to the e x t i n c t i o n of the

e v ils and s u f f e r i n g o f e x i s t e n c e . The e n l i g h t e n m e n t w h i c h i s

sa id to be a t t a i n a b l e by a k n ow led ge o f the fo u r t r u t h s is

im p o ssib le w ith ou t the a ffir m a tio n of w ill to d o . The i d e a

I f . Ward, P u r e S o c i o l o g y . 3 4 .
2 C f . C a r u s , The G o s p e l o f B u d d h a , 3 0 f f .
 56

o f e ig h t f o ld path s alread y r ec o g n ize s the f a c t that there i s

su c h a w i l l and t h a t t h i s w orld i s f u l l of e v il and s h o r t ­

com ings to he c o r r e c t e d by th e w i l l . E v il, or s u f f e r i n g in

t h i s w orld, is necessary if a moral w orld i s p o s s i b l e . 1

The B u d d h i s t d o c t r i n e o f kar ma i s n o t h i n g more than a

k in d o f s u p e r s t it i o n . I t may b e t r u e t h a t utoat a man i s and

d o e s i n one e x i s t e n c e o r a t o n e t i m e may b e p a s s e d on t o h i s

p o s t e r i t y f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l y lo n g tim e; but h is d e e d s can

n ot be the ca u se of h is b io lo g ic a l r eb ir th . There i s no

ground f o r a f f ir m in g th a t o n e *s d e e d s c o n s t i t u t e the essence

of the s o u l a n d t r a n s m i g r a t e a s an e n t i t y in to other b ein gs

a c c o r d in g to the n a tu re of d eed s. If t h e s u b s t a n t i a l perma­

n e n c e and i d e n t i t y of the s o u l a r e d e n i e d a s Buddhism d o e s ,

tr a n sm ig r a tio n o f any th in g i s im p o ssib le, for it im p lies

m ore t h a n t h e r e s u l t o f w h at a man i s and d o e s . But there is

a soul o r an a c t i v e e n t i t y w hich e n d u re s i n the m ig r a tin g

process. The i d e a o f karma t h e r e f o r e co n tra d icts the den ial

of self.

W ith r e g a r d t o N i r v a n a s c h o l a r s f a l l to a g ree w hether

it meant t o t a l a n n ih ila tio n or a s t a t e of p a in le ssn e ss in

w hich p o s i t i v e e x isten ce is p r e s e r v e d . Max M u l l e r , R h ys-D avids

a n d S i r C h a r l e s E l i o t may b e c i t e d in favor of the l a t t e r

in terp reta tio n . A cco rd in g to R h y s-D a v id s, N irvana i s "the

^ P au lsen . A System o f E t h i c a. 321-339: H o e ffd in g .

 57

ex tin ctio n of that p a in fu l, grasp in g c o n d itio n o f mind

and h e a r t , which w ou ld o t h e r w i s e , a c c o r d in g to the m y ste r y

o f Karma, be the c a u se o f renewed i n d i v i d u a l ex isten ce ." ^

C h a r le s E l i o t d e f i n e s N irvana a s "the c e s s a t i o n of a

p rocess not the a n n i h i la t i o n o f an e x i s t e n c e . If I take

a w alk, n oth in g i s a n n i h i l a t e d when t h e w a l k c o m e s t o an

e nd; a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f a c t i o n h a s c e a s e d . "2

A lo g ic a l in terp reta tio n of the B u d d h ist d o c t r in e

however fa v o r s the c o n c lu s io n t h a t N ir v a n a meant t o t a l

a n n ih ila tio n . T h i s we h a v e s e e n in the above ex am in a tion o f

the fo u r tru ths. Max M u l l e r seem s to adm it in a n o th e r p l a c e

that i t meant c o m p le t e a n n i h i l a t i o n . 3 A cco rd in g to Paul Carus,

"The e x t i n c t i o n of s e lf is sa lv a tio n ; the a n n i h i l a t i o n o f self

is the c o n d it io n o f e n lig h ten m en t; the b lo t t i n g out o f s e l f

is N ir v a n a . "4 The l i t e r a l m e a n i n g o f th e term N ir v a n a i s

"blow ing out" or c o o l i n g . "B low ing o u t " s u g g e s t s e x t i n c t i o n .5

Modern s c i e n c e a n d p h i l o s o p h y v i e w th e w orld a s a forw ard

p r o c e s s and i t s cessa tio n is eq u ivalen t to its d estru ctio n .

B e in g must be b eco m in g . E x i s t e n c e m ust e n d u r e and t h i s

d u ration i s the e s s e n c e o f becom ing. B e r g s o n m o re t h a n a n y

1 R h y s - D a v i d , Bu d d h i sm. I I I .
^ B l i o t , o p . c i t . . 2 3 2 ; M u l l e r , B u d d h a g h o s h a *s P a r a b l e s .
x l i ; S a u n d e r , Epo c h s i n B u d d h i s t H i s t o r y , x x - x v i i .
3 M u l1 e r , The S i x S y s t e m s o f I n d i a n P h i l o s o p h v , 4 8 9 •
4 C a r u s , op . c i t . . 4 .
5s. R a d h a k r i s h n a n who h o l d s t h a t N i r v a n a i s t h e g o a l o f
p e r f e c t i o n and n o t t h e a b y s s o f a n n i h i l a t i o n s a y s t h a t c o o l ­
i n g or b l o w i n g o u t s u g g e s t s n o t " c o m p lète a n n i h i l a t i o n , b u t
o n l y th e d y in g o u t o f h o t p a s s i o n . " But t h i s d y in g o u t p r o c e s s
n e v e r th e le s s r e p r e se n ts the n e g a tiv e p r o c e ss of exterm in ation ;
o f . R adhakrishnan, In d ia n P h ilo s o p h y. I , 447.
 5ü

one e l s e is very c le a r on t h i s p o i n t
I f our e x i s t e n c e w ere composed o f s e p a r a t e s t a t e s w it h
a n i m p a s s i v e e g o to u n i t e t h e m , f o r u s t h e r e w o u l d h e no
d u r a t i o n . F o r an e g o w h i c h d o e s n o t c h a n g e d o e s n o t e n d u r e ,
a n d a p s y c h i c s t a t e w h i c h r e m a i n s t h e same a s l o n g a s i t i s
n o t r e p la c e d by th e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e does not endure e i t h e r .

We h a v e a l r e a d y to ld in t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r how f a r

the in f lu e n c e o f Buddhism s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t the v a r io u s

p h a se s o f C h in ese l i f e . R elig io n s, ed u cation , lan gu age, and

art a lik e a r e c o lo r e d by B uddhist i d e a s . That Buddhism

s h o u l d h a v e o b t a i n e d i n China such a f a v o r a b l e r e c e p t i o n and

a permanent statu s is in d eed rem ark able. C h in ese a re v ery

d ifferen t from H in d u s b o t h i n t e m p e r and o u t l o o k . The

B uddhist i d e a l o f a s c e t i c i s m and c e l i b a c y c e r t a i n l y ign ored

the p o p u la r C h in ese v ie w that to h a v e a son i s not on ly a

duty, but a ls o essen tia l for those sa crifices w i t h o u t w hich

th e departed s p i r i t cannot have p eace. T h is i s the reason

t h a t C o n f u c i u s a l w a y s o p p o s e d B u d d h i s m a n d why o f f i c i a l

p ersecu tio n s o ften broke out. The m a i n r e a s o n s f o r the

p op ular r e c e p t io n o f B u d d h i s m b y t h e w o r l d l y C h i n e s e may b e

four: F ir st, the s u p p le n e s s o f the c le r g y overcame d i f f i ­

c u ltie s o f p rop agation by m y s tify in g , p ic to ria liz in g : the

o rig in a l d o c t r i n e o f Buddhism . Fa H i e n , the f i r s t of the

C h in ese P il g r i m s to In d ia, v irtu a lly s a y s t h a t B u d d h ism w a s

IBergson. C reative E v o lu tio n . 4.

 59

b ein g transform ed in to a l e s s m on a stic, m ore p i c t u r e s q u e ,

and more u n i v e r s a l r e l i g i o n , M a h ay a n a, a n d was f i t t e d to

capture p e o p le s l e s s a s c e t ic and o t h e r - w o r l d l y than t h o s e

of I n d i a . 1 In t h i s way, th e C h in ese B u d d h ists "constructed,

as they c a l l e d it, a la rg e vesselJ of sa lv a tio n , the

Mahayana, i n w hich t h e m u l t i t u d e s w o u l d f i n d room a n d c o u l d

he s a fe ly ca rried o v e r , "2 S e c o n d , it is a p op ular ten et that

if a man b e c o m e s a monk, a i l h i s a n c e s t o r s go t o H e a v e n . T h is

is natural i n C hina where f i l i a l duty r u l e s e v e r y th in g e l s e .

T h ird , t h e T a o i s t p h i l o s o p h y h a d made f a m i l i a r the id ea s

o f q u ietism and m y s t i c i s m . P r o f e s s o r O ka k ur a s a y s :3

C o n f u c ia n China w ou ld n e v e r h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e I d e a l i s m
o f I n d i a n B u d d h i sm h a d n o t L a o t z e a n d T a o i s m t o w a r d s t h e
e n d o f t h e Chow d y n a s t y p r e p a r e d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n
f o r th e d evelop m en t o f b o th th e s e e x tr em e s o f A s i a t i c t h o u g h t .

Fourth, t h e a g e was u n s e t t l e d , harassed a lik e by

fo reig n i n v a s i o n and c i v i l strife. I n s u c h t i m e s when e v e n

a c tiv e natures tire of un su ccessfu l stru g g les, th e asylum o f

a m o n a s t e r y h a s a t t r a c t i o n s f o r m any.

It is unnecessary to r e p e a t what h a s b een a l r e a d y said

reg a r d in g the e v il effects o f Buddhism upon C h i n e s e l i f e .

Lack o f i n d iv i d u a l is m and s t r u g g l e , and s u p e r s t i t i o n fostered

by the m ass o f ignorant f o llo w e r s , are some o f t h e b a d s i d e s

I C f . W . B . S o o t h i l l , Th e T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . 1 0 4 - 8 .
2C arus, pp. _ci t . , x .
3Q.U0ted b y ^ o o t h i l l , o n . c i t . . 1 2 0 .
 6o

o f C h in e s e Buddhism . As B u d d h i s m h a s b e c o m e an e s s e n t i a l p a r t

o f C h in ese l i f e , the above p o in ts o f c r i t i c i s m o f O rigin al

Buddhism can a l s o b e a p p l i e d to C h in e s e Buddhism . In th is

resp ect, C h in ese c i v i l i z a t i o n i s n o t much d i f f e r e n t from t h a t

o f In d ia.
Many W e s t e r n a n d E a s t e r n w r i t e r s a r g u e that E astern

c iv iliz a tio n d ev elo p ed m a in ly in the sphere of the sp iritu a l

w h ile W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n d e v e l o p e d much m o re i n m a t e r i a l

scien ces. P r o f e s s o r Ward p u t s i t " S u f f i c e it to say that

O rien ta l c iv iliz a tio n seem s to have c o n s i s t e d ch iefly in

w h a t may b e c a l l e d sp iritu a l cu ltu re, la rg ely ig n o rin g

m aterial c u l t u r e . " I do n o t thin k th is is a fa ir com parison

of the two c i v i l i z a t i o n s . P rovided the term s " sp iritu a l"

and " m a t e r ia l" m u st b e d e f i n e d , m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l

c u lt u r e s cannot be se p a r a te d so d i s t i n c t l y as that: t h e y do

not e x ist ex clu siv e ly . S p iritu a lism and m a t e r i a l i s m seem

but two a s p e c t s o f o n e a n d t h e same t h i n g - - t h e dynamic

a c tiiriity of l i f e . Prom t h i s , we may c o n c l u d e that the

E a st did not ig n o r e the m a te r ia l sid e j u s t a s t h e West d i d

not n eg lect the sp iritu a l sid e. In o t h e r w ords, if th e East

is backward in m a t e r i a l i s m , she . i s a l s o backward in sp iritu ­

a l ism , f o r a sound m a t e r ia lis m or s p i r i t u a l ism c a n n o t e x i s t

w ith ou t the o th e r . And t h e same t h i n g i s tru e w ith the

iF .L .W ard . P ure...S o c io lo g y . 32; K lsb io Satom i,

C iv iliz a tio n , ix .
 6l

W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n . It seems to u s t h a t sp iritu a lism in

the sense of a c tiv ity and becom ing i s the fu n dam ental, and

m a teria lism is the e x te r n a l view o f it.

 62

CHAPTER V

TAOISM: DOCTRINE OF TAO

Taoism i s one o f the th r e e system s o f C h in ese thought.

Our p u r p o s e in th e p r e se n t ch ap ter i s to d iscover the

o r ig in a l nature o f Taoism and i t s p lace in C h in ese e t h i c s .

In the f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r , we s t a t e d th a t C h in ese

Buddhism though g r e a t l y m o d i f i e d in C hina from i t s p rim itiv e

stock, was o r i g i n a l l y im p o r te d from I n d i a , Taoism a s w e l l as

C on fu cian ism , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is in d ig en o u s. A ll three

w e r e made a d a p t a b l e to th e m a s s e s o f C hina, and t h e y h a v e

been o c c a s io n a lly a l s o the r e c i p i e n t s of Im p erial r e c o g n it io n

and f a ^ o r . In t h i s way t h e y may b e c o n s i d e r e d a s three

asp ects of the e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n or e t h i c s of the c o u n tr y .

A c c o r d i n g l y from t im e to tim e each h a s e n j o y e d i t s p erio d s

o f a s c e n d e n c y through p a tr o n a g e by th e govern m ent. B y mak­

in g one o f the t h r e e system s a s t a t e r e l i g i o n a lter n a tely ,

the i m p e r i a l govern m ent o f C hina h a s e x e r t e d a d e c i s i v e in ­

flu en ce upon t h e tran sfo rm in g of t h e c o n t e n t s and s p r e a d

of these r e lig io n s u n til the r e c e n t r e v o lu t io n . In a d d i t i o n

to the in t e r f e r e n c e o f th e governm ent, these d o c t r i n e s were

not peaceful tow ard each o t h e r , and t h i s c o n flic t which was

g e n e r a te d both by d i f f e r e n c e s of d octrin e and b y j e a l o u s y

c r e a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t *s f a v o r a l s o c a u s e d them t o h a v e
common f e a t u r e s am ong t h e m s e l v e s .
 63

What i s the r e a so n t h a t we s p e a k o f three r e lig io n s

o f C hina, when i n r e a l i t y they have so many f e a t u r e s in

common? I s th is the r e a s o n th a t e v e r y C h in ese p r o f e s s e s

the three r e l ig i o n s a t the same t i m e , as some s u g g e s t ? ^ As

far as e th ic a l im p lic a t io n s are concerned in the r e l i g i o u s

b e lie fs of the C h in ese p e o p le , i t may b e s a i d that the so-

ca lled t h r e e r e l i g i o n s a r e n o t h i n g b u t one g i g a n t i c system

of grotesq u e id o la try of e a r th ly h ap p in ess. In t h i s sense,

there i s o n l y one r e l i g i o n in C hina, that of p r a c t i c a li t y

and s u p e r s t i t i o n . Dr. DeGroot c o n c l u d e s sim ila rly that there

is o n ly one r e l i g i o n i n China; but th is one r e l i g i o n h e c o n ­

ceiv es t o be a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l and i m m a n e n t i s t i c r e l i g i o n .

The f o l l o w i n g i s w h a t h e ■s u b s t a n t i a l l y s a y s : ^ The f a c t is

that the three r e lig io n s are three branches, g r o w in g from

a common s t e m , w h ic h h a s e x i s t e d from p r e - h i s t o r i c t i m e s .

T h is stem i s the r e l ig i o n o f U n iv ersa lism . It is the one

m ain r e l i g i o n of C hina.

Dr. D e G ro o t f u r t h e r m a i n t a i n s that th is o rig in a l

r e lig io n , or U n iv e r s a i ism , d iv id ed i t s e l f in to two b r a n c h e s .

T aoism and C o n f u c i a n i s m , w h ile sim u ltan eou sly. Buddhism i n

an u n i v e r s a l i s t i c f o r m c a l l e d Mahayana w a s g r a f t e d u p o n i t .

It is, however, a d ifficu lt th esis to argue fo r the f a c t

^ C f . C h a r l e s E l i o t , H i n d u i sm a n d Buddhi sm . I l l , 224 f f .
2 jr. D e G r o o t , Re l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . 2 - 3 .
 64

that there is o n l y one r e l i g i o n s u c h a s U n i v e r s a l i sm i n

C hina. In f a c t , t h e C h in e s e mind n e v e r can f e e l itse lf at

home i n a n y o n e th in g l i k e u n iv ersa lism or tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m .^

There i s no d e f i n i t e r elig io n i n C h in a, although there are

r e l i g i o u s and s u p e r s t i t i o u s p r a c t i c e s in c o n n e c tio n w ith

ancestor w orsh ip . It is true that o r ig in a l Taoism c o n t a i n s

elem en ts of tran scen d en talism , but th e y had to be i n t e r ­

p reted i n a way t h a t c o u l d f i t them to the p r a c t i c a l and

w o r l d l y m inded C h in e s e p e o p l e . The su p r a m u n d a n e h a s to be

transform ed in to a mun dane a f f a i r . In th is tran sform ation

much d i s t o r t i o n o c c u r r e d and s u p e r s t i t i o u s e le m e n t s un­

d o u b t e d ly were c r e a t e d . T h is i s th e m ain r e a s o n f o r a ssertin g

" a ll three ( san k i a o ) a r e e q u a l l y i d o l a t r o u s . "2

T h eoretical sp ecu la tio n is u s u a l l y ap t to tr a n s c e n d the

m undane a f f a i r s o f the m ass. Buddha Gotama, m é d i t â t i n g under

a B o-tree, d i s c o v e r e d an e t h e r e a l N ir v a n a w hich t r a n s c e n d s

the impermanency o f a l l e x isten ces. L a o t z e whose e t h i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y we a r e g o i n g to s t u d y h e r e f o u n d Tao w h i c h i s

b u t a n o t h e r name f o r B uddha *s N i r v a n a o r P l a t o ’ s i d e a l w o r l d .

The n a t u r e o f Tao, accord in g to L a o t z e , i s n o n -action ( wu

w e i ), or t r a n q u i l l i t y , i n w h i c h we m u s t l i v e and h a v e our

b e in g in order to sa v e o u r s e l v e s from t h i s w o rld o f change

1 F o r f u r t h e r s t a t e m e n t on t h i s p o i n t , s e e Chap. II.
2 W . A . M a r t i n . Th e C h i n e s e , 9 8 .
 65

and s t r u g g l e . Thus* L a o t z e *s t e a c h i n g , as r eflected in h i s

o n l y work, Tao Teh C h i n a , b e a r s a r e m a r k a b l e r e s e m b l a n c e to

that of Gotama o r P l a t o . J B e f o r e we c r i t i c i s e the r e s u l t s

o f Taoism , it is h elp fu l first to a c q u a i n t o u r s e l v e s w i t h

the l i f e and e t h i c a l teach in gs of L aotze, who i s known a s

the f i r s t and "old" p h i l o s o p h e r o f C hina.

L ittle or n o t h i n g i s known o f L a o t z e . H i s v e r y e x i s t e n c e

has som etim es b een d i s p u t e d . But h i s t o r y r e p o r t s that he

was b o r n i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f T chu , in t h e y e a r B . C . 6 0 4 . He

w as t h e r e f o r e a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f B uddha i n I n d i a a n d an o l d e r

contem porary o f C o n fu c iu s in h i s own c o u n t r y . L ike the form er,

L aotze p r e fe r r e d r e t i r e d life in order to d e v o te h i m s e l f to

q u iet m ed ita tio n in th e m ou n tain s o f t h e L i n g P o . He h a d

hoped thus to p a s s a t once beyond the c i r c l e o f h i s w orld ly

a c tiv itie s. B u t on h i s way t o r e t i r i n g h e was b e s o u g h t b y

h is fo llo w ers to comm it h i s p r i n c i p l e s to w r i t i n g f o r the

b en efit o f hum anity, a n d t h e Tao Teh C h i n g i s sa id to have

been the r e s u l t . N ev erth eless, we a r e n o t a t a l l sure that

t h e b o o k was w r i t t e n b y h i m o r t h a t it con tain s r e a lly any

of h is e x a c t w ord s.^

H is teach in g, in b r i e f , ifi t h a t t r u e p e a c e was t o b e

a tta in ed o n l y b y c e a s i n g to striv e a n d o r d e r i n g o n e *s l i f e

i T h i s r e s e m b l a n c e o f d o c t r i n e b e tw e e n Taoism and Buddhism

i s s o m e tim e s a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e f a c t t h a t L a o t z e t r a v e l l e d
t o I n d i a ; b u t t h e r e i s no d e f i n i t e r e c o r d f o r h i s t r i p t o
th at country.
2 G f . Hu S h i h , Ou t l i n e s o f t h e H i s t o r y o f C h i n e s e P h i l . . 1 . 4 7 f f .
 D<

by th e fu n d am en tal p r i n c i p l e s embodied, i n t h e o l d e r C h i n e s e

t e r m " T a o , " m e a n i n g "Way" o r " R o a d ," F o r t h e m a t e r i a l trapp­

in g s of c iv iliz a tio n be had but l i t t l e use. C iv iliza tio n to

h i s m ind had l a r g e l y f a i l e d and h e saw t h e c u r e a p p a r e n t l y

in m ysticism and a r e t u r n to a s i m p l e r , 1ess-fo rm a lly c u l­

tured l i f e . The f a i t h t h a t g r e w up o u t o f h i s teach in gs is

c a lled T aoist R e lig io n .

The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f L a o t z i a n Taoism t h u s i s th e Tao.

m eta p h y sica l p r in c ip le of the U n iv e r s e . Every e x is t e n c e h a s

Tao. E v e r y t h i n g m oves and h a s i t s b e in g in i t . It is the

essence of every th in g that is or w i l l be. B u t w h at i s the

nature of t h e Tao? L a o t z e i n the f i r s t of h is Tao Teh C h i n g

says :^
The Tao t h a t c a n b e d i s c o v e r e d i s n o t t h e e t e r n a l T a o .
The q u a l i t y w h i c h c a n b e named i s n o t i t s t r u e a t t r i b u t e .
The U n n a m e a b l e o r t h e N o n - e x i s t e n t i s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f H e a v e n
and E a r t h . But t h e N am eable or t h e E x i s t e n t i s the m o th er o f
a l l t h i n g s . T h e r e f o r e d o e s t h e w i s e man who i s d e s i r e l e s s
seek a fte r , the f i r s t M ystery of the N o n - e x i s t e n t , w h ile he
who i s b o u n d b y d e s i r e s e e s o n l y t h e a p p e a r a n c e s ( e x i s t e n c e s )
o f t h e U l t i m a t e . The N o n - e x i s t e n t a n d E x i s t e n t a r e i d e n t i c a l
i n t h e i r s o u r c e b u t d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r name. T h i s i d e n t i t y
o f ap p aren t o p p o s i t e s i s the p r o fo u n d , id d e e d the m y ste r y o f
a l l m y s t e r i e s . I t i s t h e open d oor o f a l l b e w i l d e r m e n t .

H e r e we s e e th at L aotze c a r r ie s the m y stic a l tendency

of the O r i e n t a l r a c e s and a l s o the H egelian co n v ictio n that

each form o f e x i s t e n c e c a r r ie s w ith it its op p osite in r e a l i t y

" T f h e r e a r e two g o o d E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e Ta o Teh C h i n g

b y W .G .O ld a n d P a u l C a r u s r e s p e c t i v e l y . W h e n e v e r t h e i r t r a n s i a*
t i o n s a r e u s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s ,
t h e i n d i c a t i o n w i l l b e made i n p r o p e r p l a c e s .
 67

as w ell as in thought. The " o l d " p h i l o s o p h e r f u r t h e r s a y s :^

When t h e w o r l d speaks of beauty as b ein g b e a u t if u l,

u g l i n e s s i s a t o n c e d e f i n e d . When g o o d n e s s i s s e e n t o b e
g o o d , e v i l i s a t o n c e a p p a r e n t . So do e x i s t e n c e a n d n o n - e x i s ­
t e n c e m u t u a l l y g i v e r i s e to one a n o t h e r , a s t h a t w h ich i s
d i f f i c u l t and t h a t w hich i a e a s y , d i s t a n t and n ear* h ig h
and lo w , s h r i l l and b a s s , p r e c e d i n g and f o l l o w i n g .
same
The T a o , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y m e a n s I t h e c h s t h e A l l - O n e

o f P a r m e n id e s and t h e H e g e l i a n A b s o l u t e . As L a o t z e says, the

Tao w h ic h is the subject of d iscou rse i s not the t r u e Tao,

because to q u a l i f y or to thin k i s to d efin e, and to d e f i n e

is to l i m i t , because every lim ita tio n c o n n o t e s an i m p e r f e c t i o n .

Thus, we c a n name no q u a l i t y w h i c h is the r e a l a ttrib u te of

Tao. It i s b o u n d l e s s and i n f i n i t e . It t r a n s c e n d s a l l human

know ledge. As a comment t o h i s tra n sla tio n of t h e word T a o ,

P r o f e s s o r O ld i n t e r p r e t s th e L a o tzia n id ea of the n o n - e x i s t e n t

and the e x i s t e n t as f o l l o w s : 2

The w e l l - k n o w n p h i l o s o p h i c a l gam ut o f P r i n c i p l e s , C a u s e s ,
E f f e c t s , a n d U l t i m a t e s i s r e d u c e d b y t h e S a g e t o t h e Non -
i S x i s t e n t , a n d t h e E x i s t e n t , f o r s e e i n g o n l y One C a u s e ( T a o ) ,
h e r e g a r d s a l l e l s e a s a s i n g l e E f f e c t ( N a t u r e ) . By Heaven
we may t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l , c a u s a l , o r n o n m e n a l
w o r ld , and by th e E a r th t h e m a t e r i a l , p h y s i c a l w o r ld o f d
e f f e c t s . M a ste r i s t h e U l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f S p i r i t a s form
a s t h a t o f f o r c e , and h e n c e f o r e v e r y s p i r i t u a l f o r c e t h e r e
i s a c o r r e s p o n d i n g m a t e r i a l f o r m , a n d t h e y , l i k e t h e Non­
e x i s t e n t a n d E x i s t e n t , a h e i d e n t i c a l i n e v e r y t h i n g b u t name.

Paul Carus h a s a s i m i l a r comment :3

The p h r a s e v i u mi n g , " h a v i n g na m e, " m e a n s t h a t w h ic h

t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a name i n v o l v e s , a n d a s s u c h t h e t e r m
r e p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u a l i z e d t y p e s o f t h i n g s . H o w e v e r wu m i n g ,
" n o t name" o r " t h e u n n a m e a b l e , " c o r r e s p o n d s t o P l a t o *s
^ T a o Teh C h i n g , 2 .
2W."(l,0 i d , Th e S i m p l e Wav : Tao Teh C h i n g , 2 6 - 2 7 .
3 C a r u s , L a o t z i a n Canon o f R e a s o n a n d V i r t u e . 1 3 1 .
 68

con cep tion of the p r o to ty p e o f th in gs b efo re th ey have been

a c tu a liz ed .
W hile the o r i g i n a l Tao w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d a s im m utable

o r e t e r n a l h a s no, na m e, when i t h a s p r o d u c e d o r d e r , or
phenomena, i t becom es nam eable. In i t s o r ig in a l nature it is

calm , void , so lita ry , and u n c h a n g i n g ; in o p e r a tio n i t rev o lv es

through the u n iv e r s e of bein g, a c tin g everywhere, but a c tin g

m y sterio u sly , sp on tan eou sly, and w ith o u t e ffo r t.^ It is the

prim al cause of the U n iv e r se , and i s the model or r u l e for

a ll creatu res, b u t c h i e f l y f o r man. It rep resen ts a lso that

id ea l state of p r is t in e p e r fe c tio n , that is ev er-n o n -a ctio n ,

in which a l l t h i n g s w e r e a n d a c t e d h a r m o n i o u s l y and s p o n ­

ta n eo u sly , a n d wh en g o o d and e v i l w e r e unknown; the r e tu r n

to that co n d ition co n stitu tes t h e s ummum bonurn o f the e t h i c a l

p h ilo so p h y of L a o tz e .2

In t h i s way Tao e n t e r s i n t o human l i f e a s a m oral p r i n ­

cip le or g o a l in t h e f o r m o f Teh ( v i r t u e ) - - hence t h e name

o f T ao Teh C h i n g , or c l a s s i c o f Tao a n d T e h . The p r i n c i p l e

o f L a o t z e *s e t h i c s , however, is contrary to h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l

m e a n i n g o f T a o . As we h a v e s e e n , t h e Tao i s o p e r a t i n g on t h e

same d i a l e c t i c a l mode a s t h a t s u g g e s te d by H eg el. L aotze

seem s to m a i n t a i n that t h e w o r l d came t o e x ist through th e

w orking o f the o p p o s i t e p r i n c i p l e s o f N o n - e x i s t e n t and

^Ta o Teh C h i n g , 6 3 .
2 C f . S o o t h i l l . The T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C hina, 4 8; Hu S h i h ,
ojp. c i t . , 5 7; Ta o Teh C h i n g . 2 5 .
 59

S x isten t, w hich a r e h u t two a s p e c t s o f one p a s s i v e rea lity ,

the ta o . But i n L a o t z e * s e th ica l p recepts, the p a s s iv e

e l e m e n t o f Tao i s p r e d o m i n a n t . Tao h e r e b e c o m e s t h e im­

per turhed g o a l r a th e r th a n t h e dynamic a s p i r a t i o n of the

f o r w a r d m a r c h i n g o f human l i f e . It represents the g o a l of

retro g ressio n of th in gs ' e x is te n c e . L aotze s a y s:^ "The p a t h

o f Tao i s b a c k w a r d . " As i t is the r o o t of a ll th in gs, they

m ust f i n a l l y go b a c k t o it. Tao i t s e l f h a s no p r o c e d u r e .

In a c c o r d a n c e w ith th is d o c t r i n e o f Tao, L aotze p reach es

a form al i s t i c and n o n - r e s i s t a n t eth ics. H i s own s t a t e m e n t

proves the p o i n t : ^

Man a t h i s b i r t h i s s u p p l e a n d t e n d e r , b u t i n d e a t h h e
i s r i g i d a n d s t r o n g . I t i s t h e same w i t h e v e r y t h i n g . . . .
T hus v i g o r a n d s t r e n g t h a r e c o n c o m i t a n t o f deatVi, b u t s o f t ­
n e s s a n d m e e k n e s s a r e c o m p a n i o n s o f l i f e . T h e r e f o r e , when
o n e ar ms h i m s e l f s t r o n g l y , h e c a n n o t c o n q u e r . F o r t h e p l a c e
o f t h e m eek a n d y i e l d i n g i s a b o v e , w h i l e t h a t o f t h e s t r o n g
and the fir m i s b elo w .

In a n o t h e r p l a c e , our p h i l o s o p h e r com pares v i r t u e w it h

as :
w ater follow s:-^
4
The g r e a t e s t v i r t u e i s l i k e w a t e r ; i t i s g o o d t o a l l
t h i n g s w ith o u t r e s i s t a n c e . I t a t t a i n s th e m ost i n a c c e s s i b l e
p l a c e s w i t h o u t s t r i f e . T h e r e f o r e i t i s l i k e Tao. I t h a s the
v i r t u e o f a d a p t i n g i t s e l f to i t s p l a c e . I t i s v i r t u o u s l i k e
t h e h e a r t by b e i n g d e e p . I t i s v i r t u o u s l i k e s p e e c h by
b ein g f a it h f u l.

The a b o v e q u otation s c le a r ly prove t h a t Tao b y n a t u r e

I T a o Teh G h i n ^ , 6 3 .
Si b i d . . 2 6 .
3 lb id .. 8 .
 70

is opposed to s t r i f e , and t h a t i t is th u s had to striv e for

w e a l t h and fam e. "It i s ad visab le to r e f r a i n from c o n ­

tin u a l reach in g a f t e r w ealth . C o n t in u a l h a n d l i n g and s h a r p e n ­

i n g w e a r s away t h e m o s t du rab le th in g. If t h e h o u s e be f u l l

of jew els, no o n e w i l l protect it. W e a l t h and g l o r y b r i n g

not o n l y p r i d e b u t l i f e ’ s own doom."T "T herefore, the w ise

man w i l l n o t d esire in order not to g a in ; be does n ot gain

in order not to l o s e . I t is therefore b etter and h a p p ie r

to r e s t c o n t e n t e d than to striv e after fu ln ess. The g r e a t e r

t h e human e f f o r t is, the l e s s en du rin g i t w ill be: "The d a y s

o f a man who s t r i v e s m u s t b e n e c e s s a r i l y short. A v io len t

wind w i l l n o t o u t l a s t th e m orning, n eith er w ill a pou rin g

ra in o u tla st t h e d a y . "3

G en tlen ess, forb earen ce, an d h u m a n i t y a r e the k e y - n o t e

to the v a r io u s e t h i c a l sayin gs of L aotze. T o fig h t w ithou t

k illin g , t o command wi t h o u t im p ellin g , and to co n q u er w i t h o u t

conten d in g seem s to be the sp irit of h is teach in g. The

famous com p arison o f v i r t u e w ith w a te r , as noted above,

p la in ly illu str a te s th is:^ " N o th in g on e a r t h is so weak an d

y ie ld in g as w ater, b u t f o r b r e a k i n g down t h e f i r m a n d s t r o n g

it h a s no e q u a l . "

I T a o Teh C h i n g . 9*
2 I b i d.% 5 4 .
3l b id . . l 8 .
4 I b i d . . 7^; c o m p a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t w i t h C h r i s t ’s
t e a c h i n g : "he who e x a l t e t h h i m s e l f s h a l l b e a b a s e d , an d h e
who h u m b l e t h h i m s e l f s h a l l b e e x a l t e d . "
 71

T h is d o c tr in e of conquest o f m ight by th e weak may be

sa id to be the o r i g i n a l thought of L a o tz e, and h a s beenin

a large degree the fou n d ation of a ll O rien tal eth ics.

L aotze, however, sees p la in ly the d i f f i c u l t y of p u ttin g h is

d o ctrin e i n t o p r a c t i c e when h e s a y s the f o llo w in g : ^

A l l the w orld k n o w s t h a t t h e s o f t c a n w e ar a w a y t h e
h a r d , a n d t h e weak can conquer the str o n g ; but n one can
c a rry i t out in p r a c t i c e .

S i n c e Tao e t h i c a l l y m e a n s n o n - r e s i s t a n c e a n d y i e l d i n g ,

Taoism n a t u r a l l y tends to a d v o c a te th e p o l i c y o f in a ctio n ,

o r wu w e i , t h a t is n on -in terferen ce or q u ie t is m . "For t h e

p la ce of th e s t r o n g and t h e f i r m is b elow , w h ile that of the

m ee k a n d y i e l d i n g is ab o v e." F urther L a o tze s a y s :2

When a man who w i s h e s t o r e f o r m t h e w o r l d t a k e s i t i n

h a n d , I p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e no p o s s i b i l i t y t o i t . ’
. . . . Whoever m a k e s d e s t r o y s ; w h o e v e r g r a s p s l o s e s . T h e r e ­
f o r e i f one a d v a n c e s a n o t h e r i s l e f t b e h in d ; i f one b lo w s
h o t a n o t h e r w i l l b lo w c o ld ; i f one b e s t r e n g t h e n e d a n o t h e r
w i l l be weakened; i f one i s s u p p o r te d a n o th e r w i l l be
underm ined.

Thus, if we do n o t w a n t to be d e s t r o y e d and to lo se,

we m u s t n o t make an d g r a s p : we m u s t k e e p q u i e t and s t i l l .

T h is l e a d s to our sa lv a tio n .3

I T a o Teh C h i n g . 7 8 .
2 l b i d . . 2 9 ; O l d ’s t r a n s . w i t h a f e w m o d i f i c a t i o n s .
3 l n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s v i e w , we m u s t b e a r i n m i n d o f c o u r s e
th a t th e r e s t l e s s r efo rm e r o f th e w orld i s m e r e ly a p la g u e
d e s t r o y i n g t h i n g s a s th e y a r e and n o t a t t e m p t i n g to b u i l d
up w h a t h e h a s d e s t r o y e d . At a n y r a t e d e s t r u c t i o n i s a s t e p
t o t h e r o a d o f r e n o v a t i o n . The a b o v e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f L a o t z e
s e e m s to b e b a s e d u p o n t h e p h y s i c a l l a w t h a t no two b o d i e s
c a n o c c u p y t h e same s p a c e a t t h e same t i m e . B u t we kn ow t h a t
t h i s law does n ot h o ld in th e realm o f m in d s.
 72

To sum up L a o t z i a n i s m , it t e a c h e s an i m p e r s o n a l Tao

w h ich p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y is i n s c r u t a b l e and i n d e f i n i t e . It is

an A b s o l u t e i n w hich t h e r e is no d i s t i n c t i o n o f w h i t e and

b la ck , or r a t h e r a l l d istin ctio n comes from i t . S th ica lly ,

Tao s i g n i f i e s a W o r ld -L a w o f s i m p l i c i t y and n o n - a s s e r t i o n

w hich i s the s o u r c e and s u p p o r t o f a l l t h i n g s and to which

they f i n a l l y return. Q ,uietly, w ith ou t strife, Tao i s supposed

t o work f o r g o o d ; a n d man b y y i e l d i n g h i m s e l f to it, u n resit­

in g , u n str iv in g , may r e a c h h i s h i g h e s t goal of l i f e . It is

thus w ell t o g i v e up a l l s t u d y and t h e p u r s u i t o f k n o w le d g e

and g o o d n e s s , and r e tu r n to the a b s o lu te ly sim p le and

tran q u il l i f e of Tao. War, striv in g , su fferin g , w ould then

a ll cease, and, f l o a t i n g a lo n g the p l a c i d r iv e r o f tim e,

the in d iv id u a l in du e c o u r s e w o u l d b e a b s o r b e d i n th e ocean

of T a o .l "R eturning to t h e r o o t o f Tao i s rest. T h is r etu r n

is i n a c co r d a n c e w ith d estin y . Return a c c o r d in g to d estin y

means e t e r n a l .

F o llo w in g th e death o f L a o tz e , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f Tao

was e a g e r l y s t u d i e d a n d e x p o u n d e d b y many s c h o l a r s . The

r e s u l t was t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f Tao w a s g r e a t l y

m od ified , i.e . m y stified . Among t h e a r d e n t f o l l o w e r s o f

L a o t z e were C h u a n g tze and L i e h t z e . The f o r m e r was t h e b e s t

of a l l in expounding h i s m a ste r . It is sa id that j u s t as

T C f , 8 0 0 t h i l l , Th e T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a , 49.
2Ta o Teh C h i n g . i S . ^
 73

S o c r a te s had h i s P la t o , and C o n f u c iu s h i s M e n c iu s , so

L aotze had h i s C huangtze. O nly a b r i e f n o t e o f C h u a n g t z e *s

commentary o f Taoism i s p o s s i b l e h e r e .1

R e g a r d in g th e n a t u r e o f Tao, Chuangtze says :^

T a o , t h o u g h p o s s e s s e d o f f e e l i n g and p o w e r o f e x p r e s s i o n ,
i s p a s s i v e ( o r e f f o r t l e s s ) and f o r m l e s s . I t c a n b e t r a n s ­
m itte d y e t not r e c e iv e d , apprehended y e t not seen . I t s r o o t
i s i n i t s e l f ( i . e . i t i s s e l f - e x i s t e n t ), h a v i n g c o n t i n u e d from
o l d b e f o r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h e x i s t e d . I t i s Tao # 3i c h m a k e s
t h e s p i r i t s s p i r i t s a n d w h i c h m a k e s God a s p i r i t , i t p r o d u c e d
h eaven and p rod u ced e a r t h .

H e, thus, lik e L aotze, h o ld s t h a t Tao i s the so u rc e of

e v e r y t h i n g and i s o n e f r o m w h ic h ev ery th in g e ls e has d ev elo p ­

ed. "What t h e r e w as b e f o r e the U n iv e r se , w a s Tao; Tao m a k e s

t h i n g s wfeat t h e y a r e , but i s not itse lf a th in g. N o th in g can

p r o d u c e Tao; y e t e v e r y t h i n g h a s Tao w i t h i n it, and c o n t i n u e s

to produce i t w ithou t e n d . "3

W ith t h i s thought i n m ind, Chuangtze, lik e h is pre­

decessor. endeavoured t o p r e a c h t h a t human s a l v a t i o n l i e s

in the r e tu r n to the o r ig in a l Tao o f the U n iv e r s e , or th e

state of n on -a ctio n , " d oin g n o t h i n g . " T h is r e t r o g r e s s i o n

was m o st e m p h a t i c a l l y a s s e r t e d b y him . Thus t h e v a n i t y o f

human e f f o r t was t h e m a i n t o p i c o f h i s fam ous "Non Hwa

C h in g ." C h u a n g tze i n a s e n s e was t h e R o u s s e a u o f C h in a .

C o n fu c iu s and h i s f o l l o w e r s who w e r e e n g r o s s e d w i t h the

p o litic a l a ffa irs of t h e tim e were the p r in c ip a l objects

^C f. H .A .B i l e s , Ch u a n g t z e . M y s t i c , M o r a l i s t a n d S o c i a l
R eform er: Legge, "The T e x t o f T a o i s m " i n S a c . B k s , o f B a s t .
 74

o f C h u a n g t z e ’s d e n u n c i a t i o n s . The f u s s y p o l i t i c i a n who

boasts o f h a v in g g o v e rn ed the em pire i s given to u n d e r s ta n d

that t h e e m p i r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y much b e t t e r governed i f

i t had been l e f t a lon e, a n d t h e man who s e e k s to e s t a b l i s h

a rep u tation i s to ld that r e p u ta tio n i s but "the g u e s t of

r ea lity .

T h is c r i t i c i s m of the e x i s t i n g co n d ition s, in turn,

met o p p o s i t i o n from C o n f u c i u s , M e n c iu s and o t h e r C o n f u c i a n i s t s

who, a s Chuangtze t h o u g h t, r ep r e se n te d a d istu rb ed order of

th in g s. F urther, in h i s d en ial of the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l

life of the tim e, Chuangtze p r o c e e d e d to pronounce th e

w aking s t a t e one o f d e c e p t i v e a p p e a r a n c e s - - a life among

mere p h a n ta s m a ta . A ll so -c a lle d w o r l d w isd o m a n d a r t i f i c i a l

c iv iliz a tio n are n o th in g but t h i s phantasm ata. Thus h e r a i s e s

h is vig o ro u s p r o te s t again st the a r t i f i c i a l i ty o f c i v i l i ­

z a t i o n and govern m en t, and a s s e r t s the s u p e r i o r i t y o f

p r im itiv e n atu ralm ess, i l l u s t r a t i n g h i s v i e w b y s h o w i n g how

much h a p p i e r the h o r se is in its n a tive co n d itio n an d how

even th e p o t t e r d e s tr o y s the c h a r a c te r o f the c la y , and t h e

carp en ter the t r e e by h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith its o r ig in a l

nature. He f u r t h e r a r g u e s : 2

I n t h e d a y s when n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t s p r e v a i l e d , man
moved q u i e t l y and g a z e d s t e a d i l y . At t h a t tim e t h e r e w ere

T C f. D o u g la s , C o n fu c ia n is m and T aoism , 2 31.

2 Works o f C h u a n g t z e , I , 9 ; G i l e s , o p . c i t . , 107-8.
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no r o a d s o v e r m o u n t a i n s n o r b o a t s , n o r b r i d g e s o v e r w a t e r .
. • . F o r t h e n man d w e l t w i t h b i r d s a n d b e a s t s , and a l l
c r e a t i o n was o n e . T h e r e w e r e no d i s t i n c t i o n s o f g o o d a n d
bad men. B e i n g a l l e q u a l l y w i t h o u t k n o w le d g e , t h e i r v i r t u e
c o u l d n o t go a s t r a y . B e i n g a l l e q u a l l y w i t h o u t e v i l d e s i r e s ,
t h e y were i n a s t a t e o f n a t u r a l i n t e g r i t y , t h e p e r f e c t i o n
of e x iste n c e .
A c c o r d in g to these statem en ts, it is p la in t h a t Tao, as

i n t e r p r e t e d by C h u a n g tz e , s e e m s t o mean " n a t u r e " o r i n n o c e n c e .

And i t is t h i s p o i n t w h i c h made P r o f e s s o r W a t t e r s s a y t h e

f o l l o w i n g abou t th e m ean in g o f T a o :^

I n t h e Tao Teh C h i n g the o r ig i n a t o r o f th e u n iv e r s e i s

r e f e r r e d to un der t h e names N o n - e x i s t e n t , P b c is t e n t , N a t u r e
(T ao) and v a r i o u s d e s i g n a t i o n s - - a l l w hich, h o w ev e r, r e ­
p r e s e n t one id e a i n v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . I t i s in a l l
c a s e s N a tu re (Tao) w hich i s m ea n t.

C h u a n g t z e ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Tao a s "N ature" or "inn o­

cence" in d ic a t e s a t r a n s i t i o n from L a o t z ia n M e t a p h y s ic a l

Tao t o C h u a n g t z e ’s d e n i a l o f the p o s s i b i l i t y of m orality.

To t a k e C h u a n g t z e ’ s p o s i t i o n is to deny a l l m orality, be­

cause m o r a lity i s im p o ssib le in the w ild . E th ics in the

s e n s e o f custom s and r e s t r a i n t can o n ly e x i s t where t h e s e

are p o s s ib le . C huangtze f u r t h e r adds : ^

C e r e m o n y i s t h e i n v e n t i o n o f man. Our o r i g i n a l p u r i t y
i s g i v e n to us by H ea v e n . I t i s a s i t i s , and c a n n o t be
c h a n g e d . W h e r efo r e t h e t r u e m o d e l s h i m s e l f upon H eaven , and
h o l d s h i s o r i g i n a l p u r i t y i n e s t e e m . He i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f
human e x i g e n c i e s . F o o l s , h o w e v e r , r e v e r s e t h i s . They c a n n o t
m o d e l t h e m s e l v e s u p o n H e a v e n a n d h a v e t o f a l l b a c k on man.
T h ey do n o t h o l d o r i g i n a l p u r i t y i n esteem . C on seq u en tly
t h e y a r e e v e r s u f f e r i n g th e v i c i s s i t u d e o f m o r a l i t y , and
never r e a c h in g the g o a l .

T W atters, L a o tz e , A Study in C h in ese P h i l o s o p h y , 45.

^ G i l e s * t r a n s . o f C h u a n g t z e w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n , 4 X 8 - 2 0 .
 yo

Through C h u a n g tze, L a o t z e ’s a b s t r a c t sp e c u la tio n about

Tao i s so m e w h at h u m a n i z e d , a n d t h e Tao h a s b e c o m e i n a way

the r u le a s w ell as the g o a l of l i f e . T h i s made T a o i s m m o r e

p op u lar. At t h e same t i m e a r o a d t o mi s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

o rig in a l Taoism was o p e n e d . L a t e r Taoism i s the r e s u l t of

t h is m isu n d ersta n d in g .

I t became p r i m a r i l y a s e a r c h f o r the e l i x i r of l i f e

a s a m eans to p h y s i c a l I m m o r t a l i t y . O ther s u p e r s t i t i o n s

crept i n a s tim e went on, cu lm in a tin g in the b e l i e f that

the fu n c tio n of th e T aoist p r i e s t is exorcism o f dem o ns f o r

the cure o f d isea se, death and m i s f o r t u n e . Most o f these

i d o l a t r o u s n o t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o p i e d e x t e n s i v e l y from

Buddhism w hich a l s o h a s b e e n ch a n g e d i n t o su p e rstitio n in

C h in a * M odern T a o i s m i n t h e fcMrm o f a r e l i g i o n thus ta lk s of

a W estern heaven in im ita tio n of the B u dd hist p a r a d is e . To-day

it has lo st any r e a l appeal to the h ig h er sp iritu a l sid e of

m a n ’s n a t u r e , and c a t e r s a l m o s t e n tire ly to the g r o ss super­

stitio n of th e m ass o f th e p e o p le .

The s t e p $ . t h r o u g h w h i c h t h i s d e g e n e r a t i o n o f Taoism

took p la c e have b een b r i e f l y t r a c e d by James L egge a s f o l l o w s

T h e r e i s h a r d l y a word i n h i s t r e a t i s e ( L a o t z e ’ s Tao
Teh C h i n g ) t h a t s a v o u r s e i t h e r o f s u p e r s t i t i o n o r r e l i g i o n .
In th e works o f L i e h t z e and C h u an gtze, h i s e a r l i e s t f o l l o w e r s
o f n o t e , we f o u n d a b u n d a n c e o f g r o t e s q u e s u p e r s t i t i o n s ; b u t
t h e i r b e l i e f ( i f i n d e e d we c a n s a y t h a t t h e y h a d b e l i e f ) , h a d

1 E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n i c a . XVI, I94.
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n o t b e c o m e e m b o d i e d i n a n y r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . %hen we
come to t h e C h in d y n a s t y ( 2 2 1 - 2 0 6 B . C . ) , we m e e t w i t h a
Taoism i n th e sh ape o f s e a r c h f o r th e f a i r y i s l a n d s o f th e
e a s t e r n s e a , where th e herb o f i m m o r t a l it y m ig h t be g a t h e r e d .
I n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y A . D . a m a g i c i a n , c a l l e d Chang Tao L i n g ,
comes b e f o r e us a s t h e c h i e f and c o n t r o l l e r o f t h i s T aoism ,
p r e p a r i n g i n r e t i r e m e n t ’t h e p i l l ’ w h i c h r e n e w e d h i s y o u t h ,
s u p r e m e o v e r a l l s p i r i t s a n d d e s t r o y i n g m i l l i o n s o f demons
by a str o k e o f h i s p e n c i l . . . . But even th en th e system
was n o t y e t a r e l i g i o n , w i t h t e m p l e s o r m o n a s t e r i e s , l i t u r g i e s
a n d f o r m o f p u b l i c w o r s h i p . I t b o r r o w e d a l l t h e s e f r o m Buddhism^
Even s t i l l , w i t h t h e form o f a r e l i g i o n , Taoism i s in
r e a l i t y a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f b a s e and d a n g e r o u s s u p e r s t i t i o n s .
. . . M odern T a o i s m i s a s y s t e m o f t h e w i l d e s t p o l y t h e i s m .

A ll these dangerous s t a t e s of r elig io n i n C h i n a a r e du e

p rim a rily to t h e f a c t that the C h in ese p e o p le a re su p ersti­

tio u s, and c r a v e a more d e f i n i t e answ er to th e problem o f l i f e

h e r e on t h i s earth than o f th e one beyond th e g r a v e . Th us t h e

T aoist d o ctrin e of i m m o r t a l i t y i s made t o mean i m m o r t a l i t y

of lif e on t h i s earth.

O n l y two f o r m s o f the C h in ese s u p e r s t i t i o n s w i l l be

m en tioned h e r e . F ir st, there i s the g en era l a n im ism w hich

u n d erlies a l l C h in ese o r g a n iz e d f a i t h s ,
a b e l i e f in s p i r i t s
the
or i n v i s i b l e essences. T h is i s a d octrin e g r e a t m ass o f

the ig n o r a n t. To t h e a v e r a g e C h i n e s e t h e a i r and th e e a r t h

and n a t u r a l o b jects are in h a b ite d by s p i r i t s , some o f them

b e n e ficia l, m o re o f them e v i l . They a r e c a u s e s o f d i s e a s e

and m i s f o r t u n e . Thus t h e y p r e d e t e r m i n e the l o n g e v i t y a s

w ell as p ro sp erity of in d iv id u a l l i f e . S h r in e s were e r e c t e d

throughout th e c o u n t r y s i d e and i n the c i t i e s for these e v il

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sp irits. The s p i r i t s are honored not o n ly in the sh rin e

hut a lso at t h e g r a v e s b y f o o d a n d b y p a p e r h o u s e s and

p a p e r money f o r u s e in the w orld beyond.

Second, clo sely a llie d to anim ism i s the so -c a lle d

f eng s u i , or d o c t r i n e of "w ind a n d w a t e r . " Its b asis is a

b e lie f i n l u c k y and u n lu c k y s p o t s . Lucky s p o t s a r e to be

lo c a te d before the site o f any b u i l d i n g or grave i s lo ca ted . It

is s a i d by W estern m i s s i o n a r i e s that the dead occupy th e most

su ita b le p laces throughout the country. Graves a r e e v e r y w h e r e ,

on m o u n t a i n s a s w e l l as in f i e l d s . R a i l r o a d s and o t h e r im prove­

m en ts a r e g r e a t l y h i n d e r e d by these "lucky s p o t s ." The p e o p l e

b elie v e e v e n i n l u c k y a n d u n l u c k y d a y s a n d omens f o r b e t r o t h a l ,

b u sin ess, or j o u r n e y . In s h o r t , the C h in e s e p e o p l e a r e bound

and d e te r m in e d by these su p erstitio n s to such a d e g r e e that

no m o d e r n man c a n t o l e r a t e or even speak o f them w i t h o u t

c o n t e m p t and n a u s e a . ^

More d e t a i l e d c riticism of Taoism and I t s effect up o n

C h in ese l i f e w ill be advanced in the f o l lo w in g c h a p te r.

iT he same t h i n g i s t r u e i n K o rea and J a p a n .

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CHAPTER VI

CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF TO WEI, NON-ACTION

X
B e f o r e we make a c r i t i c a l e x a m in a t io n o f Taoism , let

u s n o t e h o w many t h i n g s t h e w o r d T a o i s m m e a n s i n C l i i n a .

P rim a rily , it d e n o t e s an o l d p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n o f C hina,

from w hich C o n fu c ia n ism selected t h e s c h o l a r l y and g e n t l e m a n l y

featu res. Ab an o r g a n i z e d b o d y o f creeds, it owes i t s o rig in

t o Chang L i n g ( a b o u t I 3 0 A . D . ) a n d h i s g r a n d s o n Chang L u . ^

From t h e o u t s e t , th is T aoist r e lig io n gave i t s approval to

th e m o st e x t r a v a g a n t and m a t e r i a l su p erstitio n , e sp e cia lly

to the b e l i e f that p h y sica l i m m o r t a l i t y c o u l d be i n s u r e d by

d r i n k i n g an e l i x i r . ^

When B u d d h i s m e n t e r e d C h i n a i n t h e f i r s t cen tu ry of

our e r a , Taoism , w hich was th e n in a s t a t e of id o la try , be­

came i n v o l v e d i n c o n f l i c t w ith the form er. I t s r i v a l r y w ith

Buddhism , h o w e v e r , h e l p e d much t o g i v e itse lf som ething o f

that co n sisten cy in d o c t r i n e and d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h we a s s o c i a t e

w ith t h e word r e l i g i o n . For in th eir d esire to show t h a t they

were a s good a s t h e i r B uddhist op p on en ts, the T a o is ts c o p ied

the m i n n u m e r o u s a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t i c u l a r s . T riad s o f d e i t i e s ,

s a c r e d b o o k s and m o n a s t i c in stitu tio n s, forexam ple, are

I C f , J .d e G r o o t , " O r ig in o f th e T a o i s t C h urch," i n T r a n s .
o f T h i r d C o n g r e s s Hi s t o r y .
2 S p i r i t u a l i m m o r t a i i t y w as a l r e a d y s e c u r e d a n d u n d o u b t e d ,
f o r e v e r y t h i n g came f r o m a n d r e t u r n e d t o T a o .
 ÜO

d e r i v e d from Buddhism . But these im provem ents and a d o p t i o n s

from Buddhism o n l y g a v e Taoism more m a t e r i a l s to be de­

generated la t e r in to grotesq ue i d o l w orsh ip .

Taoism i s a lso t h e name c o m m on ly g i v e n n o t o n l y t o th is

fa n cifu l church but a l s o , a s in d ica ted in the p r e v io u s c h a p te r,

to the p h ilo s o p h ic a l id ea s o r ig in a lly expounded in t h e Tao

Teh C h i n g o f L a o t z e a n d i n t h e w o r k s o f C h u a n g t z e . It repre­

sen ts a current of thought d i r e c t l y o pp osed to G o n fu cia n ism ,

compared w it h which i t is a scetic, m ystic and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ,

In i t s claim that everyth in g p a r tic ip a te s in th e u n iv e r s a l

Tao, it is a lso p a n th eistic. In t h i s resp ect, t h e Tao i s

a n a l o g o u s t o Brahm an, the im personal sp irit o f H in d u p h i l o ­

sophy.

T o - d a y t h e word Tao i n C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e sig n ifies

n ea rly ev ery th in g . We s p e a k o f Ti e n Tao.o r "Tao o f H e a v e n , "

t h e Ti T a o . o r "Tao o f t h e E a r t h , " a n d Ri n T a o , or "Tao o f

m a n . " R i n Tao j p o n u l a r l v m e a n s j u s t i c e , or r ig h t e o u s n e s s . It

is thus r in tao to h e l p t h e w eak a n d t h e su fferin g . But i t

is x)u r i n tao (un just) to d efen d m ight w ith m ig h t . Wherever

we w i s h t o e x p r e s s t h e truth o f a n y t h i n g we u s e t h e v/ord

Tao. There w i l l b e no d o u b t t h a t the te r m h a s p l a y e d a v e r y

in flu en tia l part i n m o l d i n g and g u i d i n g t h e m e n t a l i t y o f the

C h in ese p e o p le . C o n f u c iu s and h i s fo llo w ers, too, often

em ployed th e same w o r d Tao e i t h e r m e a n i n g t h e c o s m i c U l t i m a t e

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or j u s t i c e of conduct. The v a r i o u s C h i n e s e c l a s s i c s , in ­

c l u d i n g th e C on fucian c l a s s i c s , a ll con tain ed at l e a s t some

sta tem en t about Tao.

One o f t h e b e s t C o n f u c i a n C l a s s i c s , Yi C h i n g , 1 d i v u l g e s

the f i r s t p r in c ip les of the u n iv e r se in term s o f Tao. The

usage of t h e w o r d Tao h e r e is q u ite sim ila r to that of

L aotze. The t h i r d a p p e n d i x o f Yi C h i n g , o r t h e b o o k o f c h a n g e ,

e n title d H i-ts-ze or "A ppen ded E x p l a n a t i o n , " d e sc r ib e s the

U n i v e r s e a s a l i v i n g m a ch in e or o r g a n ism , which it c a lls

T a i Ch i or "Supreme A p e x , " o r U l t i m a t e . T h is p rod u ced th e

"two r e g u l a t i n g p o w e r s " o r Li a n g I . w h ic h a r e c o s m i c sou ls

or b r e a th s , ca lled Yang a n d Y i n . 2 T h e s e s o u l s r e p r e s e n t the

m a le and t h e f e m a l e p a r t s o f t h e U n i v e r s e , a ssim ila ted

resp ectiv ely w i t h t h e f r u c t i f y i n g h e a v e n and t h e e a r t h w hich

it fru ctifies, as a lso w i t h warmth a n d c o l d , and l i g h t and

darkness. "There i s , " as t h e Appended E x p l a n a t i o n states,

"in the system o f m u ta tio n s (o f nature) the U ltim a te # )ic h

produced th e two R e g u l a t i n g P o w e r s , w hich p r o d u c e the fo u r

shapes (or se a so n s)," These fo u r shapes again produce e ig h t

featu res or numbers, a n d so on t o the c r e a tio n of th e w h ole

u n iverse of th in g s. Through m u t a t i o n and c o m b i n a t i o n o f

t s a u th o r sh ip i s u s u a lly a t t r i b u t e d to C on fu ciu s, but i t i s

d e b a t a b l e . I t i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h by James L e g g e .
2 Yang l i t e r a l l y m e a n s l i g h t a n d Y i n m e a n s sh a d o w ; b o t h
c o n s t i t u t e o p p o s i n g p r i n c i p l e s l i k e E m p e d o c l e s * tw o p r i n c i p l e s
o f Love and D is c o r d .
 82

these fig u res t h e Cosmos o r i g i n a t e s .

The w ord Tao thus h a s been th e p i v o t a l p o in t around

w hich t h e C h in e s e t h i n k s and s p e a k s . E th ics, r elig io n , or

p h ilo so p h y , if we may s p e a k o f them s e p a r a t e l y a t a l l , a ll

profess t o p r e a c h Tao a s t h e e s s e n c e (or im p a rtia lity ) of

th in g s. A ccord in g to th e e x p la n a t io n o f th e v a r io u s m eanings

of Tao, th e n a tu r e o f C h in ese thought can be d e term in ed .

L aotze rep resen ted Tao a s t h e m y s t i c a l and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l

essence of th in g s, w h ile C on fu ciu s in t e r p r e t e d Tao a s t h e

eth ica l a n d w o r l d l y way o f human c o n d u c t . F o llo w in g th e se

two c o n c e p t i o n s o f T a o , two o p p o s i n g s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t came

to do m in a te t h e C h in e s e m ind from e a r l y t i m e s . They a r e

Taoism and C o n f u c ia n is m .

Taoism a s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l system h a s e n r ic h e d C h in ese

th o u g h t by i t s ex p o sitio n o f Tao a s the f i r s t p r in cip le of

th in g s. E th ic a lly Taoism , h o w ev e r, e m b r a c e s many w e a k e l e m e n t s

w hich can n o t b e a c c e p t e d toG day a s a sou nd e t h i c a l b a sis of

life . Let us in v estig a te w h a t a r e t h e weak p o i n t s in T a o ist

eth ics.

The m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o i n t in a l l the c h a p te r s o f

Tao, Teh C h i n g is the id e a o f th e backward path o f th in g s.

The C h i n e s e w o r s h i p o f t h e p a s t and d e a d a n c e s t o r s is

d eep ly ro o ted in th is "backward p a t h o f t h i n g s . " C on seq u en tly

 83

w h a t i s known b y u s a s so cia l progress is ag a in st the T a o ist

order, w hich i s retro g ressiv e. I t lea d s in th e d i r e c t i o n of

s i m p l i c i t y and e m p t i n e s s o f l i f e , not towards c o m p le x ity

and e l a b o r a t e system atization . "Tao i s empty, a n d so i s the

p ra ctice of it; we m u s t n o t b e f u l l of o u r s e l v e s . T h e

modern t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n expounded by s c i e n t i f i c w riters

is fatal to th e C h in ese c o n c e p tio n o f p r o g r e s s . A ccordin g

t o t h e modern e v o l u t i o n i s t w r i t e r s , life b e g in s w ith the

s i m p l e s t and p r o c e e d s to t h e m ost com plex form , and i t goes

on i n d e f i n i t e l y sy stem a tizin g . Thus S p e n c e r a n d B e r g s o n a g r e e

in t h e ir id ea of a d iv erg en t p r o c ess of e v o lu tio n , alth ou gh

th e form er em p h asizes the m a t e r i a l i s t i c or s t r u c t u r a l sid e,

the l a t t e r stresses the fu n c tio n a l sid e of e v o lu tio n . For

Spencer, ev o lu tio n is "an i n t e g r a t i o n o f m a t t e r and c on ­

com itan t d issip a tio n o f m otion; d u r i n g w h ic h the m atter

p a s s e s f r o m an i n d e f i n i t e , in coh eren t, h om ogeneity to a

d efin ite, coherent, h etero g en eity ; and d u r in g w hich th e

r e t a in e d m otion u n d erg o es a p a r a l l e l tra n sfo rm a tio n .

Bergson says o f h i s crea tiv e e v o lu tio n :3

The e v o l u t i o n m o v e m e n t w o u l d b e a s i m p l e o n e , a n d we
sh ou ld soon have been a b le to d e term in e i t s d i r e c t i o n , i f
l i f e had d e sc r ib e d a s i n g l e c o u r se , l i k e th a t o f a s o l i d
b a l l s h o t from a c a n n o n . But i t p r o c e e d s r a t h e r l i k e a
s h e l l , w h ic h s u d d e n l y b u r s t s i n t o f r a g m e n t s , which f r a g m e n t s .

^Ta o Teh C h i n g . 4 , 9*
2Spencer, F ir s t P r i n c i p l e s , par. 144.
3 B e r g s o n , Cr e a t i v e E v o l u t i o n , 9 8 .
 84

b e in g th e m s e lv e s s h e l l s , b u r s t in t h e i r turn in t o fragm en ts
d e s t i n e d t o b u r s t a g a i n an d so on f o r a t i m e i n c o m m e n s u r a b l y
l o n g . We p e r c e i v e o n l y w h a t i s n e a r e s t t o u s , n a m e l y , t h e
s c a t t e r e d m o v e m e n t s o f t h e p u l v e r i z e d e x p l o s i o n s . From them
we h a v e t o go b a c k , s t a g e b y ^ t a g e . to t h e o r i g i n a l move­
m ent.

The c o n c e p t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n set forW by L a o tze is the

d irect reverse o f what t h e s e W estern w r i t e r s h a v e sa id . In

h is teach in g, L a o tz e u n d o u b te d ly assum ed th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f

th in gs at the b e g in n in g , fo r he preached that a l l th in g s

d ie down t o th eir root, i.e . Tao. The d y i n g down p r o c e s s

p r e su p p o se s som ething to d ie. B u t when a l l t h i n g s r e a c h Tao,

there w ill rem ain n o t h in g to d i e or t o r e t r o g r e s s : every th in g

t h e r e b ecom es f i x e d and am algam ated i n t o th e homogeneous

O ne. A l l p r o g r e s s w ou ld s t o p h e r e . Tao i t s e l f , b ein g bou n d less

and im m ovable, cannot a t any tim e be s a i d to p r o g r e s s or

retrogress. Ttie " b l a n k A b s o l u t e , " a s D r . F . C. S. S c h i l l e r ^ puts

it, h a s no p r o c e d u r e ; it is sta tic and f i x e d .

It is a lso d ifficu lt t o know how t h i s sta tic Tao c a n b e

th e ground o f a l l changing th in g s . That i s , how t h e change­

a b le can be th e son o f th e u n c h a n g e a b l e . A n oth er d i f f i c u l t y

is t h a t Tao i s r e g a r d e d a s b o t h t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e e n d i n g

of a ll th in gs at the same t i m e . T hat i s , it is the goal of

p r o g r e s s and r e t r o g r e s s i o n w i t h o u t in v o lv in g itse lf in these

processes.

TCf. S ch iller, Human ism . 14.

 85

I n Tao we t h u s see th e dual i s t i c elem en ts: t h e backward

path o f Tao i t s e l f and t h e fo rw a rd p a th o f t h i n g s . From t h i s ,

Taoism seem s to d e d u ce t h e f a c t that sa lv a tio n of a ll th in gs

is in c o n fo r m ity to t h e path o f Tao, or r e t r o g r e s s i o n . To

fo llo w t h e f o r w a r d march o f t h i n g s is to d e s t r o y o n e s e l f in

o n e ’s e n t h u s i a s m , lev ity a n d pomp; t h e man o f T a o * s p a t h

"does n o t thus a c t, therefore does n o t h arm ." .^

As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the id e a that t h e p a t h o f Tao: is

backward. L a o t z e and C h u a n g tze a d v o c a t e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f

n o n -a ctio n . %%en a man who w i s h e s t o r e f o r m t h e w o r l d t a k e s it

in hand, I p erceiv e that t h e r e w i l l b e no e n d t o i t . "2 T h e r e ­

fore, a p e r f e c t man s a y s , "I am w i t h o u t a c t i o n . . . . I

p refer b ein g s ile n t a n d I do n o t a c t u a l l y o c c u p y m y s e l f w i t h

anyth in g; I am w i t h o u t d e s i r e s . "3 C h u a n g t z e , t h e fam ous

d iscip le of L aotze, la u d ed the i d e a o f wu w e i w ith enthu­

s i a s m . He s a y s : " R u le t h e k i n g d o m b y i n a c t i o n , th is is

h eaven ly; speak to it by means o f in a ctio n , th is is v irtu e.

Thus, "wu w e i (n on -action ) is Tao; to ch erish it is

V irtu e (T eh); co n seq u en tly th ere i s b e t w e e n Tao a n d V i r t u e

no d i f f e r e n c e a n d t h o s e who p r e a c h b o t h do n o t make a n y

d istin ctio n b e t w e e n t h e m . R u l e r s o f men h a v e t h e i r p l a c e on

^Ta o Teh C h i n g , 2 9 , 6 4 .
57.
3 Works o f C h u a n g t z e . Book V.
4Ta o Teh C h i n g . 2 9 .
 86

the Y in ( t h e earth) a n d a s t h e Y in i s still, I d ecla re that

any r u l e r who i s a ctiv e w ill lo se h is throne.

Everywhere in a c t io n is con sid ered as v ir tu o u s. Even i n

th e a r t o f governm ent, where a c t i v e p o l i c y i s to be e n f o r c e d ,

in a ctio n is e s t im a t e d a s m ost v i r t u o u s . The p e r f e c t man ( o r

gentlem an ) esteem s v ir tu e ( i n d if f e r e n c e ) m ost, and a c t i v e

work l e a s t . " In a ctio n (or n o n in te r fe r e n c e ) i s the part of

the e m p e r o r . " "The w o r l d u n d e r h e a v e n i s an i n s t r u m e n t in

the hands o f a god ( t h e em peror). It sh ould n ot be a c t i v e l y

g o v e r n e d . He who g o v e r n s i t w ith a c t i v i t y w i l l ru in it; he

who f i r m l y h o l d s it in h i s grasp w i l l lo se it.T h e r e fo r e

goodjrulers a r e a lw a y s w ith o u t a c t i o n . "If r u le r s are ab le

to o b ser v e the same i n a c t i o n , the m yriad s o f b e in g s w i l l

form and t r a n s f o r m th em selv es s p o n t a n e o u s l y . "3

R u lin g w ith ou t a c tio n is the p o l i t i c a l m otto o f C h in ese

sages. Tao w i l l govern e v e r y th in g f a t a l i s t i c a l l y f o r man.

T h is l a i s s e z fa ire is i n s i s t e d up on t o the verge o f anarchy.

T h i s wu w e i d o c tr in e fu r t h e r abhors the d esire to learn

s c i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h y . K nowledge i s set a g a in st the v a lu e

of Tao o r wu w e i . A c tio n w ith kn ow led ge i s denied; and t h e

m o r e we g e t a w ay f r o m a c q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g e , t h e b e t t e r we a r e .

I T a o Teh C h i n g , 3 6 .
2Ib i d . , 3 .
3Ib id ., 37.
 87

f o r know ledge u s u a l l y l e a d s to a c t i o n and d o in g t h i n g s .

In o r d e r t o f o l l o w Tao we m u s t n o t p o s s e s s k n o w l e d g e o r

scien ce.

L aotze co n seq u en tly seem s to th in k t h a t we c a n do t h i n g s

b etter w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e . He s a y s : ^

The man o f s t u d y i n c r e a s e s h i s k n o w l e d g e d a i l y , b u t h e
who c u l t i v a t ^ s t h e Tao d i m i n i s h e s h i s k n o w l e d g e f r o m d a y t o
day; h e d im i^ h e s i t and d i m i n i s h e s i t a g a i n , t i l l h e a r r i v e s
a t in a c tio n , h a v in g a r r iv e d at in a c tio n , there i s n o th in g
w hich h e c a n n o t do,

Th.e e f f e c t of th is d o c t r i n e o f n o n - a c t i o n upon C h in e s e

life is overw helm ing. We s h a l l enum erate o n ly a few r e ­

su lta n t f a c t s as fo llo w s: (I) The p e o p l e te n d to b e l a z y

and c o n t e n t w ith t h e e x istin g co n d itio n s in f a m i l y and

so ciety . They t h i n k t h a t l a z i n e s s and i n d i f f e r e n c e to the

co n d itio n s of so cia l life is v i r t u o u s a n d " g e n t l e m a n l y * *'

To s a v e o n e *s f a c e one s h o u l d n o t work, a t l e a s t w ith the

hands, and th u s w orking i s tra d itio n a lly l o o k e d down u p o n

as d isgracefu l and i n f e r i o r . The c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s is

that C h in ese c i v i l i z a t i o n became e v e r s t a g n a n t and d e c a d e n t .

( 2 ) C o n s e r v a tis m became t h e watchward o f C h in e s e l i f e .

A n y n ew p r o j e c t or e n t e r p r is e was r a r e . A n y t h in g new i s

h a rd ly to be add ed to the e v e r - f i x e d c o n t e n t s o f C h in ese

c iv iliz a tio n . C reation , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is p o ssib le on ly

where t h e r e is p l e n t y o f a c t i o n and work. A sp irit of o r ig in ­

a l i t y and i n i t i a t i v e is the product o f co n sta n t str ife a g ain st

I T a o Teh C h i n g . 4 8 .
 88

th e odds o f l i f e .

(3) P essim ism about t h i s w orld o f strenuous l iv i n g is

n a tu ra l. C on seq u en tly, e v e r y o ne d r e a m s o f r e t u r n i n g to

t h e e t e r n a l l y c a l m Tao o r I n a c t i o n . True, the m eaning o f

wu w e i may n o t b e m e a n t t h e sittin g id le and d o i n g n o t h i n g

state of ex isten ce, but th e C h in ese m a ss e s , who a r e n o t

in clin ed toward a s tr e n u o u s l i f e , ea sily t a k e wu w e i t o mean

what i t m eans l i t e r a l l y . A ctiv e l i f e is alw ays o p t i m i s t i c

and dom inant; or a t l e a s t one can n o t be o p t i m i s t i c w ithout

d o in g s o m e th in g good f o r h i m s e l f and h i s n e ig h b o r h o o d .

In a ctio n alw ays b r e a th e s d is c o n t e n t and p e ssim ism , but i t

never hop es to con q u er them.

( 4 ) C oupled w ith p e s s im is m , u n d u e e m p h a s i s o f F a t e and

p red estin a tio n is s t r e s s e d by th e p h ilo s o p h y o f Taoism . T h is

robs the r a c e o f moral in itia tiv e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . It is

p o p u la rly b e lie v e d th a t ev ery th in g i s str ictly p red estin ed

b y Tao a n d F a t e , t h e tw o w o r d s m e a n i n g t h e same. Human

a ctio n is p o w e r l e s s t o make a n y d i f f e r e n c e to them . T h is

h a s been m ost f a t a l to th e p r o g r e ss o f the n a t io n a l life

o f C h i n a a s w e l l a s o f h e r O r i e n t a l n e i g h b o r s who w e r e

ex ten siv ely in flu en ced by her c i v i l i z a t i o n .

(5) S u p erstitio n and m a g ic w h ich h a v e grown o u t o f

Taoism added a n o t h e r f a t a l stroke to the l i f e th read o f the

race. The C h i n e s e o f the p a st l iv e d in th e m ire o f m agic

and i d o l a t r y . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e a n d o t h e r
 89

W estern m ethods o f im provem ent e n c o u n t e r e d a v e r y s t r o n g

h in d ran ce in th e su p erstitio u s b e lie f of the p e o p le .

To g e n e r a t e the le th a r g y o f t h e C h i n e s e m in d a n d t o

u p lift C hina to t h e modern s t a n d a r d w here sh e can h o l d a

can d le to the r e s t o f th e w orld, much o f T a o i s t t e a c h i n g

h a s to be d is c a r d e d or a t l e a s t reconstructed . The b a s i s of

t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w ould b e a s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e dynam ic

con cep tion of l i f e for the d o c tr in e of n o n -a ctiv ity .

The e a r l y C h i n e s e h a d no c o n c e p t i o n of progress. The

resu lt is that they have not y e t a risen above the s t a t e of

p r im itiv e p eop les in th eir d etesta .tio n of im provem ent and

change. "The p r i m i t i v e man i s co n servative i n an e x t r e m e

d e g r e e ," a sse r ts Spencer; " e v e n on c o n t r a s t i n g h i g h e r

^ a c e s w it h one a n o t h e r , a n d e v e n on c o n t r a s t i n g d i f f e r e n t

c la sse s in the same s o c i e t y , it is ob servab le that the l e a s t

d e v e lo p e d a re th e m ost a v e r s e to change.

E ac h i n d i v i d u a l i n China i s a sla v e to the custom s of

t h e g r o u p to w hich h e b e l o n g s . The c o u n c i l or r u l i n g body

of v illa g e eld ers does not command a n y t h i n g , i t m erely

d e c l a r e s w h at h a s a l w a y s b e e n . The a n t i q u i t y o f c u s t o m s i s

by i t s e l f a ssum ed t o be a s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n f o r o b e y i n g them.
T h is s t a t e of a f fa ir s is the same e v e r y w h e r e throughout the

IH. Spencer. Pr i n c i p l e s of B lnlnoy. i . 78.

 90

O rien tal w o r ld .T

The v a s t p o p u l a t i o n s o f the E a s t , some o f them w i t h a

c iv iliz a tio n c o n sid er a b le but p e c u lia r , detest t h a t w hich

in the langu age o f t h e West w o u l d b e c a l l e d r e f o r m . "The

e n t i r e Mohammedan w o r l d d e t e s t s it, . . . The m i l l i o n s

upon m i l l i o n s o f men who f i l l t h e C h i n e s e Empire l o a t h e

it and (w h a t i s more) d esp ise it. The e n o r m o u s m a s s o f t h e

I n d ia n p o p u la t io n h a t e s and dreads c h a n g e . "2

Change f o r im provem ent o f l i f e - c o n d i t i o n s is p o ssib le

where there is p len ty o f e n e r g y g e n e r a t e d b y human w i l l and

in te re st. For W i ll is e sse n tia lly str iv in g . It s t a r t s w ith

i n t e r e s t and i m m e d ia t e ly becom es d e s i r e . W ill is th e w ish ,

t h e vo w , the p rayer, the y e a r n in g of th e sou l. It is in ­

choate a c tio n . The w i l l is t h a t w h ich a s s e r t s itse lf. In

its a sser tio n it a ch iev es. In i t s achievem en t i t a ccom p lish es

its g o a l. T h is i s t h e m e a n i n g o f o p t i m i s m and a c t i v e l i f e

as a p r in cip le o f n a t u r e and o f r e a l i t y of th in g s.

European c i v i l i z a t i o n has been c h a r a c te r iz e d c h iefly

by th e a p o t h e o s i s of w ill, and c o n s e q u e n t l y i t s nature is

a l w a y s dynam ic and s t r i v i n g . W herever i t goes, its dynam ism

p rev a ils. Sin ce i t has entered C hina, C h in ese c i v i l i z a t i o n

h a s begun t o be dynam ic un der i t s in flu en ce. To s e e how f a r

I C f . S i r H e n r y M a i n e , Vi l l a g e C o m m u n i t i e s i n the E a s t. 13 -4 .
2h . M aine, P o p u la r G overnm ent, 1 3 2 - I 3 4 .
 91

th e W estern c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a ctiv ity spread throughout

Modern C hin a d u r i n g such a s h o r t p e r i o d o f C h i n a ’s i n t e r ­

c o u r se w ith th e W est, th e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n w ould he

s u f f i c i e n t :^

M i s s i o n a r y e d u c a t i o n , c h i e f l y A m e r i c a n , was l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r te a c h in g C h in ese s t u d e n t s th e p r i n c i p l e s o f
modern h i s t o r y , s c i e n c e , and g o v e rn m e n t. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , th e
i d e a s o f l i b e r t y , democracy, p a t r i o t i s m , n a t i o n a li s m - -
e n t i r e l y ne w t o Young C h i n a - - m o v e d a g r o w i n g ntomber t o b e
d i s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e c o r r u p t a n d e f f e t e Manchu d e s p o t i s m
a n d t o work f o r c h a n g e a t a n y p r i c e . P r a c t i c a l l y , C h r i s t i a n
i n f l u e n c e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e i n some m e a s u r e f o r t h e l e a d e r o f
t h e T a i P i n g r e b e l l i o n , w h i c h came n e a r o v e r t h r o w i n g t h e
Manc h u s i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d f o r Sun Y a t - S e n .

It is a lso u n d en iab le that the t r o u b l e s and s u f f e r i n g s

o f men i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e from th eir strenuous a c t i v i t i e s .

The v e r y n a t u r e o f ch a n g e and d i s t u r b a n c e , w hether they are

in tern a l or e x t e r n a l , breeds, or r a t h e r p r e s u p p o s e s t r o u b l e

and c o m p l i c a t i o n . But in ord er to e l i m i n a t e these tro u b les

and o b s t a c l e s , some p l a n n e d a c t i o n is very e s s e n tia l, rath er

than sittin g still and b e i n g i d l e . Man a s an a c t i v e b ein g

r ea liz es a ll t h e s e human e x p e r i e n c e s a n d c o n s t a n t l y stru g g les

on f o r im provem ent o f e c o n o m ic and m o r a l co n d itio n s of l i f e .

The r e s u l t i s p r o g r e s s which m eans m ore a c t i v i t y and fre ed o m

w ith the a i d of a ch ieved c i v i l i z a t i o n or im provem ent .2 T h is

is t h e n o r m a l c o u r s e o f human l i f e . I t h a s however been

c r i t i c i s e d b y some w r i t e r s that th is sort of progress in

I J . M . R o o t s , Na t i o n a l i s m a n d M i s s i o n , 5^-7*
2 C f . B e r g s o n , Cr e a t i v e E v o l u t i o n , C h a p . I I I .
 92

modem l i f e means m e r e l y th e m a t e r i a l im provem ent by w hich

m ost o f th e r e s t l e s s W estern p e o p l e s in crea se d a ily th eir

means o f su p p lyin g the w ants, w h ile they in c r e a s e h o u r ly

the wants t h e m s e lv e s . T herefore, m o dern m a t e r i a l progress

is compared w ith a dog c h a s i n g i t s ta il en d le ssly .^

C e r t a i n l y man f o l l o w s h i s d esires, whether t h e s e d esires

co n sist in m a te r ia l betterm ent or in the flo w e r in g of the

human m i n d i n t o life a n d a r t a n d human i n t e r c o u r s e . That

d esire or n e c e s s i t y is the m other o f in v e n t io n is an u n ­

doubted f a c t . D esire g e n e r a t e s a c t i o n w hich tends to b r in g

about t h e f o r m e r ’s s a t i s f a c t i o n . It is of c o u r s e an o p e n

q u estio n w h eth er a mere a c t i o n , if there i s such a t h i n g ,

a ctu a lly sa tisfie s d esire. But in so f a r a s the d e s ir e is

sim p ly to a c t in the d i r e c t io n in w hich the d e s i r e im p els,

alth ou gh there is a c t u a l l y no s u b s t a n t i a l in n o v a tio n , that

is in itse lf the sa tisfa c tio n of the d e s ir e . We t h e r e f o r e

in sist that the a c t i v i t y of d esire itse lf b rin gs some

com fort o f r e l e a s e and s a t i s f a c t i o n . 2

Thus, in order to do g o o d i n i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i a l

life , a c tiv ity is essen tia l a n d t h e L a o t z i a n Wu w e i w ill

be a n t a g o n i s t i c to th e m oral life . The r i d d l e of the

u n i v e r s e a n d t h e m o r a l p r o b l e m s o f man c a n b e so lv e d only

through l i f e and a c t i o n . As p r o f e s s o r E u c k e n s a y s , " action

is the b e s t d efen siv e weapon a g a i n s t th e d a n g e r s and t r i a l s

^ C f. R ab in d ran ath T agore, P e r s o n a l i t v , j 6 , f f .

2C f, F .P a u ls e n , I n t r o d u c t i o n to P h i l o s o p h y , I I 3 f f .; Ward,
P u r e S o c i o l o g y , 2 4 6 ”f f "
 93

o f human e x i s t e n c e . ”! A c tiv ity is both t h e e n d and t h e

means o f l i f e . ”I f we w i s h to u n d e r s t a n d th e v i t a l truths

of l i f e we m u s t c o n c e n t r a t e o u r s e l f on a g o o d p u r p o s e - - the

a ctiv ity that fo llo w s w ill b rin g its rev ela tio n * The p r o b l e m s

of 3 ife are so lv e d by the l i f e process i t s e l f . "2

I C f , A . J . J o n e s . R u d o l f Bucke n . 4 1 .
2Eucken, L i f e * s B a s i s and L i f e r s I d e a l . 256 f f .
 94

CHAPTER V I I

THE ETHICAL SYSTEM OF CONFUCIUS

The e t h i c a l d octrin e of C on fu ciu s h a s p r o v id e d the

main c u r r e n t o f a l l C hineoe e t h i c a l thou ght. We saw i n o u r

p rev io u s stu d ies that o r i g i n a l l y Buddhism i s p reem in en tly

m e t a p h y s i c a l and t h a t it is fin a lly degraded in to a g r o te sq u e

p olyth eism in i t s la ter d ev e lo p m en t in C hina. We a l s o in ­

d i c a t e d how L a o t z e *s p h i l o s o p h i c a l Taoism a t l a s t degenerated

l i k e Buddhism i n t o a s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f that th is p h y sica l

life c o u ld be exten d ed in t o etern ity . Thus. Taoism , as d ev elo p ­

ed b y th e f o l l o w e r s o f L aotze.m ay be c h a r a c t e r iz e d e s s e n t i a l l y
as m a te r ia lis tic . C on fu cian ism in its prom inent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

is c h iefly e t h i c a l . o ccu p y in g i t s e l f m ain ly w ith so cia l

r ela tio n s and t h e c i v i l d u t i e s o f men. It shuns s t u d i o u s l y

a ll q u estio n s that enter in to o n to lo g ica l su b tleties or

partake:; o f th e m a r v e l o u s and t h e s u p e r n a tu r a l. C on fu ciu s

seld o m spoke o f the d i v i n i t i e s and t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y of

the u n iv e r s e . He t a u g h t h i s d iscip les to keep th e s e non-

p ra ctica l th in g s at a d ista n ce .

In the sense of sh unning a l l m e ta p h y s ic a l sp ecu la tio n s.

C o n f u c i u s was t h e m o d e r n a p o s t l e of p o sitiv ism , p ro fessin g

to occupy h im s e lf w h o lly w ith p o s i t i v e i d e a s and w o r l d l y

th in g s. But C o n f u c i u s d i f f e r e d from t h e E uropean p o s i t i v i s t s

in t h a t h e was n o t a t h e i s t i c . As i t w i l l be seen , he f r e -
 9^

q u en tly add ressed h im s e lf t o a Suprem e God who i s b e n e v o l e n t

and f a t h e r l y to th e e a r t h l y m ankind, alth ou gh he h im s e lf

h a d no c l e a r a n d d i s t i n c t idea a s to the n a tu r e o f t h i s

d iv in ity . F urther, he b e lie v e d in the sp iritu a l ex isten ce

o f men a f t e r th eir death. T h is can be e a s i l y i n f e r r e d from

h is d o ctrin e of deceased ancestor w o rsh ip . The r e s p e c t f o r

the dead f i n a l l y led the p e o p le to the v i r t u a l d e ifica tio n

of th eir deceased a n c e sto r s. T h is d e i f i c a t i o n of an cestors,

to g e th e r w ith t h e n a t i o n a l h e r o - w o r s h i p w h i c h was p r o m o t e d ,

if it was n o t o r i g i n a t e d , by the form er, e sta b lish ed n atio n a l

p olyth eism in C hina. T h is, in a few words, is the a c tu a l

outcom e o f C o n fu c ia n ism a s f a r a s its in stitu tio n a liz a tio n

is concerned.

B e f o r e we t r a c e th e v a r io u s d e v e lo p m en ts o f C on fucian

e t h ic a l p h ilo so p h y , let us f i r s t stu dy the l i f e and th e works

o f C o n fu ciu s, the p r a c t i c a l s a g e o f C h in a.

Kung Fu T z e , " th e p h i l o s o p h e r K u n g ," was b o r n i n the

year 550 (or 5 5 1 ) B . C . H i s C h i n e s e name h a s b e e n L a t i n i z e d

i n t o C o n f u c i u s . 1 Of h i s parents very l i t t l e i s kn ow n, except

that h is father. S h u h -lin g H eih, was a m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r ,

em inent f o r h i s c o m m a n d in g a b i l i t y . One o f t h e many l e g e n d s

w it h w hich C h in e se h i s t o r i a n s l o v e to surround the b i r t h

o f C on fu ciu s n a r r a te s that t h e c h i l d was b o r n i n a c a v e on

Mount N e , w h ith er C h in g - t s a i , th e m o th e r . went in o b e d ie n c e

 96

to , a v i s i o n to be c o n f in e d . It is further t o l d how t h e

e v e n t was h e r a l d e d b y s t r a n g e p o r t e n t s and m i r a c u l o u s

a p p e a r a n c e s , how g e n i i announced to C h in g - t s a i the honor

t h a t was i n store fo r her, and h o w f a i r i e s attended at h is

n a tiv ity .l A ll t h e s e l e g e n d s o f c o u r s e a r e n o t h i n g more than

t h e i m a g i n a r y , ' c r e a t i o n s o f C h i n e s e h i s t o r i a n s who d e s i r e to

g lo rify the Sage and h i s greatness as eth ica l teacher.

Of t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f C on fu ciu s * l i f e we h a v e b u t scanty

record. I t w o u l d seem t h a t f r o m h i s ch ild h o o d he showed

r itu a listic ten d en cies, a n d we a r e to ld t h a t a s a bo y he

d elig h ted to p la y a t th e arrangem ent o f v e s s e l s and a t

p o s t u r e s o f cerem ony. A s h e a d v a n c e d i n y e a r s h e b e c a m e an

earnest stu dent of h is to r y , and l o o k e d b a c k w ith l o v e and

reverence to the t i m e when t h e g r e a t a n d g o o d Yau a n d Shun

r e i g n e d in a "golden a g e , fru itfu l o f golden d e e d ." At n i n e ­

teen he accepted p u b lic em ploym ent a s a k e e p e r o f s t o r e s and

la ter as s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p a r k s and h e r d s . ^ At t w e n t y tw o,

C o n f u c i u s com m enced h i s life -w o r k as a teacher, and g r a d u a l l y

a group o f s t u d e n t s , eager to be in s t r u c t e d in the c la ssics

I C f . S i r R . K . D o u g l a s , Co n f u c i a n i s m a n d T a o i sm, 2 5 - 9 4 ; Hu S h i h
O u t l i n e s o f t h e H i s t o r y o f C h i n e s e P h i l o s o p h y . I . 69 f f . ;
E .H .P a rk er. S t u d ie s in C h in ese R e l i g i o n . 1 5 5 -2 2 2 .
2 A t t h e same t i m e C o n f u c i u s was m a r r i e d , t h e u n i o n u n f o r ­
t u n a t e l y n o t p r o v i n g a h a p p y o n e . He f i n a l l y d i v o r c e d h i s
w i f e a f t e r a son was b o r n .
 98

"The F ou r B o o k s . " m e a n i n g t h e r e b y th e e le m e n t s and

v e r y c o r e o f C on fucian d octrin e, is t h e name g i v e n to

"The A n a l e c t s . " "The G r e a t L e a r n i n g , " "The D o c t r i n e of the

M e a n . ” a nd "T h e M e n c i u s . " A l l of t h e s e were w r i t t e n and

e d i t e d by C on fucian d i s c i p l e s . 1

S e v e r a l im p ortan t books or c o l l e c t i o n o f books, kn own

as "The F i v e C l a s s i c s , " o r "The F i v e C a n o n s . " a l r e a d y

a n c i e n t when C o n f u c i u s was b o r n a n d r e g a r d e d a s C l a s s i c s ,

w ere e d i t e d by C o n f u c i u s and f u r t h e r e d i t e d by h i s ea rly

di s c i p l e s .2

l A l l o f t h e f o u r b o o k s a r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h by James
L e g g e a n d o t h e r s , a n d a r e i n c l u d e d i n "The S a c r e d B o o k s o f
t h e E a s t . " M o st o f t h e s e b o o k s a r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f c o n v e r ­
s a t i o n s w i t h C o n f u c i u s , t h e r e b y c o n t a i n i n g many o f h i s m o s t
I m p o r t a n t s a y i n g s e s p e c i a l l y i n "The A n a l e c t s , " w h i c h i s
o f t e n c a l l e d "The S a y i n g s o f C o n f u c i u s . " I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g
to n o t e th a t the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s e C on fu cia n s a y in g s i s v e r y
much d o u b t e d b y t h e p r e s e n t C h i n e s e w r i t e r s . Th ey s a y t h a t
th e se s a y in g s are n o th in g but the te a c h in g s of l a t e r s c h o la r s
who t a u g h t i n t h e name o f C o n f u c i u s i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i r
t e a c h i n g m i g h t b e h o n o r e d an d s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e i n f l u e n t i a l
n a m e s o f C o n f u c i u s a n d M e n c i u s . C f . t h e w o r k s o f Chai Wun P a i ,
L i a n g Su M in g , Ko Hong M yen g, a n d Hu S h i h .
2The f i v e b o o k s a r e : Yi C h i n g . "The Book o f C h a n g e ; " Heo
C h i n g , "The B ook o f F i l i a l P i e t y ; " Shu C h i n g , "The B o o k o f
H i s t o r y ; " Sh i C h i n g . "The B o o k o f P o e t y ; " Li K i . "The B o o k
o f C e r e m o n i e s . " The c o n t e n t s o f t h e f i r s t f o u r m u s t h a v e
' b e e n much c o l o r e d b y t h e t h o u g h t s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l a t t e r
c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s , "The F i v e C a n o n s , " w h i c h w e r e much o l d e r
and w ere i n t e n s e l y s t u d i e d by t h e C o n fu c ia n s c h o o l . I t m ust
h e r e b e n o t e d a l s o t h a t i n 2 1 2 B . C . C h in S h i Wang, t h e
N a p o l e o n o f C h i n a a n d a l s o an e uem y o f C o n f u c i a n i s m , s o u g h t
o u t and d e s t r o y e d a l l th e b o o k s o f C o n fu c ia n is m t h a t h e c o u l d
f i n d . B u t l a t e r m o s t o f t h e '' l o s t b o o k s w e r e r e w r l t t e h .
 \
100

ra id s in w h i c h t h e y h a d no i n t e r e s t , and from which t h e y

d e r i v e d no b e n e f i t . The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e in the l i f e of

C o n f u c i u s would b e a r w i t n e s s t o the o p p r e s s iv e c o n d it io n s

of the C h in ese p e o p le at the tim e.1

O n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , when b e was p a s s i n g b y Mount T a i ,

h e i s s a i d t o h a v e h e a r d t h e m o u r n f u l w a i l i n g o f a woman
on t h e h i l l - s i d e . S e n d i n g a d i s c i p l e to i n q u i r e why s h e s a t
w a ilin g in a s p o t , h e w a s a n s w e r e d , "My h u s b a n d *s
f a t h e r w a s k i l l e d " h e r e b y a t i g e r , my h u s b a n d a l s o a n d now
my s o n h a s m e t t h e same f a t e . " "Then why, " a s k e d C o n f u c i u s ,
" d i d s h e d w e l l i n so d r e a d f u l a p l a c e ? " " B e c a u s e , " a n s w e r e d
s h e , " h e r e t h e r e i s no o p p r e s s i v e r u l e r . " " S c h o l a r s , " s a i d
h e t o h i s d i s c i p l e s , "remember t h i s : an o p p r e s s i v e r u l e r i s
more c r u e l than a t i g e r . "

In conson ance w ith th e c r u e l t y o f t h e s e p e t t y r u l e r s

and p r i n c e s l of the corrupt feu d al states, l u x u r y and

d issip a tio n were a b u n d a n t. P rin ces t h e r e w e r e who s e t a l l

m o ra lity at d e f i a n c e and l i v e d liv e s o f open shame. The

s a g e *s own p r i n c e , t h e Duke o f Lu, accepted a present of

eig h ty sin g in g g i r l s , an a c t w h ich drove C o n f u c iu s , to throw

up h i s o ffice and d e p a r t f o r the l i f e of a w an d erer.^ In to

a ll th is ch aotic co n d itio n of s o c i e t y and p o l i c y , where

each c l e v e r man w as f i g h t i n g for h is own h a n d a l o n e , C on fu ciu s

was u s h e r e d a t h i s b i r t h . It w as o p p o r t u n e a n d y e t a d v e n t u r o u s

f o r him to p r o c l a i m h i s eth ica l teach in gs w hich were d i r e c t l y

in d e fia n c e Of t h e w a r r i n g p r i n c e s and r u l e r s . ^

I C f , W . E . S o o t h i l l , Th e T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . 2 9 .
2C f. G ilb e r t R eid, " R evolu tion as taught by C o n fu c ia n ism ."
I n t . J o u r n . o f E t h i c s . XXXIII ( J a n . 1 9 2 3 ) .
 102

undue freed om , not even as bo h i s mode o f l y i n g in bed.

T h is f o r m a l i s t i c manner o f c o n d u c t i s w ell summed up b y o n e

of the sentences in the A n a lects: " I f h i s m at w e r e n o t

s t r a i g h t h e would n o t sit on i t . " l T h is f u s i n e s s . c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

A
of a ll C h in ese " gen tlem an ," is a l m o s t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h "Con-

ifu sia n . "

T h i s manner o f b e h a v i o r seems to sh o w t h a t f o r C o n fu ciu s

there is alw ays s o m e t h i n g u n s e e n w h i c h w a t c h e s o v e r men ^s

mode o f l i v i n g and t h e i r d estin y . Thus h e a c t s a l w a y s a s

if t h e r e w e r e some o n e l o o k i n g on h i m . H is e t h ic a l teach in gs,

though they c h i e f l y rela te to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n man

a n d m an. are fa r from d e s t i t u t e o f an e l e m e n t h i g h e r than

m ere h u m an ity. The p o w e r s o f the u n seen w orld have th eir

ack n ow led ged p a r t in c o n t r o l l i n g the sp irit o f man i n h i s

duty to h i s f e l l o w s and i n h i s mode o f l i v i n g . A c c o r d in g to

t h e r o y a l Re c o r d o f R i t e s . 2 w h e n e v e r some m y s t e r i o u s f o r c e s

of nature m a n ifested th em selv es in the shape o f storm s or

thunder. C on fu ciu s c o n s id e r e d i t h i s duty to sit up w i t h

a we a n d r e s p e c t . But h e d e c l i n e d t o e n l a r g e u p on h i s reasons

for so d o i n g . He a l w a y s s a id a k in d o f grace b e fo r e h i s

f r u g a l m e a l s b y o f f e r i n g an o b l a t i o n . 3 T h i s h a s b e e n the

O rien tal cu stom o f p o u r i n g o u t a drop o f l i g u o r , or scatter-

l A n a l e c t s . X ,9.
2a b o o k c o m p i l e d b y C o n f u c i u s ' d i s c i p l e s w hich s p e a k s o f
more p r e c i s e i d e a s t o u c h i n g h i s c h a r a c t e r and manner o f
conduct.
3 A n a l e c t s , X, 8 .
 104

C on fu ciu s seems to h a v e a sim p le c o n v i c t i o n that some

etern al p r in c ip le or o b s c u r e P e r s o n e x i s t s hack o f these

p reex istih g dual p r i n c i p l e s . T h is i d e a o f dual p r i n c i p l e s ,

however, was n o t o r i g i n a t e d by C o n f u c iu s h i m s e l f . I t was

the f i r s t s p e c u l a t i v e p h i lo s o p h y e v e r c o n s t r u c t e d by C h in ese

th in k ers as set forth in one o f t h e o l d e s t w r i t i n g s ca lled

Yi C h i n g . o r t h e "Book o f C h a n g e . "1 A c c o r d i n g to t h e A ppendix

w r it t e n by C on fu ciu s to t h e book, h e a v e n is h igh , earth is

low . and t h e r e l a t i o n betw een the s t r o n g and t h e w e a k i s

d eterm ined. The l o w a n d t h e h i g h a r e a r r a n g e d i n order; and

the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o b l e and t h e l o w l y i s settled .

M ovem en t a n d r e s t f o l l o w th e ir reg u la r source; the r e la t io n

b e t w e e n t h e r i g i d and t h e tender i s d efin ed .

R egarding th e se two p r i n c i p l e s of t h e weak a n d t h e

strong. C on fu ciu s f u r t h e r s a y s ; 2

The s t r o n g p r i n c i p l e m a k e s t h e m a l e , a nd t h e weak
p r i n c i p l e m a k e s t h e f e m a l e . By t h e s t r o n g t h e g r e a t b e g i n n i n g
i s kn o w n , a n d t h e weak b r i n g s b e i n g i n t o c o m p l e t i o n . The
s t r o n g p r i n c i p l e b e c o m e s i n t e l l i g i b l e t h r o u g h c h a n g e s : The
w e a k p r i n c i p l e b e c o m e s e f f i c i e n t t h r o u g h s e l e c t i o n . The
c h a n g in g i s e a s y to u n d e r sta n d ; s e l e c t i o n i s e a s y to f o l l o w .
As i t i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d , t h e r e g r o w s f a m i l i a r i t y ; a s i t
i s t o f o l l o w , e f f i c i e n t y i s g a i n e d . T h a t w h ic h i s f a m i l i a r
w i l l be l a s t ; t h a t w hich i s e f f i c i e n t w i l l be g r e a t . L a s t i n g
i s t h e v i r t u e o f a w i s e man. T h r o u g h c h a n g e a n d s e l e c t i o n
i s o b t a i n e d t h e r e a s o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , %hen t h e r e a s o n o f
the u n iv e r se i s o b ta in ed , th e p e r f e c t a b id es in i t s m id st.

I T h i s b o o k i s u n i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d e n i g m a t i c a l . E ven C o n f u c i u s
s t r u g g l e d to d e f i n e i t s m e a n in g 400 y e a r s l a t e r . As a r e s u l t ,
h e w r o te a p p e n d i c e s to i t . Cf. A p p e n d ix . I I I .
2 C o n f u c i u s , A p p e n d ix . IV.
 io6

T h is d o c t r in e of "The s u p e r i o r man" i s v e r y : sim ilar^ . .

to that of the ea rly G re ek S t o i c s , ^ n d i - bol i t h a t . whdich M a r c u s

A u r e liu s d evelop ed i n h i s Medi b â t i o n s . C o n f u c i u s , lik e

M arcus A u r e l i u s , id e n tifie s "perfect v ir tu e " w ith con form ity

to the order of N ature. A c co r d in g to him . the s u p e r i o r man

is h e who i s e n d o w e d w i t h no sp ecia l g r a ce by n a tu r e , but

by c a r e f u l l y p e r f e c t i n g th e good o r i g i n a l l y im p lan ted in

him , h is "way b e c o m e s i d e n t i c a l w ith th at o f H eaven and E a r th

and o f a l l t h i n g s ; "1 a n d h e f i n a l l y a rriv es at the d ig n it y

of a su p erior m an . 2

We may q u o t e in the f o llo w in g a few c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

d é f i n i t i o n s o f a s u p e r i o r man a s r e n d e r e d b y C o n f u c i u s and

h is d iscip les. C o n fu c iu s compares a v i r t u o u s (su p erio r)

man w i t h an o r d i n a r y man a s f o llo w s : 3

The s u p e r i o r man t h i n k s o f v i r t u e , t h e o r d i n a r y ( c o m m o n )
man t h i n k s o f c o m f o r t . The s u p e r i o r man t h i n k s o f t h e
s a n c t i o n s o f l a w , w h i l e t h e o r d i n a r y man t h i n k s o f f a v o r s
f r o m o t h e r m en .

"The s u p e r i o r man 1 e a r n s d i l i g e n t l y in ord er to a t t a i n

to t h e u t m o s t o f h i s p r i n c i p l e s . "4 B u t i f the stu d ies were

to e x t e n d t o what i s rem ote, there is a danger o f th eir

p rovin g in a p p lic a b le . "T herefore th e s u p e r i o r man d o e s n o t

c a r r y them o u t ; h e a l w a y s f o l l o w s th e m id d le c o u r se in h i s

s t u d i e s . "5

1 An a l e c t s . XIX , 2 0 .
2 C f . The D o c t r i n e o f t h e M ean, IV.
3A n a le c ts . I V ,I I /
4 l b i d . . XIX. 7 .
5 l b i d . . XIX, 4 .
 io8

"The s u p e r i o r man h a s n e i t h e r a n x i e t y n o r f e a r . " 1 "The

s u p e r i o r man h a s d i g n i f i e d ease w ith ou t p rid e; th e ord in ary

man h a s p r i d e w ithou t d ig n ified e a s e . "2

I t h a s been a l r e a d y rem arked a b o v e t h a t what C o n f u c iu s

c a lls "t h e s u p e r i o r man" i s no o t h e r t h a n t h e o n e who f o l l o w s

the road o f com prom ise, the " g o l d e n r u l e . " As C o n f u c i u s

fu rth er says: "The s u p e r i o r man c o n f o r m s w i t h th e path o f

t h e m e a n . "3 "The v i r t u o u s man p r o c e e d s a c c o r d i n g to the

r ig h t path, b u t when h e h a s g o n e h a l f w a y , h e a b a n d o n s i t . "4

From t h e a b o v e f e w p a s s a g e s , i t may b e said that the

keynote of th e C on fucian e t h i c s is th e d evelop m en t o f

in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r by the p r a c t ic e o f a g o l d e n mean. To

fo llo w th is r u le , r en u n c ia tio n of w orld ly l u s t s i s str o n g ly

?n
em p h asized . A s^ S to ic ism , C on fu cian ism d e n ie s e n t i r e l y

a n y t h i n g w hich i s c o n sid e r e d to be h e d o n i s t i c . "V irtue f o r

v irtu e's sake" i s m a in ta in e d : " S a c r ific e your l i f e to

p reserv e your v ir tu e c o m p le te ." 5

V irtu e then c o n s i s t s in str ictly fo llo w in g the "m ean."

The d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l character is p o ssib le o n l y on

the b a s is of it. "O nly b y p e r f e c t v i r t u e can the p e r f e c t

l A n a le c ts . X II, 4.
2 l b i d . , X I I I , 26.
3 Th e D o c t r i n e o f t h e Mean, X I , 3*
4 l b i d . . X I , 5.
5An a l e c t s , XV, 8; c o m p a r e t h e s t a t e m e n t : "For w h a t s h a l l i t
p r o f i t a man i f h e s h a l l g a i n t h e w h o l e w o r l d and l o s e h i s
own s o u l ? "
 no

The u l t i m a t e goal of v ir tu e , then, is t o make t h e

f a m i l y and s t a t e tran q u il and p r o s p e r o u s and to b l e s s

m ankind i n that state.

T h is b e a u t i f u l d im in ish in g series, w hich in f a c t exp la in s

n o th in g in i t s e l f , is the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c manner o f e x p r e s s i o n

of the C h in ese sch olars. It is. however, in terestin g to n o t e

that the l a s t and u l t i m a t e m eans to v i r t u e is r ig h t know l­

edge. It is com parable w ith S o c r a t e s ’ dictu m th a t know ledge

is v irtu e. The k n o w l e d g e o f the nature of th in g s, understand­

in g of t h e r e l a t i o n s which t h e in d iv id u a l su sta in s to so ciety

and t h e u n i v e r s e , l e a d s to v i r t u o u s co n d u ct. The k n o w l e d g e

of these is truth, com form ity to them i s v irtu e; and m o r a l

o b l i g a t i o n s C on fu ciu s appears to h a v e d e r i v e d from a p e r c e p ­

tio n of these r e la t io n s , and a s e n s e o f in h eren t f i t n e s s

in the n atu re o f th in g s.

C on fu ciu s a c c o r d in g ly l a i d sp ecial s t r e s s upon t h e

n ecessity of c u ltiv a tin g in te llig en ce and a l e r t n e s s . In

a d d itio n to th is, the c h i e f ch a ra cteristics of "perfect

virtu e" as he c o n s is t e n t ly taught are m odesty, self-co n tro l,

forbearance, p a tien ce, k in d n ess, o r d e rlin ess, absence of

p assio n , fid e lity , p o liten ess, c e r e m o n io u s n e s s .1 C o n fu c iu s

IC f. A n a lects. XV II, 6.
 112

A lthou gh i t w as C o n f u c i u s ’ a r d e n t d e s i r e to p r o p a g a t e

h is system of " p erfect v irtu e" and t h e i d e a o f "the su p erior

man" h e a t t h e same t i m e d o u b t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e a liz ­

i n g what h e taught. He s a y s : 1

V i r t u e i s m o r e t o man t h a n e i t h e r f i r e o r w a t e r . I
h a v e s e e n men d i e b y t r e a d i n g up o n f i r e o r w a t e r , b u t I
h a v e n e v e r s e e n a man d i e b y t r e a d i n g t h e p a t h o f v i r t u e .

A gain, he la m en ts: "They who know v i r t u e a r e f e w . "2

The p r i n c i p a l s a y i n g s o f C o n f u c i u s on " p e r f e c t v i r t u e "

are a l l concerned w ith the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the in d iv id u a l

to so ciety . He s e l d o m thought o f l i n k i n g the chain o f

human r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h h e a v e n o r God. D u t y t o man was

h i s m ain t o p i c of d isco u rse. A ccord in g to the Great L e a r n in g

and o t h e r C o n fu c ia n c la ssics, t h e p r i n c i p a l human r e l a t i o n s

are of f i v e k in d s-- th e govern m ental, p a ren ta l, con ju gal,

fra tern a l, and t h a t of frien d sh ip . The f i r s t is t h e com­

p reh en sive subject of the t r e a t i s e a s d e v e lo p e d in the Taheo.

or th e Great L e a r n in g . A ll t h e o t h e r r e l a t i o n s which a r e

r ela tiv e d u t i e s a r e p la c e d under th e f i r s t . T h is c l e a r l y

in d ica tes the f a c t th a t a c c o r d in g to C on fu ciu s th e w e lfa r e

of the p eo p le i s d e p e n d e n t upon a good g o v e rn m e n t or t h e

i The G r e a t L e a r n i n g . IX; An a l e c t s . XV, 3 4 .

2An a l e c t s . XV, 3* Compare t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t w i t h L a o t z e ’s
r e m a r k : " T h e r e a r e f e w who c a n f o l l o w t h e p a t h o f T a o .
 114

"many w o r t h y f r i e n d s is advan tageou s." ^ It is u tility that

le a d s us to have f r i e n d s , says C o n fu ciu s.

C onjugal f i d e l i t y , in the sense of c h a stity , i s made

o b lig a to ry o n l y on t h e f e m a l e . "Of a ll p e o p l e , " remarked

C on fu ciu s, "women a n d s e r v a n t s a r e th e m ost d i f f i c u l t to

manage. I f y o u come n e a r t o th e m , t h e y do n o t b e c o m e h u m b l e ,

and i f you keep them a t a d i s t a n c e , th e y become d i s c o n t e n t e d . "2

In a n o t h e r p l a c e , the sage said : "A woman i s unable to stand

alon e, a n d t h e r e f o r e when y o u n g d e p e n d s on h e r f a t h e r a n d

brothers, when m a r r i e d , on h e r h u s b a n d , and a f t e r h i s death,

on h e r s o n s . "3

F raternal duty r e q u ir e s a r i g i d su b ord in ation , accord­

in g to the grad ation of age, which is a id e d by a p e c u l i a r i t y

o f lan gu age; each e l d e r b r o t h e r b e i n g c a l l e d h i u n g . and each

younger ta; no common d e s i g n a t i o n , lik e that of " b ro th er ,"

p la cin g the m on e q u a l fo o tin g . In a l l th in gs th e younger

must show d e f e r e n c e to the e ld e r b r o th e r , a n d m u s t g i v e way

t o h im i n everyth in g, whether in sp ea k in g or in w a lk in g, in

sittin g down a n d r i s i n g up.

F ilia l p iety is a s e n t i m e n t w h i c h a s o n who h a s i m b i b e d

it a t home w i l l carry in to the s e r v ic e of h is p rin ce. Accord-

l A n a l e c t 8 . XVI, 5 4 .
2 l b i d . . XVII, 2 5 .
3l i . k i . V I I I .
 Il6

th e w ish o f S h a n g ti or Heaven, in s u c c e s s io n , to the

throne, and b e i n g g i f t e d by Heaven w i t h p e r f e c t n a t u r e s ,

these two r u l e r s f o l l o w e d w i t h o u t e f f o r t t h e h e a v e n l y way,

t h u s d r a w i n g down on t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r f e l l o w m e n the

b lessin g s of S h a n g t i and t h e f a v o r s o f h e a v e n . The w h o l e

Em pire was p e a c e f u l and h a p p y . T h i s c o n d i t i o n w as t o b e

a r r i v e d a t when "the s o v e r e i g n , by b e h a v in g to the aged

as t h e a g e d s h o u l d be b e h a v e d t o , m akes t h e p e o p l e f i l i a l ;

when b y b e h a v i n g t o h i s eld ers as eld ers should be behaved

to, he teaches the p eop le b r o th e r ly su b m ission ; a n d w h en ,

by t r e a t i n g c o m p a s s i o n a t e l y t h e you n g and h e l p l e s s , the

p eop le lea r n to do t h e s a m e . "1

T h is i s the goal of "perfect v irtu e" and t h e a i m o f

the " s u p e r i o r m an," e s t a b l i s h i n g a h i e r a r c h y o f d ifferen t

c la sse s, each b e in g o b l i g e d to serve its own n e x t su p erior

a cco r d in g to its own r u l e of p ro p riety .

i T h e G r e a t L e a r n i n g , X, I.
 Il8

He i s e sse n tia lly w o r l d l y and a d v e r s e to a b s t r a c t sp ecu la­

t i o n s . 1 The mode o f C o n f u c i u s ’ t h i n k i n g d o e s n o t tran scen d

t h is natural t e n d e n c y o f t h e C h in e s e m ind. C on seq u en tly the

p e o p l e p r e f e r r e d him t o a l l other p h ilo so p h ers o f C hina.

True, th e C h in ese p e o p le a r e a l s o s u p e r s t i t i o u s and

in a sense m y stic a l, as t h e y t u r n e d B u d d h ism a n d T a o i s m i n t o

id o la tro u s b e lie f s and p r a c t i c e s . But th eir su p e rstitio n is

n o t m e ta p h y s ic a l or t r a n s c e n d e n ta l; it is o n ly t e r r e s t r i a l .

T h is i s the rea so n th a t the transcendental d o ctrin e of

L a o t z e was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a g r o te sq u e b e l i e f or p h y s ic a l
con
i m m o r t a l i t y up on t h i s e a r t h . S p e c u la t io n u n n e c te d w ith any
A

w orld ly in terest is absen t. D e ific a tio n and eu h em erism , w hich

are natural to the C h in ese, have a u t i l i t a r i a n b a sis. In

C h in a, "y o u may i n v e n t any god you l i k e and n e g l e c t gods

that d o n ’t concern you. The h a b i t o f mind w h ich p r o d u c e s

sects in In d ia, nam ely, the d e s i r e to e x a l t o n e ’ s own

d e i t y a b o v e o t h e r s a n d make h i m the A ll-G od , does not e x is t .

No C h i n e s e g o d i n s p i r e s such f e e l i n g . "2

1 h . K e y s e r l i n g o b s e r v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t s i n C h i n a : "But
t h e f a c t t h a t a l l t h e C h i n e s e w i t h whom I h a v e h a d i n t e r ­
c o u r s e i n c l u d i n g t h e T a o i s t , h a v e no u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t e v e r
o f t h e m a r v e l o u s t e a c h i n g o f L a o t z e makes one c o n c lu d e t h a t
t h e y a r e t y p i c a l l y w eak i n s u b j e c t i v e m a t t e r s ; t h e y l a c k
m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n s c io u s n e s s ." C f .h is Travel D iary o f a
P h ilo s o n h e r , II, I06.
^ C h a r l e s E l i o t , H i n d u i s m a n d B u d d h i s m , I I I , 225*
 120

on C h i n e s e l i t e r a t u r e ; !

As t h e h i g h e s t a m b i t i o n o f e v e r y C h i n e s e i s h i s
a d m i s s i o n i n t o t h e m a n d a r i n c l a s s , we f i n d s u c c e s s a t t h e
w o r ld - f a m e d e x a m i n a t i o n s , w hich open a c c e s s to o f f i c i a l p o s t s ,
p l a c e d f o r e m o s t i n t h e l i s t o f r e w a r d s w h ic h may b e b e s t o w e d
by g r a t e f u l s p e c t r e s .
In a n o th e r p l a c e , the same a u t h o r speaks o f the p a rt

p la y e d by C on fu cian C l a s s i c s in p o l i t i c s as f o l l o w s ; 2

The C l a s s i c s a r e t h e o n l y b o o k s w h i c h h a v e a l w a y s
f o u n d supreme^.^among s a g e s , s t a t e i s m e n , and s c h o l a r s . T h ey
e x p l a i n why t h e C l a s s i c s a r e h è l d t o b e t h e b a s i s o f a l l
c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g , why a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r
t e a c h i n g s a l w a y s w as t h e c h i e f , n a y t h e o n l y t h i n g r e q u i r e d
i n t h e w o r ld - f a m e d e x a m i n a t i o n s w h ich open t h e door to
o f f i c i a l p r e f e r m e n t . I t i s now c l e a r why t h e w or d ’s c h o l a r ’
a n d ’s t a t e s m a n ’ a r e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h ’C o n f u c i a n i s t . ” *

Due t o t h i s a d o p tio n o f C on fu ciu s* tea ch in g as the

g u id e to p o l i t i c a l a c tiv itie s which f o r the C h in e s e c o n s t i ­

tute the ch ief channel o f w o r l d l y f a m e and h o n o r , C o n fu cian ­

ism h a s r e i g n e d supreme i n China t o t h i s hour. It is that

th e w h ole C h in e s e system of ed u ca tio n by c l a s s i c a l study,

from th e lo w e r sch ools., where t h e C l a s s i c s a r e p r im e r s , up

to th e S t a t e - exam in ât i o n s and th e a p p o in tm en t to state

serv ice of t h o s e who p a s s , v irtu a lly determ ined the cou rse

of the n a t i o n a l life o f C hina.

The s p i r i t of con servation so n a t u r a l to th e C h in ese

m ind i s a th ird c a u se o f m aking C o n fu c ia n ism w id e s p r e a d .

1 J , J . M . d e G r o o t , The R e l i g i o n s o f t h e C h i n e s e , 2 4 .
2 l b i d . , 4 2 ; Y. Ch i n g , " O r i e n t a l C u l t u r e and Our R e s p o n ­
s i b i l i t y , " A C ritiq u e o f O rien tal C u ltu re s. I I ,
 121

C on fu ciu s h i m s e l f ex em p lifies the c o n s e r v a tiv e character

of th e C h in ese m ind. A lm ost a l l h i s d octrin es, and c e r t a i n l y

h i s m ost str ik in g u tteran ces, a r e b o rrow ed from t h e e a r l i e r

C la ssic s, and, as a ru le, the im p ression on t h e o r i g i n a l

coin i s m o re d e e p l y c u t t h a n on t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n .

T h e r e w i l l b e no d o u b t th a t C o n fu c iu s as a moral le a d e r

m ust alw ays rank h ig h among t h e t e a c h e r s o f m a n k i n d . B ut

h is eth ica l code is b y no m e a n s h e r o i c and o r i g i n a l . It is

e x c e l l e n t a n d commands r e s p e c t r a t h e r than a d m ir a tio n . Why

is th is? F ir st, there is no s p i r i t of fo rg iv en ess in h is

code. It is the s t e r n la w o f an e y e f o r an e y e and a t o o t h

for a tooth. The p r i n c i p l e of revenge i s e v e r y w h e r e empha­

sized . "What y o u do n o t w a n t d o n e t o y o u r s e l f do n o t do t o

o th ers." S econ d ly, in h i s eth ics C o n fu ciu s did n ot r i s e to

the h e ig h t o f L aotze in advan cin g b e n e fic e n c e even to the

en em ies, for i f h e r e tu r n e d good f o r e v il, what h a d h e

le ft to r e tu r n f o r good? C o n s e q u e n t ly , he p roclaim ed the

sa c r e d duty o f the v e n d e tta , t h a t a man o u g h t n o t t o l i v e

under th e same h e a v e n w i t h th e m urderer o f h i s father, ever

to s e e k a sword f o r the m urderer o f h i s b r o th e r , or to l i v e

in the same S t a t e w ith th e m urderer o f h i s fr ie n d .1

I C f , S o o t h i l l . Th r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a , 3 3 • The i d e a l o f
r e c i p r o c i t y may b e b e n e f i c i a l l y a p p l i e d to g e n e r a l i t i e s b u t
n o t p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s , f o r w h a t I wan t may n o t b e t h e wan t
o f o t h e r s , and v i c e v e r s a .
 122

R ev en g e in p r a c t i c e was l a i d down a s a t r u e r u l e

of l if e . Ev en i n the m atter of lo y a lty and f i l i a l p iety ,

men w e r e t o l d that t h e y must n o t e x p e c t a d i s p l a y o f those

v irtu es towards t h e m s e lv e s u n l e s s they in th eir turn p r a c ­

tised them t o w a r d s those t o whom t h e y w e r e d u e . Of t h e man

who r e t u r n s g o o d f o r e v il he spoke w ith contem p t, as a

coward c r e a t u r e . "What c o u r s e is to b e p u r s u e d , " a d k e d T s z e

H ea, "in th e c a s e of th e murder o f a f a t h e r or a m other?"

"The s o n , " s a i d C o n f u c i u s , "must s l e e p upon a g r a s s m a t t r e s s ,

w ith h i s sh ield for h i s p illo w ; h e must d e c l i n e to take

o ffice; h e must n o t l i v e under th e same h e a v e n w i t h the

sla y er. When h e m e e t s h i m i n th e m arket p l a c e , or th e c o u r t ,

he must h a v e h i s weapon r e a d y to s t r i k e him .

T h is p r i n c i p l e o f r ev e n g e a s p ro cla im ed by C on fu ciu s

may b e du e t o h i s unbounded r e v e r e n c e f o r the duty o f

filia l p i e t y w h ich a l o n e m akes him c a l l aloud fo r vengeance

in the c a se o f p a r r ic id e s . But th e u n l i m i t e d stress upon

filia l p i e t y b lin d e d C on fu ciu s to the d i f f e r e n c e betw een

rig h t a n d w r o n g . He w o u l d h a v e a f a t h e r conceal the d is­

h o n e s ty of a son, and a son t h a t o f h i s fath er, "U prigh t­

ness is to be fo u n d in th is ( con cealm en t),

i Q f . L e g g e ’s I n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s tra n sla tio n of C h in ese

C la ssics, I.
% f . A n a lects. X III. I8.
 123

The d o c t r i n e o f f i l i a l duty, therefore, is b a s e d u p on

the p r i n c i p l e of rec ip ro c ity . In t h e L i Ki t h e f o l l o w i n g

view i s a lso ascrib ed d irectly to C on fu ciu s: "I h e a r d f r o m

T sang-tsze th a t he had heard the M aster say th a t of a ll

t h a t Heaven p r o d u c e s and E arth n o u r i s h e s there i s none so

g r e a t a s m an. H i s p a r e n t s g i v e b i r t h to h i s p e r so n a l l

c o m p le te and to r e t u r n it to them c o m p l e t e may b e c a l l e d

filia l p i e t y . "1

I n t h e Heo C h i n e it' i s a g a i n said :^

Our b o d i e s , t o e v e r y k a i r a n d s h r e d o f s k i n , a r e
r e c e i v e d f r o m o u r p a r e n t s . We m u s t n o t p r e s u m e t o i n j u r e o r
t o wound th e m . T h i s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f i l i a l p i e t y . When
we h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d o u r c h a r a c t e r b y t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h i s
f i l i a l - c o u r s e , so a s t o make o u r name f a m o u s i n f u t u r e a g e s
and t h e r e b y g l o r i f y our p a r e n t s , t h i s i s t h e end o f f i l i a l
p iety .

We m u s t a d m i t that th e law o f r e c i p r o c i t y as i n s i s t e d

up on b y C o n f u c i u s d o e s n o t u n d e r m i n e h i s d octrin e of

sin cerity as the suprem e v i r t u e . In s p i t e of the f a c t that

C on fu ciu s stron gly c o n t e n d e d t h a t we s h o u l d "recompense

in ju r y w ith ju stic e , a n d r e c o m p e n s e k i n d n e s s w i t h k i n d n e s s , "3

no o n e c o u l d b e m o r e c o n s t a n t in ex a ltin g s i n c e r i t y and

h on esty than C o n fu c iu s. " S in c e r ity ," he sa id , " is the end

and b e g i n n i n g o f th in g s; w ith ou t it th e r e w ould be n o t h i n g . "

i L i K i . XX I, I I .
^Heo Ch i n g , o r t h e B ook o f F i l i a l P i e t y . I ; L i Ki , XXI,
w h e r e f i l i a l p i e t y i s d e f i n e d a s a U n i v e r s a l Law. C f .
M u l l e r , Th e S a c r e d B o o k s o f t h e E a s t , X X V I I I , 2 2 ? .
3 A n a l e c t F I xTvI 3 6 .
 124

"H o ld f a i t h f u l n e s s a n d s i n c e r i t y a s f i r s t p r in c ip les, and

he m oving c o n t i n u a l l y t o w a r d wh a t i s r ig h t." !

As a d i r e c t consequence o f h i s u n c e a s in g em p hasis

upon t h e d u ty o f o b e d i e n c e and s u b m i s s i o n , the stru ctu re of

C on fu cian eth ics is p la in ly b u ilt upon an i m p e r i a l i s t i c

and a u t o c r a t i c b a sis. The v a r i o u s d u t i e s r e l a t i n g to the

State, fa m ily , and f r i e n d s convey the sp irit of h e a r tle ss

o b e d i e n c e a n d s u b m i s s i o n . We h a v e s e e n t h i s i n t h e i d e a l
he
o f f i l i a l p i e t y , w h i c h ^ c o n s i d e r s t o b e an a b s o l u t e o b e d i e n c e .

" F i l i a l p i e t y and f r a t e r n a l su b m issio n ,— are they not the

root of a ll b en evolen t a c tio n s? " ^ P e o p le must ob ey t h e i r

r u l e r s ,a |w i f e must subm it to th e a u t h o r it y o f h e r husband.

In d ivid u al a ssertio n is baneful in a l l so cia l r ela tio n s.

O nly s u b m is s io n and d e p e n d e n c e , in short, are condu cive

to moral a c t s .

It is clea r that in th is dependent state of th in gs,

o r ig in a lity and i n i t i a t i v e w i l l h a v e no c h a n c e t o a p p e a r .

These m ental tra its are o p e r a t i v e where there is a demo­

cra tic sp irit and m utual r e s p e c t , rath er than r e c i p r o c a l

su b m issio n and f e a r . In d iv id u a lism a lso lib era tes o r ig in a lity

w i t h o u t which l i f e w ill fa il to r i s e a b o v e m e d i o c r i t y and

1A n a le c ts, X II, 10.

2 lb id .. I, 22.
 125

progress w ill cease. It is a fundam ental f a c t that a ll

progress i s made, or a t l e a s t is started , by a c e r t a i n

in d iv id u a l who h a s t h e p o w e r t o l i b e r a t e h i m s e l f f r o m t h e

rut of the m asses. S u b m issio n such a s p r e v a i l e d in a s la v e

system b r e e d s d o c i l i t y and u n i f o r m i t y . But t h i s is the

ten d e n c y to stan d ard ise in d iv id u a ls i n t o a "m ass" w i t h no

chance f o r the e x p r e ssio n of o r ig in a l!ty .!

Due t o the ten d e n c y to r e g a r d d e v o tio n (heo) and

su b m issio n , as the h ig h e s t v ir t u e s , a stro n g p a tr ia r c h a l

system h a s alw ays p r e v a il e d in C hina. A s we h a v e seen, it

p la ces the c h ild under th e a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y o f its

f a t h e r and m o t h e r , so t h a t it has to pay to b o th th e utm ost

a m oun t o f o b e d i e n c e and s u b j e c t i o n . F ilia l su b m ission f o r b id s

ch ild ren ever to w ith d ra w from t h a t a u t h o r i t y , w hatever

th eir a g e may b e - - a law that ren d ers s e p a r a t i o n from th e

fa m ily s t o c k e x c e p t i o n a l • 2 Th us i t is th a t a fa m ily a f t e r

a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s may d e v e l o p in to a cla n , in which the

p a tria rch or th e m a tr ia r c h n a t u r a l l y commands t h e h i g h e s t

a u t h o r i t y and heo or s u b m is s iv e r e s p e c t . And, just as

n a tu ra lly , t h is heo is converted in to a w orsh ip o f e l d e r s

iF o r a s o c i o l o g i c a l d is c u s s io n o f o r i g i n a l i t y , c f . E .A .R oss,
P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y , 439 f f •
2As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s b i n d i n g , e a c h f a m i l y o f C h i n a
e v e n t o - d a y o f t e n c o n s i s t s a t l e a s t o f one d o z e n members
l i v i n g under one r o o f , t h e f a t h e r b e i n g t h e h o u s e k i n g o f
them a l l .
 126

when t h e y a r e d e a d , - - a w orsh ip p a id to a l l , by a l l the

o ffsp rin g . It i s p r o fa n e f o r anybody to a s s e r t h i s own

op in ion or a n y t h in g c o n t r a r y to that of the e ld e r s both

l i v i n g and d ea d . The s t a n d a r d f o r ev eryth in g, therefore, is

d eterm in ed by a n t i q u i t y , and e v e r y one i s en join ed to conform

to i t .1

As we h a v e p o i n t e d out above, C o n f u c i u s u n d u l y empha­

sized t h e o u tw a rd form o f conduct, e sp e cia lly in duty. T h is

is a part of t h e fam ous d o c t r i n e o f cerem onialism . The

reason fo r th e em p h asis, a c c o r d in g to C o n fu c iu s, is that

"the r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y a r e f o r man w h a t t h e y e a s t is for

liq u o r. By t h e u s e o f th e m t h e ’s u p e r i o r m a n ’ b e c o m e s b e t t e r

and g r e a t e r . ’The i n f e r i o r man ’ b y n e g l e c t of them b e c o m e s

s m a l l e r and p o o r e r . "2 i n a n o t h e r p l a c e h e said : "It i s by

the r u le s of p r o p r ie ty t h a t one can p r o p e r l y s t a n d . "

A ccord in g to C h in ese tra d itio n , as to ld i n Li K i ,3

t h e s e r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y had been e s t a b l i s h e d by the

a n c i e n t k i n g s and em bodied t h e i r con cep tion of r ig h t .

C on fu ciu s sim ply r e i t e r a t e d them i n the sp irit of resp ect-

l A c c o r d i n g to th e f i l i a l s u b m is s io n , th e C h in ese s o c i e t y
i s d i v i d e d i n t o two m a i n c l a s s e s o f m en , s u p e r i o r a n d
i n f e r i o r . E a c h c l a s s h a s i t s own c o d e o f s u b j e c t i o n . As
we h a v e s e e n i n C h a p t e r V I I , C o n f u c i u s c o n s i s t e n t l y t a u g h t
t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e " s u p e r i o r man" o v e r a g â i n s t t h a t o f t h e
" i n f e r i o r m a n ." He n e v e r g o t o u t o f t c c l a s s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
He w a s d e c i d e d l y an a r i s t o c r a t i c t e a c h e r .
2Li K i . I I , p t . I .
^Ib i d .. I l l , p t. I.
 127

ing a n tiq u ity . The way o f r e a s o n i n g o u t th is p rin cip le of

p u jp r ie ty would b e s o m e t h i n g l i k e th is: B ecause the r u le s

o f cerem ony a re the u sa g es o f the a n c ie n t k in g s , therefore

they are th e em bodied e x p r e s s i o n s o f what i s r i g h t .1

It is som etim es p o s s i b l e that the in n e r l i f e c o u ld be

e x p r e s s e d and c o n t r o l l e d and rem o u ld ed th r o u g h o u tw a rd fo rm s

o f conduct, nam ely, ru les of p ro p riety . B u t we m u s t a l s o

b e a r in m ind t h a t there is a great danger o f su b stitu tin g

good manners f o r inn er a f f e c t i o n and l o y a l t y . In f a c t , m ost

of the s o - c a l l e d g o o d m a n n e r s a n d p r o p r i e t y i n human s o c i e t y
a r e n o t h i n g more th a n su p e rfic ia l a p p en d ic es p r a c t i s e d by

t h o s e who l i v e "for o th e r s " r a th e r than "for th em selv es."

Goodness a s som ething a r t i f i c i a l (w ei) w hich can be p ro d u ced

by observan ce o f c e r t a in r u les of p ro p riety i s not a true

k in d . Su ch a f o r m a l i s m r a t h e r te n d s to produce su p e rfic ia lity ,

pomp, d i s g u i s e and d e c e p t i o n .

True, i n a s m u c h a s we c a n n o t see in to the h e a r t s o f

men a n d kn ow t h e i r inm ost f e e l i n g s , i t may b e u n o b j e c t i o n ­

a b le at tim es to s t r e s s manners and form s o f co n d u ct a s

the p rop er e x p r e s s io n o f an i n n e r state. But a p e r f e c t

corresp on d en ce betw een t h e o u tw ard manner and t h e inw ard

im pu lse is w ell-n ig h im p o ssib le in t h i s w orld o f im p erfec­

tio n . In kn ow ing t h i s , it is t h e r e f o r e u n n e c e ss a r y to be

1 C f. A n a le c t s • I , 12.
 128

en sla v ed to the p r i n c i p l e of p ro p riety , as the f o l l o w i n g

p r e c e p t o f C o n f u c i m a c om m a n d s ;1

Lo o k n o t a t wh a t i s c o n t r a r y t o p r o p r i e t y ; l i s t e n
n o t t o wh at i s c o n t r a r y t o p r o p r i e t y ; s p e a k n o t w h a t i s
c o n t r a r y t o p r o p r i e t y ; m ake n o t w h a t i s c o n t r a r y t o
p ro p riety .

As we a p p r o a c h the end o f the p r e s e n t chapter, we

may g i v e h e r e a s y n o p s i s of the e t h i c a l te a c h in g o f C on fu ciu s

1. The C o n f u c i a n e t h i c s is l a r g e l y b a s e d upon t h e i d e a s

w h i c h w e r e c u r r e n t when h e w a s b o r n . He w a s l o y a l to e x i s t ­

i n g a u t h o r i t y and e n d ea v o u red to p u t h i s m oral id e a ls in to

p r a c t i c e by c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l m eans. Because o f h i s adop­

tio n o f the c u r r e n t i d e a s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d man *s d u t y to

h is f e l l o w m en , h e seem s to us to be the g r e a t e s t conser­

v a tiv e t e a c h e r whom t h e C h i n e s e r a c e h a s e v e r p r o d u c e d . As

th e m ass o f the C h in ese p e o p le b e l i e v e d . C on fu ciu s, for

exam ple, b e l i e v e d w ith them m o s t l y s i n c e r e l y that r u le r s

were a p p o in t e d by H eaven. A sort of " d ivin e r ig h t o f kings"

was i m p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e d in h i s tea ch in g s.

2. C on fu ciu s la c k e d th e elem en t o f hu m anitarian isra

alth ou gh h i s t e a c h i n g was c o n f i n e d to t h e w o r l d o f man.

E s p e c ia lly he lack ed k in d ly treatm ent o f women a n d t h e

weak. U n lik e the m o r a l is t s of t h e e a r l y W est, h e u t t e r e d

no condem nation o f s l a v e r y and c o n c u b in a g e , w hich were

IC f. A n a lects, XII; Th e D o c t r i n e o f t h e M e a n , IX .
 129

then w id ely p ractised in C hina i n s u c h a way t h a t they

became th e v i l e s t form s o f outw ard condu ct e v e r d e v i s e d by

man. F urther, C on fu ciu s in sisted t h a t we c o u l d s t o p war

by p r e p a r a t i o n f o r war. T h us h e d i d n o t deny m i l i t a r y

equipm ent a s n e c e s s a r y f o r self-d efen se, (w hich teach in g

was n o t f o l l o w e d b y t h e C h i n e s e p e o p l e a t l a r g e ) . H is id e a

of revenge is another illu stra tio n that he la ck ed the

C h ristian ty p e o f l o v e and b e n e v o l e n c e even to t h e enemy

and th e h a t e d .

3 . C o n f u c i u s w as a g n o s t i c abou t th e w orld a f t e r death.

He r e f u s e d to in d u lg e in th in g s a b stra ct and e t h e r e a l . He

w as a p o s i t i v i s t in the sense that he t h o u g h t and sp o k e in

th e w o rld o f phenomena. " % h ile o n e c a n n o t know l i f e , how

c a n h e kn ow d e a t h a n d t h e w o r l d b e y o n d ; " t h i s w a s h i s scep­

tica l co n clu sio n . T h is la c k of reco g n itio n of a d e fin ite

Suprem e God i s the fu n d am en tal w eak n ess o f h i s teach in gs.

He p r e s e r v e d a d i s c r e e t reticen ce e v e n on t h e subject of

the pop u lar s u p e r s t i t i o n s and w o r s h i p s o f the tim e. He

sim ply d ep lo red the cu r re n t d isord ers in p o l i t i c s and

sought the cu re f o r them i n a r e t u r n to the p r i n c i p l e s o f

th e g r e a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l m onarchs o f a n t i q u i t y , esp ecia lly

t h o s e o f Yau a n d S h u n . T h u s h e h i m s e l f c l a i m e d no o r i g i n a l i t y ,

but d esired to i n t e r p r e t the b e s t o f t h e p a s t .1

iC f. M iura, H i s t o r y o f C h in ese E t h i c s , 28 f f .
 130

4 . H is moral p h ilo s o p h y is em bodiei in the f i v e

rela tio n s of l i f e . V ir tu e s in v o lv e d in these rela tio n s

were suprem ely s t r e s s e d . These r e l a t i o n s are: R u le r and

m in ister, h u sb and and w i f e , f a t h e r and s o n , eld er b roth er

and y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , f r i e n d an d f r i e n d . In d i s c u s s i o n of

the r e l a t i o n of the s u p e r i o r - - r u l e r . husband, fath er, eld er

b r o t h e r - - w h i le alw ays r e c o g n iz in g h i s au th o rity , he ever

la id t h e e m p h a s is upon t h e d u ty o f dom ineering a c c o r d in g to

the s u p e r i o r ’s p r o p r i e t y . In d i s c u s s i n g the r e l a t i o n of the

in fe r io r --m in is te r . w ife, son, and y o u n g er b r o t h e r - - h e n e v e r

ceased la y in g t h e e m p h a s i s up on o b e d i e n c e a n d d u t y a c c o r d ­

in g to the p r o p r ie t y o f the i n f e r i o r . Thus w h a t i s taught

by C o n fu c iu s i s a s o r t o f moral code of a feu d a l state. In

it cla ss d iscrim in a tio n is fo rtified .

5 . In h i s t e a c h in g C on fu ciu s had the c o n v i c t i o n that

man i s free to be s e l f - d e v e l o p e d f o r moral tasks. D esp ite

a ll appearances to the c o n tr a r y , he h eld to the in h eren t

g o o d n e s s o f human n a t u r e . As a r e s u l t h e h a d no a d e q u a t e

con cep tion of sin , and o f the c o n se q u e n t c o r r u p tio n o f

human n a t u r e . He t h o u g h t that r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y w ould

k e e p man p u r e . T h is i s one o f th e fundam ental weaknesses

in h i s e th ic a l p h ilo so p h y . T h is i s o n e c h i e f r e a s o n why

h is e th ic a l precepts have f a ile d so c o n s p i c u o u s l y in r e ­

g e n e r a t i n g C hina. A n ew s y s t e m o f e t h i c s w h i c h f u l l y
 131

reco g n izes the v a r io u s s i d e s o f human n a t u r e w o u l d h e

req u ired to r e g e n e r a te the m u l t i p l e m i l l i o n s o f human

sou ls i n C h in a. In f a c t , i f human n a t u r e is in h e r e n tly good,

why i s it necessary to t e a c h man m o r a l p r e c e p t s a s C o n f u c i u s

did? The i d e a s o f g o o d an^d e v i l h a v e no m e a n i n g a p a r t f r o m

human a c t i v i t y ; they are the e p i t h e t s to d e s c r i b e the n a tu re

of the a c t i v i t y in m aking th e w o rld a c o m f o r ta b le p l a c e to

liv e . The s o - c a l l e d w i s e men do n o t d i f f e r much i n th eir

n a t u r e from o t h e r s . What m a k e s them w i s e i s t h e i r pow erfui

a ctiv ity o f m aking th e e n v ir o n m en t f i t th eir liv e s. As

P r o f e s s o r H ock in g s a y s : l

W h a t e v e r l i f e o r i n d i v i d u a l s may b e s a i d t o s t r i v e
f o r , i t i s n o t m e r e l y t o f i t ân e n v i r o n m e n t . L i f e s t r i v e s
much m o r e to make t h e e n v i r o n m e n t f i t to i t s e l f . . . .
When e n v i r o n m e n t c o n t r o l l e d , i t i s a s e r v a n t c o m p l e t e l y d o c i l e ,
i n c a p a b l e o f r e b e l l i o n . H e n c e , w h e r e v e r we f i n d c o n s c i o u s
i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e r e we f i n d e f f o r t s t o make t h e w o r l d o v e r
i n t o form s a u s p i c i o u s f o r the p u r p o s e s o f t h o s e l i v i n g
b e in g s th em selves.

6. C on fu ciu s, though w it h o u t r e a s o n e d a c c o u n t o f i t s

ex isten ce, c o n s i s t e n t l y a s s u m e d an u n s e e n i m p e r s o n a l p r i n ­

c ip le. or Tao, p e r v a d in g the w orld . L ike L a o tz e . he b e l i e v e d

that e v e r y th in g h a s its Tao o r m a n n e r o f b e h a v i n g . ^ He

further b eliev ed that ancestral sp irits e x ist and g u ard

t h e w e a l a n d woe o f th eir p o ste r ity . I t was e n j o i n e d to the

sons t o mourn a n d w o r s h i p the sp irit of the dead, at le a s t

for t h r e e y e a r s d u r i n g which t i m e th ey sh ould n e i t h e r eat

I C f . E . H o e k i n g . Human H a t u r e a n d i t s R e m a k i n g . 5»
2 Cf .Hu S h i h , Th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e L o g i c a l M e t h o d i n
A n c i e n t C h in a , 22 f f .
 132

n o r w ear w h at they l i k e , nor a s s o c i a t e w ith a n y th in g

p lea sa n t. T h is f i l i a l p ie ty has m ilita ted a g a in st p u b lic

sp irit, and t h e a u t h o r i t y o f the o l d h a s i n c r e a s e d the

tyranny of a n c ie n t custom s. In a d d i t i o n to th ese v a rio u s

su p erstitio n s, he h eld throughout h i s life that at d ifferen t

tim es in h i s t o r y a S ain t, o r h o l y man, has appeared, that is

a man fro m i n f a n c y o f u n e r r i n g w i s d o m , and o f f a u l t l e s s

character--a character such as C h ristia n s rep resen t Jesus

alon e to h a v e d e v e l o p e d .

The a b o v e p o i n t s of C o n fu ciu s’ tea ch in g are the r e ­

p resen ta tiv e ex p ressio n s o f C h in ese thought. They a r e e s p e ­

c ia lly in a cco rd a n ce w ith the n atu re of t h e M o n g o lia n mind

w h ich , b ein g uns p e c u la tiv e , reb els a gain st the id e a o f

i n v e s t i g a t i n g m a t t e r s w hich a r e beyond s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e .

A p lain m a tte r -o f-fa c t system o f m o r a lit y , such a s that

e n u n cia te d by C on fu ciu s, was s u f f i c i e n t for a ll the wants

of the C h in e se . The s p r e a d o f C o n f u c i a n i s m , in th e second

p l a c e . w a s du e t o the support of th e r u l e r s and t h e r u l e d .

The c o n s t a n t exh ortation s to l o y a l t y t o b e f o u n d on e v e r y

JL
page of the C o n fu cia n w r i t i n g s can n o t b u t h a v e b e e n g r a t ^ u l

to the e a r s o f sovereign s. The r u l e d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

fe lt, as C on fu ciu s taught them t o f e e l , th at the r u l e r s should

take care o f the w e l l- b e i n g o f the r u led . By m e a n s o f e d u c a -

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tio n through C on fu cian C l a s s i c s , t h e C h i n e s e m i n d w as l e d

” to the a b s o l u t e su b jection o f upwards o f f o r t y gen eration s

o f Ch inaman t o the d i c t a o f o n e m a n ( C o n f u c i u s ) . ”1

Thus, C on fuoius h a s never been dead in C h in ese l i f e .

H is p e o p le f i n a l l y r a i s e d h i m to the f i r s t grade o f C h in ese

d e itie s, t h u s r a n k i n g him w i t h Sh an gti, or th e H eaven.

T em ples were b u i l t f o r him in every grea ts.cen ter of lea rn in g

th r o u g h o u t C h in a. In t h e d if f e r e n t p r o v in c e s 1 ,5 0 0 tem p les

are d ed icated to h i s w o rsh ip , w h er e on t h e f i r s t and f i f t e a n t h

day o f each m onth s a c r i f i c i a l serv ices are perform ed b e fo r e

h is im ages and th o s e o f h i s d iscip les. In t h i s way , Confu­

c ia n is m became a n o th e r c o n g lo m e r a tio n o f C h in ese su p erstitio n s.

To t h e a l r e a d y n u m e r o u s e x i s t i n g cu lts o f T a o i s t s and B u d d h i s t s

in C hina, d e itie s of th e C o n f u c ia n i s t s a re added t o g e t h e r

w ith th e w orsh ip o f the sp ir its of the deceased f o r e f a t h e r s .

These o u tg r o w th s o f i d o l a t r o u s elem en ts, together w ith the

triv ia l p o in ts of e tiq u e tte w h ic h o c c u p i e d m o s t o f C o n f u c i u s ’

w ritin g s, are su ffic ien t to k e e p u s from o v e r e s t i m a t i n g t h e

m e r it s o f C on fu ciu s. He m u s t b e r e g a r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t on ly

a s an h i s t o r i c a l factor in the h is t o r y o f C h in ese thought.

IC f. D o u glas, Ta o i s m a n d C o n f u c i a n i s m , I 7 0 .
 13^

a lr e a d y determ ined by i t . T h in gs w i l l come a n d go a c c o r d ­

in g to its p r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Man h a s to w a i t f o r its tim e

of action and l i v e in tune w ith it. There w i l l be a tim e

when e v e r y t h i n g w i l l be d o n e. The o n l y t h i n g f o r man t o do

is to be p a t i e n t and w ait* a n d do no m o r e . As L a o t z e said :1

Keep t h e mouth s h u t , c l o s e th e g a t e w a y s o f s e n s e , and

a s l o n g a s y o u l i v e y o u w i l l h a v e no t r o u b l e . P r a c t i c e
i n a c t i o n , occupy y o u r s e l f w ith doing n o th in g .

L aotze d e r iv e d h i s eth ica l d octrin e o f n o n - a c t i o n from

the transcendental id ea of Tao. As t h e e s s e n c e o f Tao i s

c h ild sim p licity or n a i v e t y , sim p licity is the s ummum bon um .

He a p o t h e o s i z e d a s o r t of ’’s l a v e e t h i c s ” o f H g^tzsche^ He

preached a d octrin e o f co n q u est by b e in g conquered. He

urged that in ju ry s h o u ld be m et by k i n d n e s s , n ot by j u s t i c e .

He c o m p a r e d v i r t u e w ith w a ter. W ater b e i n g f l e x i b l e by i t s

nature can p e n e t r a t e in to a so lid t h i n g a nd d i s s o l v e it by

slow p r o c e s s .

L aotze t h e r e f o r e was b o t h a f a t a l i s t and o p p o r t u n i s t .

He was t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the n e g a tiv e tendency of

O rien ta lism s such a s Buddhism and S h i n t o i s m . H i s e t h i c a l

t h o u g h t o f wu w e i , or the s i m p l i c i t y of n on -d oin g, is the

reverse of the p o s i t i v e p r o g r e s s io n is m of th e W estern

p eo p les.

Why d i d L a o t z e expound such a n o n - a c t i o n theory of l i f e ?

I Tao Teh C h i n a . 5'6. 57.

 137

came t o p r e v a i l . L i c e n s e and l e t h a r g y were b r e d o f l u x u r y

and p l e n t y . The c e n t r a l p o w e r o f the S t a t e g r a d u a lly p a s s e d

in to the hands o f the g rea t op u len t v a s s a ls who h e l d in d e­

pendent sw ay i n some t h i r t e e n sm all states. The s i t u a t i o n

was t h e d u p licate of the p r e s e n t General or Tuk-choon sy stem

o f C hina. J ea lo u sy , strife, greed, w ick ed n ess, war among

the v a s s a l ru lers, were e v e r y w h e r e ram pant. I t was a d e c a d e n t

age. A ll t h i n g s were out o f j o i n t . M a n ’s h a b i t was t o f i g h t

and to r e v e l . But t h e m a s s e s worked and s u f f e r e d . To a v o i d

th is state of th in g s. L aotze p roclaim ed a th e o r y th a t a c tio n

w ould b r i n g s t r i f e and t r o u b l e , and t h e r e f o r e n o n - a c t i o n

w ould be the o n l y remedy to so lv e the p e r p l e x i n g p rob lem s

of the tim e. "The E m p i r e h a s e v e r b e e n won b y l e t t i n g th in gs

take th eir own c o u r s e , " sa id L a o tze.I "He who w i l l alw ays

be doin g i s u n fit to o b t a i n the E m p ire."

The i n f l u e n c e o f H in d u t h o u g h t upon L a o t z e may b e a

fourth exp lan ation of the o r ig in of L a o tzia n type o f thought

in C h in a. T h e r e i s much s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n B rahm anism o f

I n d i a and Taoism o f C h in a . It is dedu ced from th e sem blance

of the two t y p e s o f thought that the one i s i n f l u e n c e d by

the o t h e r . T h i s i s m a i n t a i n e d b y some o f th e W estern w r i t e r s . ^

A c c o r d i n g to them, Taoism , contrary to the p r a c t i c a l charac-

I Tao Teh C h i n g . 5 8 .
2 h o t a b l y L egge and G i l e s .
 139

m anufactured. The m e d d l e r m a r s ; the g r a s p e r l o s e s .

A gain, ”l e t him r u l e t h e e m p i r e who c a n l e t th in g s

a l o n e . 1 Sim ilarly^ C on fu ciu s a s s e r t s : ^

The g o o d r u l e r f u l f i l s h i s fu n ctio n w ith m odesty, and

d o e s n o t m e d d l e w i t h a n o t h e r ’s .

F u r t h e r C o n f u c i u s a g r e e s w it h L a o t z e ’s i d e a o f n o n ­

a ctio n , n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e when h e says:3

Do n o t s e e k t o h a v e t h i n g s d o n e q u i c k l y . . . . The
s u p e r i o r m a n ( r u l e r ) d o e s n o t go o u t o f h i s p l a c e . In w h a te v e r
p o s i t i o n , h i g h or lo w , he d oes w h at i s b e c o m i n g to i t ; t h u s
h e n e v e r can be where h e i s n o t h im self.

T h ird , b o t h men a r e n e g a t i v e in d iv id u a lists. C on fu ciu s

regards the " cu ltiv a tio n o f the se lf as the r o o t of every­

t h i n g . " But the s e l f c u ltiv a tio n co n sists in e lim in a t io n

of the self or th e "I" f r o m m an. When t h e r e is no s e l f b u t

on ly a b so rp tio n i n n o t h i n g n e s s o f Tao, there is virtu e, i.e .

b en evolen ce (jen ). "To s u b d u e o n e ’ s s e l f and r e t u r n to

p rop riety i s p e r fe ct v irtu e. I f a man c a n f o r o n e da y s u b d u e

h i m s e l f and r e t u r n to p r o p r i e t y , a ll under h e a v e n w i l l

su b scrib e p e r fe c t v irtu e to h i m . T h i s n eg a tiv e in d iv id u ­

a listic v i e w c u l m i n a t e s i n a r i s t o c r a c y when h e says:? "When

I Tao Teh G h i n g , 5 8 .
2 C f . The D o c t r i n e o f t h e M e a n , XX; A n a l e c t s , I I , 19»
3 A n a l e c t s . X I I I , 1 7 ; Th e G r e a t L e a r n i n g , I I I .
4 A n a l e c t s , X I I , I; S . M . L ia n g , C i v i l i z a t i o n and P h i l o s o p h y
o f th e O r i e n t and O c c i d e n t , I25-I3C *
5A n a l e c t s 7 XV I, 2~,
 1 4-1

For C o n f u c iu s , Tao i s t h e u n i t y o f H eaven and E a r t h .

The c o n f o r m i t y t o th is u n ity of nature i s v irtu e. "The

r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y a r e m a n ’s a c c o r d w i t h t h e Tao o r t h e

nature o f th in g s. They a r e to be pursued w ith n a t u r a l

e a s e . ”1 "Tao i s the e q u ilib riu m of the f a c u l t i e s and f e e l ­

i n g s . "2
F ifth , L a o tz e and C o n fu c iu s a r e b o th u t i l i t a r i a n s .

To them v i r t u e b r i n g s p r o s p e r i t y a nd h a p p i n e s s . No o n e

is to be v ir t u o u s f o r the sake o f b e in g v i r t u o u s . At l e a s t

v ir tu e b rin gs p o ise and h o n o r. L aotze says, "a g o o d t h i n g

is a ccom p lish ed , t h a t w i l l b r i n g o n e a p p l a u s e . "3 L i k e w i s e

C o n fu c iu s rem arks, " if o ne c o n f o r m s to the law o f h ea v en

and e a r t h from day to day and from n i g h t to n i g h t , w ill

men p e r p e t u a t e h i s p r a i s e . "4

S ix th , L a o tz e and C o n fu c iu s a l s o b e l i e v e d in Shangti

or Heaven a lt h o u g h th e y d en ied its k n o w a b i l i t y b y man.

Heaven i s con sid ered to be too su p r e m e a n d i n f i n i t e to be

comprehended by m o r ta l b e i n g s . A ccordin g to L a o t z e , "Tao

is th e m y ste r y o f M otherhood, root o f h e a v e n and e a r t h . "5

It i s b;eyon4 p e r c e p t i o n and e m b r a c e . " I f y o u go b e f o r e it,

you se e n o t its face; if y o u go b e h i n d i t , you s e e n o t its

I A n a le c t s, XII, I .
2Th e D o c t r i n e o f t h e M ean, I , 1 3 - 2 0 .
3Ta o T e h C h i n g , 9*
4Th e D o c t r i n e o f t h e M ea n, XXIX.
5Ta o Teh C h i n g .
 143

E mperor b e i n g t h e a p p o i n t e e o f Heaven I s e x a l t e d to the

r a n k o f God. A p rin cip le of the " d iv in e r ig h t o f kin gs"

is up h eld . C h ild ish su b m ission o f the low er to the h ig h e r

is commend ed. In th e f a m i l y , for exam ple, the p a r e n t s a re

g iven a p o s it io n of autocracy. Sin ce a S ta te is an e n l a r g e ­

m ent o f the a u t o c r a t ic fa m ily , it rem ains alw a y s a u t o c r a t i c .

It is thus a tr e a so n to i n q u i r e what t h e emperor or the

fath er sh o u ld or sh o u ld n o t do. " T h e r e w i l l b e no d i s c u s s i o n

am ong t h e p e o p l e . "

2 . The d o c t r i n e o f a n c e s t o r w o r s h ip w hich c o n s t i t u t e s

a v e r y i m p o r t a n t theme i n C o n f u c iu s ’ t e a c h i n g h a s b r o u g h t

i n t o b a n k r u p tc y th e e c o n o m i^ ca l and moral f o u n d a t i o n of

th e C h in ese p e o p le . The s u p e r s t i t i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e o f

ancestral r i t e s p u t an end to a f r e e develop m en t of the

C h i n e s e m i n d . More than a n y t h i n g e l s e , the p r o g r e s s of

modern s c ' ^ i e n t i f i c im provem ent and l i b e r a l ed u ca tio n are

f r e q u e n t l y h in d e r e d by th e o b s t i n a t e b e l i e f in the "lucky

spots" fo r the grave sites and s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s . F urther,

" th e w a s te o f money, lan d , energy, and tim e c o n n e c t e d w ith

ancestral w orsh ip in volves m illio n s o f C h in ese in l i f e - l o n g

debts; in one g e n e r a t i o n at le a st ten thousand m i l l i o n

d o lla rs is w a s t e d . "1

3. The l o w e s t i m a t e of the fem a le sex by th e C h in ese

sage q u ite d ir e c t ly h elp ed to b r in g about e v i l p ra ctices

Faber. Ou t l i n e s o f C h in ese H i s t o r y . e s p .C h a p .I .
 144

su ch a s c o n c u b i n a g e and p r o s t i t u t i o n . Woman i s regarded

a s a mere c h a t t e l . Many i n t r i g u e s , c r i m e s an d w a r s h a v e b e e n

c a u s e d b y j e a l o u s i e s a n d a v a r i c e among t h e r u l e r s . Thus i f

the t e a c h i n g s o f a s a g e w e r e t o h a v e a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h

the cause of th ese ev il p ra ctices, C on fu ciu s s h o u l d be

resp o n sib le for them m ore t h a n a n y o n e e l s e .

4. The v i r t u e of f i l i a l p iety , though th e r e a r e some

good p o i n t s in i t , d i d m o re harm t o C h i n e s e l i f e than any

other eth ica l p recept. F re e d o m t o d e v e l o p is stifled by

the extrem e p r a c t i c e of f i l i a l d u ties of s o n s an d d a u g h t e r s

o f C h in a. The e n t i r e number o f C h i n e s e C l a s s i c s teach th is

v irtu e a s b e in g th e m ost e s s e n t i a l . O ther v i r t u e s a r e sub­

serv ien t to i t . A son even a t six ty is commended f o r f r o l i c k ­

ing about l ik e a c h ild of six in order t o make h i s p a r e n t s

forget that th e y a r e grow ing o ld . A b solu te su b ord in ation of

sons to th eir parents as such d u r in g t h e w hole o f l i f e w ould

b r i n g n o t h i n g b u t m e n t a l d e g e n e r a c y and i m m a t u r i t y . Then

n epotism is a necessary e ffe c t of th is sort of f i l i a l p iety ,

w h ich p r e v e n t s o n e ’s m ind from g o i n g b e y o n d t h e c o n f i n e s

of im m ediate r e l a t i v e s .

5. C on fu ciu s taught the p e o p le that the id e a l goal of

life c o u ld be a t t a i n e d o n l y i n an o f f i c i a l p o sitio n . T h is

i d e a l h a s become a r a c i a l h ab it that a l l C h in ese le a r n to

do e v e r y t h i n g c h i e f l y w ith a view to g e t in to p o l i t i c s .
 145

Honor and p r o s p e r i t y w ere t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n s . At t h e same

t i m e pomp a n d c o r r u p t i o n a r e a p t to f o l l o w th is d esire to

se c u r e a government o f f i c e . S e l l i n g and c h e a t i n g h a v e

n e v e r d e p a r t e d from t h e C h in e s e body p o l i t i c . J u stice is

b ou gh t and s o l d a s m a t e r i a l goods in the m ark et.

6 . The C o n f u c i a n i d e a t h a t man c a n b e made v i r t u o u s

by t e a c h i n g the r u l e s o f p r o p r i e t y and a few good exam p les

is a m istak e. A mere p e r f e c t i n g o f c e r e m o n i a l k n o w led g e

alon e cannot t r a n s f o r m m a n ’s c h a r a c t e r . O nly th r o u g h

dynamic a c t i v i t y o r d o i n g can one l e a r n even the id eas of

g o o d an d e v i l . " T rial and e r r o r " p r o c e d u r e in a c tu a l ex­

p erien ce is t h e k e y to k n o w in g c o r r e c t l y and d o i n g n o b l y .

7. Ignorance about the e v i l t e n d e n c i e s o f man made

C on fu ciu s f a l l short of th e d ev elo p m en t o f h i g h e s t moral

p r i n c i p l e s a s we f i n d in C h r is t ia n it y . The C o n f u c i a n i d e a

t h a t m a n ’s n a t u r e is o r ig in a lly good in i t s e l f however

co n tra d icts h is attem pt t o t e a c h man t o b e v i r t u o u s . For

teach in g v ir tu e im p lies the f a c t t h a t man i s not a lto g eth er

virtu o u s. P o sitiv e progress is the r e s u l t of a constant

stru g g le a g a in st the e v ils of th e w orld . A m oral d octrin e

which ig n o r e s the e x is t e n c e of ev il in th e w orld ten d s

t o w a r d s e l f - c o m p l a c e n c y , v/u w e i . or n o n - a c t i o n .

8 . C on servatism to g e th e r w ith a n c e s t r a l w orsh ip i s

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a n o th e r u n im portan t em p hasis l a i d in th e C on fucian teach in g.

Reverence of the p a s t destroyed the p lan s fo r the f u t u r e .

Worship o f the p a s t or th e dead c a u se d th e C h in ese to h a t e

a ll p r o g r e s s and d e v e l o p m e n t . The p r e s e n t breakdown in

th eir n atio n a l l i f e is t h e m ute p r o o f o f the in e ffic ie n c y

of c o n s e r v a t i s m a s t a u g h t by C o n fu c iu s . The d e s i r e to con ­

s e r v e and r e v e r e the p a st stifled t h e C h in e s e m ind.

To L a o t z e ’s t e a c h i n g we may a d d t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c a l

rem arks. I. The i d e a o f wu w ei is opposed to the truth

that l i f e is e sse n tia lly an a c t i t t y . Man i s p r i m a r i l y made

to a c t and to l i v e . Wu w e i is the d en ial of l i f e . Thus to

deny a c t i v i t y is to a f f ir m death.

2. L a o tz e a l s o h e l d w ith C on fu ciu s t h e 'v ie w that the

human n a t u r e is o rig in a lly good. T h is v iew l e a d s to self-

sa tisfa c tio n and n o n - a c t i o n . It ten d s to n e g a te the r e a l i t y

of th is a ctiv e w orld. When a c t i o n and t h e r e a l i t y of the

w orld a r e denied, the o n ly co u r se to take i s reverence of

the p a s t. L a o tz e th u s w orsh ip ed t h e p a s t a g e a s much a s

C o n fu ciu s. "The p a t h o f Tao i s r e g r e s s . " And t o f o l l o w it

is v irtu e.

3 . The e m p h a s i s u p o n c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e Tao o f N a t u r e

led to a l l sorts of su p erficia l in v estig a tio n of nature.

f\
Search f o r t h e way t o t r a n s f o r m m e t a l s and f o r the e l i x i r
 147

of l i f e p rev a iled . As a l o g i c a l resu lt Taoism l a t e r became

a co n g lo m éra tion o f g ro tesq u e id o la tries.

4. F a ta lism is another ev il resu lt o f Taoism . Tao w h ic h

is n o t h i n g more than b l i n d n a t u r a l force is said to r u le

th e w orld r i g o r o u s l y . N ecessity is the Tao o f N a t u r e . Man

s h o u l d o n l y w a it and t h e r e w i l l b e a t i m e when h i s task

w ill be done. L i f e and d e a t h a r e p r e d e s t i n e d e t e r n a l l y .

When a m a n ’s tim e comes t o d ie, n o t h i n g can p r e v e n t it.

5 . The e t h i c a l te a c h in g of L aotze la c k s both l o g i c a l

and r e l i g i o u s fou n d ation s. I n a way h i s d octrin e i s m ore

i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t i c and m e t a p h y s i c a l than th a t o f C on fu ciu s.

But h i s s y s t e m n e v e r was c l e a r i n m e a n i n g and l o g i c . L aotze

th u s d id n o t overcome th e o b s c u r a n t i s t tendency o f the

C h in e s e m ind. T h is o b sc u r a n tism l e a d s to o ccu ltism . A

d octrin e o f v i r t u e b a s e d u p on an i n c o n s i s t e n t v iew o f the

law o f N ature is fru itfu l on ly fo r the m an u factu rin g of

supersti t io n s .

D uring the l a s t two t h o u s a n d y e a r s the two m o r a l

p h ilo so p h ie s, th e ob scu ran tism , o f L a o t z e and th e cerem oni­

a lism of C on fu ciu s, have swayed th e l i f e of the C h in ese

p eop le. The L a o t z i a n p h i l o s o p h y b e c a m e the co n ten t whereas

the C o n fu c ia n p h i l o s o p h y became th e form o f C h in e s e l i f e .

O b s c u r i t y and l a i s s e z fa ire tendency o f L aotzian ism and

the fa m ily sy stem o f C on fucian ism are the k eyn ote of the
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m ental structure of the C h in ese r a c e . We s h a l l see th is

further in the l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f T a o i s m b y Mob T ih

and Y an gtze.

The s c h o l a r l y f o l l o w e r s of L aotze em p hasized h i s l a issez

fa ire id ea s. Y a n g t z e a n d Moh T ih w e r e the o u tsta n d in g ex­

pounders of t h i s h e d o n is t ic phase o f i n d iv id u a lis m . As t h e

C h i n e s e mind i s o r ig in a lly p ra ctica l and w o r l d l y , th is

h ed o n istic v i e w w as w e l l accepted. "Eat. drink , and be

merry" h a s e v e r become t h e dom inent a d v i c e .

T h is i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c h ed on ism , as t a u g h t by Y a n g t z e ,1

is b a ,s ed up o n f a t a l i s t i c grounds. Y an gtze w ith L a o tz e

v ie w e d th e w o r ld a s e t e r n a l l y f i x e d and d e te r m in e d . Every­
t h i n g was s u b j e c t e d to the in ex o ra b le natural law o f F a t e .

Man h a s no p o w e r i n h im t o undo a n y t h i n g b u t to subm it to

the n e c e s s it y of the f a t a l i s t i c T a o. In the w orld o f such

a p red estin a tio n t h e o n l y t h i n g f o r man t o d o , con clu d es

Y angtze, is to en j oy h i m s e l f . "Get a s much p l e a s u r e as

you can, for the span o f l i f e is short. Death is t h e end

of it a ll." P lea su re can be o b t a in e d by ( I ) b e a u t i f u l

clo th es, ( 2 ) a b ea u tifu l house, (3) tastefu l food, and ( 4 )

sexual in d u lg en ce. What a r e ca lled the supreme v a l u e s of

life such a s l o n g e v i t y , fam e, so cia l p o sitio n and w e a l t h

^He was b o r n i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . , a y o u n g e r c o n ­
t e m p o r a r y o f L a o t z e . He d i d n o t w r i t e a n y t h i n g , a n d we
kn o w him t h r o u g h l a t e r w r i t e r ^ c r i t i c i s i n g h i m . C f . L i e h - t z e .
a n d Ch u a n g t z e . The l a t t e r i s t r a n s l a t e d b y H . G i l e s .
 49

are not the r e a l sources of p lea su re. They r a t h e r b r i n g

su fferin g t o man, f o r l o n g e v i t y and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e are

d e t e r m i n e d by H eaven which c a n n o t b e a l t e r e d b y human

efforts. "Obey h e a v e n l y o r d e r s a n d h a v e no d e s i r e for

a n y t h i n g b e y o n d wh at H e a v e n s e t . "I

An o p p o s i t e p h a s e o f Y a n g t z e ’s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c h e d o n ­

i s m was d e v e l o p e d b y Moh T i h , 6 0 0 - 5 0 0 B . G . ^ He s t u d i e d

C on fu cian ism e x t e n s i v e l y , but he d evelop ed th e a l t r u i s t i c

sid e of t h e Taoism o f L a o t z e in to a k in d o f so cia lism . He

was t h e f i r s t of th e C h in ese t h i n k e r s who a t t e m p t e d t o p u t

down h i s teach in gs in a sy stem a tic way. He was t h e f i r s t

lo g icia n t h e C h i n e s e r a c e h a d e v e r p r o d u c e d . He s e t down

a number o f p r a g m a t i c standards of truth. These sta n d a r d s

are a ls o in a ccord w ith the gen eral ten d e n c y o f C h in ese

m en ta lity . There a r e three tests t o be a p p l i e d to t r u t h : 3

tl) Is the d o c tr in e i n a c c o r d a n c e w ith the sp irit (Tao) of

the u n iv erse? (2) Is it In a c c o r d a n c e w ith the teach in gs

of the a n c ie n ts? (3) Is it h elp fu l to th e l i f e o f an i n ­

d iv id u a l or a n a t i o n ? The f i r s t test is o b v io u sly d eriv ed

from L a o t z i a n in sisten ce upon t h e c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e Tao o f

G f . M iura, H i s t o r y o f C h in e s e E t h i c s , 1^4 f f .
2Moh Tih ’ s work c o n t a i n s f i f t y t h r e e c h a p t e r s . T h e r e i s no
E n glish , t r a n s l a t i o n .
3 C f . Moh Tih ’s W o r k s , C h a p s . 3 6 - 3 7 .
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th e w orld. The s e c o n d i s th e C on fucian id ea of the r e v e r e n c e

of the a n c ie n t s . The t h i r d is uniform w ith the u t i l i t a r i a n

ten d en cy of the C h in ese p e o p le in g e n e ra l.

Moh T i h v i e w s the w orld a s b e in g f u ] 1 o f lo v e and p e a c e .

At l e a s t , t h e w o r l d i s made to l i v e i n p e a c e and to "love

a ll and b e n e f i t a l l . " 1 The w h o l e w o r l d o f f e r s o p p o rtu n ities

f o r men t o e n j o y th em selves in p eace. Heaven g i v e s us the

s u n , moon a n d s t a r s , ra in a n d w a r m th . Through th ese th in gs

Heaven r a i s e s f l o w e r s f o r b e a u ty and g r a in f o r good f o o d .

in
T h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o c o m p l a i n a b o u t ^ t h e u n i v e r s e . 2 The o n l y

t h i n g f o r men t o do i s to l o v e one a n o t h e r . A ll good comes

from Heaven. The u n i v e r s e itse lf is l o v e a n d we m u s t l i v e

in conform ity to th is u n iv ersa l love or b e n e v o le n c e . Any

d o c t r i n e or p r i n c i p l e which i g n o r e s th is cosm ic f a c t of

love, a s the s t a n d a r d o f Moh T ih g o e s , ca n n o t be t h e tru th.

A ll s a g e s and k i n g s m ust aim to t e a c h th is cosm ic truth to

a l l men so t h a t a u n i v e r s a l p e a c e sh .# llp r e v a il. Because

it is th e suprem e d u ty o f a n c i e n t s a g e s and k i n g s to le a d

t h e ir p eop le to u n iv e r s a l lo v e, we m u s t r e s p e c t a n d f o l l o w
them.

A c c o r d i n g t o Moh T i h , the sin g le c a u s e o f war among

i n d i v i d u a l s and n a t i o n s i s h a t r e d an d s e l f i s h n e s s . I f any

i C f . C h i F u n g L i n , "The E t h i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s o f Moh Tih ’s

P h i l o s o p h y , " I n t . J o u . o f E t h i c s . XXXV ( O c t . 1 9 2 4 ) 7 2 2 f f .
2 C f . Moh Tih ’s W o r k s . 2 ? .
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n ation w ill love every other n a tio n , and i f e v e r y man w i l l

lo v e h i s n eigh b ors, they in turn w i l l l o v e and h e l p that

n a t i o n and t h a t in d iv id u a l.

The p h i l o s o p h e r s a y s :1

L e t o n e l o v e a n o t h e r a s o n e ’s own s e l f , l e t a n a t i o n
l o v e a n o t h e r a s i t s own, l e t a s o v e r e i g n l o v e h i s s u b j e c t s
a s h i m s e l f , l e t th e son l o v e h i s p a r e n t s a s h im s e lf * l e t
e v e r y b o d y l o v e e v e r y b o d y e l s e a s h i m s e l f . Then t h e r e w i l l
b e no t r a i t o r s who l o v e t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e
s t a t e t o w h ic h t h e y b e l o n g . T h e r e w i l l b e no t y r a n t who
i g n o r e s t h e w e l f a r e o f h i s s u b j e c t s ; no r o b b e r y , no e n m i t y ,
no i n h u m a n i t y ; i n f a c t , t h e r e w i l l b e no e v i l t h a t w i l l
d i s t u r b u n i v e r s a l p e a c e e n s u i n g from t h i s p r a c t i c e o f
u n iv ersa l lo v e.

Moh T i h d i d n o t sto p a t m e r e ly expounding the theory

of u n iversal lo v e. On u t i l i t a r i a n grounds he r a is e d o b j e c ­

tio n s a g a in st c e r e m o n i a l i s m and o t h e r p o i n t s o f C on fu cian ism .

F irst he stren u ou sly com bated t h e C o n fu c ia n custom o f secur­

in g f in e c o f f i n s and c o s t l y sa crifices for the d ea d . Long

tim e f o r m ou rn in g and c o s t l y f u n e r a l s were d e n i e d a s u s e l e s s

and w a s t e f u l . 2

Secondly, he o b je c te d to the exuberant lu x u ry in the

co u r ts as w ell as in the w ea lth y f a m i l i e s . He c r i t i c i s e d

unnecessary expenses in clo th in g , e a t i n g and t r a v e l l i n g .

He s a i d that the r e a l h a p p in e s s o f the m a sses did not

TMoh T i h ’s Works, 1 4 - 1 6 .
2 l b i d . , 2 5 ; C. 0 . L i a n g , St u d i e s i n Moh Tih ’ s P h i l o s o p h y , II.
 152

co n sist in the encouragem ent o f lu x u r y but in the produc­

tio n of necessary needs. On u t i l i t a r i a n grounds a lso he

opposed th e p r e v a le n c e o f c o n c u b in a g e. War a n d m u s i c w e r e

a lso d e n i e d on t h e same g r o u n d b e c a u s e th ey a r e too ex­

p en siv e. 1

T h ird ly. Moh T ih o p p o s e d f a t a l i s m because i t would

k ill the in i tia tiv e and v i g o r ! of the r a c e . At t h e

same t i m e i t w ould b r i n g i n d u s t r y and p r o s p e r i t y to a

sta n d still. Thus, our p h ilo s o p h e r a d v o c a te d a d o c t r in e of

vigorou s l i f e . In t h i s s e n s e , h e was t h e m o s t o r i g i n a l

t h i n k e r and th e f i r s t r e f o r m e r o f C h i n e s e e t h i c s o f wu w e i .

To t h e u t i l i t a r i a n eth ics o f Moh Tih a n d t h e e g o t i s t i c

h e d o n i s m o f Y a n g t z e much c r i t i c i s m was a d d e d . E sp ec ia lly

the C o n fu c ia n ists c r itic ise d the e x c e s s iv e u tilita r ia n ism

i n Moh T i h ’s t e a c h i n g a n d t h e sen su a listic in d iv id u a lism

in Y angtze. These two m o r a l i s t s h a d b e e n t h e c o n s t a n t

target o f a tta ck . In t h i s M en cius i s the c h i e f c ritic .

He s a y s : 2

As a s a g e - k i n g d o e s n o t r i s e , t h e l o r d s a n d d u k e s a r e
u n - r e 8 t r a i n e d , i r r e s p o n s i b l e s c h o l a r s go t o o f a r i n t h e i r
d i s c u s s i o n s and t h e d o c t r i n e o f Yang and Moh a r e r a m p a n t
e v e r y w h e r e . When t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c i s n o t s w a y e d b y Yang,
i t i s s w a y e d by Moh. Yang i s sojego t i s t i c a s t o i g n o r e t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f a r u l e r ; a n d Moh i s s o u l t r a - a l t r u i s t i c a s t o
i g n o r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e p a r e n t s . B u t when we do away
w i t h t h e r u l e r a n d p a r e n t s , we s h a l l b e ' : : b e a s t s .

i C f . Moh Tih ’s W o r k s . I 7 ,
2M e n c i u s . V I I . p t . I I , 2 6 .
 i? 3

In a n o th e r p l a c e M encius rem arks:1

%
W ith Yan ^ze e g o t i s m i s e v e r y t h i n g . I f e v e r y w h e r e h e
c o u ld b e n e f i t o t h e r p e o p l e by s p a r in g one b i t o f h i s h a i r ,
h e w o u l d n o t do t h a t . W ith Moh T i h a l t r u i s m i s e v e r y t h i n g .
I f by r u b b in g h i m s e l f from f o r e h e a d to h e e l h e c o u ld
b e n e f i t o t h e r p e o p l e , h e w o u l d do s o .

D esp ite M en ciu s’ c r it ic is m o f Moh Tih there are some

o rig in a l p o in ts in the l a t t e r , (I) Moh T ih i s the f i r s t

advocate o f a s t r e n u o u s d o c t r i n e w h ich the O r i e n t a l s so much

need. ( 2 ) H is i c o n o c l a s t i c te n d e n c y toward C o n fu c ia n c e r e ­

m o n ia l ism i s another c o n tr ib u tio n to th e h i s t o r y o f C h in ese

thought. ( 3 ) He i s the f i r s t p r a g m a t i s t o f t h e O r i e n t who

la id down t e s t s of tru th.

^M e n c i u s , V I I , p t . I, 26.
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CHAPTER X

THE CHINESE IDEA OF MAN

In q u iries in to t h e form and o r i g i n of the p h y s ic a l

u n iv erse con stitu ted the e a r ly sp ecu lative thought o f

m ankind. The q u e s t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f man s e e m s to h a v e b e e n

p ro v o k e d o n l y by th e c o n flictin g v i e w s t o which ea rly

r eflec tio n on p h y s i c a l problem s l e d . The c a u s e of the con­

flic tin g view s has to be so u g h t n o t only in the nature o f

o b jectiv e th in g s but a ls o in th e s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e o f man

r e flec tin g upon t h e u n i v e r s e . T h is d evelop m en t o f thought

can be s e e n in the e a r ly h i s t o r y o f W estern p h i l o s o p h y . The

ea rly G reek p h i l o s o p h i e s o f t h e I o n i ans and E l e a t i c s , for

exam ple, a re above a l l co sm o lo g ica l system s. Only a t a

la ter d a t e men b e g a n t o a s k w h e t h e r hiaman n a t u r e itse lf is

at a ll ab le to s o l v e c o sm o lo g ic a l problem s. The s t a r t i n g

p oin t of r e fle c tio n is s h i f t e d from th e o b j e c t i v e to the

subj e c t i v e facts. Thus i n t h e W est o n l y i n t h e l a t e r A cadem ic

and S k e p t i c a l sch ools to g e th e r w ith the S o p h i s t s d id th e

p r o b l e m o f man come i n t o p r o m i n e n c e . P rotagoras ’ a s s e r tio n

that "man i s the m easure of a l l thin gs" is th e clim ax o f

the h u m a n istic p h ilo s o p h y of the S o p h ists.

The h i s t o r y o f the O r ie n ta l p h ilo s o p h ie s pursued the

same d i r e c t i o n of r e f le c t iv e progress. The e a r l y cosmo­

lo g ica l sp ecu lation of the C h in ese is r e c o r d e d i n one o f

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t h e C l a s s i c s Yi C h i n g . o r t h e "Book o f C h a n g e. "T C h i n e s e

cosm ology i s a d u a listic system d e r i v e d from s e n s i b l e

exp erien ces. The v / o r l d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s c h a n g i n g and

r ev o lv in g . The c a u s e s of th is c h a n g e and f l u x a r e t h e two

opposing p r i n c i p l e s . Yang and Y i n , l i g h t a n d d a r k . From

the i n t e r a c t i o n and s t r i f e of these two p r i n c i p l e s m y r i a d s

of th in gs o r ig in a te . The w o r l d a s v i e w e d b y t h i s C h i n e s e

cosm ology i s v e r y much l i k e that e n u n c ia t e d by H e r a c l i t u s .

T h is w o r ld -p r o c e s s is id en tified w ith the Tao, the order of

th e w orld.

The d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Tao i s as fo llo w s. The i n f i n i t e

produced the f i n i t e or d e f in it e , th e elem en ts o f nature

rem aining a s y e t in a ch aotic state. T h is ch a o s e v o lv e d the

r eg u la tin g p r in c ip le o f Yang, or l i g h t . The Yang p r o d u c e d

Yin . or dark; that is darkness fo llo w e d in t h e way o f

a ltern a tio n . The Yang a n d Yin t o g e t h e r p r o d u c e d a l l th in gs

from t h e a l t e r n a t i o n s o f day and n i g h t , and th e s u c c e s s i o n

of the seasons. A ll th is is an i m p e r s o n a l ev o lu tio n of the

cosm os. Commenc ing w i t h th is sim ple id ea, t h e Yang a n d t h e

Yin h a v e b e e n g r a d u a l l y m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o m y s t e r i o u s en ti­

ties, the fo u n d a tio n o f a u n iv e r s a l sexual departm ent o f

n ature. "The m a i n v i r t u e o f Heaven and E a r th ( ÿ a n g and Yin)

TCf. Chap. V I I , above.

 156

is crea tio n .

T h i s c o s m o l o g y o f Tao i s la ter e t h i c i zed, i.e . hu man-

i zed. Everywhere e t h i c a l sig n ifica n ce cornet t o the f o r e .

A sh e n . b e i n g ' a p a r t o f t h e Yang i s con sid ered to he in

g e n e r a l a good s p i r i t or a god; and a k w e i . b e l o n g i n g to the

Y in. is as a ru le a s p i r i t o f e v i l , o r demon. A c c o r d in g to

th is dogma, then, ev ery th in g has i t s g o o d and b a d s p i r i t s .

W ith r e g a r d to the o r ig i n o f man, we r e a d i n t h e Li K i .

th e m ost v o l im i n o u s c o l l e c t i o n o f C la s s ic a l books, as

fo llo w s :^

Man i s a p r o d u c t of- t h e b e n e f i c i a l o p e r a t i o n o f H e a v e n
a n d E a r t h , o r o f t h e c o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Y in a n d t h e Y a n g ,
and th e un ion o f a kw ei w ith a s h e n .

The s o u l of man, l i k e t h a t o f any l i v i n g th in g, co n sists

o f a sh e n a n d a k w e i : h i s b i r t h i s an i n f u s i o n of these

so u ls, h i 8 death i s th eir departure, t h e sh e n r e t u r n i n g to

t h e Yang o r H e a v e n , th e kwei to t h e Yin or E a r t h . S i n c e man

is a natural product of the o p e r a tio n of the two e l e m e n t s

o f Tao, Yang and Y i n , h e is a part of th is general w orld-

process. H is c r e a tio n and d e s t r u c t i o n b e i n g e f f e c t e d by t h a t

Order o f the w orld, h is ex isten ce is in ev er y r e s p e c t d eter­

m ined by th e u n i v e r s a l law , Tao. The d e s t i n y o f man t o g e t h e r

d C f . Ap p e n d e d E b c p l a n a t i o n s t o Yi C h l n g , III.
2Li H i, I I l T ^
 57

w ith e v e r y th in g e ls e i s b e s t o w e d and d e te r m in e d by H eaven.

C on fu ciu s says in t h e A n a l e c t s : 1 I f my p r i n c i p l e s a r e to

advance, it is th eir d estin y . If they are to f a l l to th e

ground, it is th eir d e stin y ," Thus e v e n the s u c c e s s of o n e's

p h ilo so p h isin g is in e x o r a b ly d eterm in ed by th e f a t e of

H e a v e n . Human w i l l , p o w e r c a n n o t make a n y d i f f e r e n c e to an y­

th in g.

We come n e x t to t h e p r o b l e m o f huiaan n a t u r e . It is

u n iv e r s a lly h eld t h a t human n a t u r e is o r ig in a lly good.

T h is id e a i s drawn f r o m i t s c o sm o lo g ica l o rig in . "The s o u l

o f m an ," sa y s t h e Yi C h i n g , "being a p a r t o f t h e Yang an d

the Yin. which c o n s t i t u t e s t h e T ao , it fo llo w s that its

q u a lities, that is to s a y , man'v’ c h a r a c t e r o r i n s t i n c t ,

c a lled s i n g , a r e n a t u r a l l y g o o d . "2 T h i s g o o d n e s s t h e Tao

owes to t h e f a c t th a t under i t s i n f l u e n c e Heaven and E a r th

b e n e v o le n tly cooperate in g iv in g b i r t h to a l l b ein gs,

a n im a t e and i n a n i m a t e , and n o u r i s h and s u s t a i n them a l l

w ith l i k e ben evolen ce. T h is g o o d n ess c o n s t i t u t e s the

supreme q u a l i t y or v i r t u e o f the u n iv e r s e e x p r e s s e d by
t h e word T e h .

The i d e a t h a t man i s i n h e r e n t l y g o o d may s u g g e s t a

number o f d iffic u ltie s. In the f i r s t p la ce, if every th in g

is the u n ion o f two e l e m e n t s , good and e v i l , y a n g and y i n

1 A n a l e c t s . XIV, 38.
2 Yi C h i n g , I .
 158

there is no g r o u n d t o a s s u m e that t h e n a t u r e o f man i s

o r ig in a lly good. At l e a s t , man m u s t b e b o t h g o o d a n d b a d

as he is th e union o f the two. In th e s e c o n d p l a c e , it

may b e an e t e r n a l r i d d l e how t h e darkness co u ld u n it e w ith

the l i g h t ; how t h e Tao b e i n g i t s e l f good c o u ld a c co u n t f o r

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e v i l . These d i f f i c u l t i e s were s u b s e q u e n t ly

d e b a t e d among t h e e a r l y C h i n e s e th in k ers th em selv es. Most

of them h o w e v e r h e l d the view o f the in h e r e n t goodness of

human n a t u r e . The w or d T a o , whether i t is u sed by th e T a o i s t -

or t h e C o n f u c i a n i 8 1 , m e a n s in^mahy c a s e s the e t h i c a l nature

o f t h e g o o d man a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e of h is a ctio n . Thus, Con­

fu c iu s h im self says e x p lic itly to h i s d iscip les that the

p erfect o r h o l y man n a t u r a l l y is a T aoist:1

From t h e Tao i t i s t h a t t h e m y r i a d s o f b e i n g s a r e b o r n .
B e i n g s who f a i l t o o b t a i n i t i n c u r d e a t h , b u t t h o s e who do
o b t a i n i t l i v e a n d e x i s t . T h o s e who i n t h e i r b u s i n e s s o f
l i f e s i n a g a i n s t i t a r e r u i n e d , b u t t h o s e who c o n f o r m t o
i t b e c o m e p e r f e c t . T h e r e f o r e t h e h o l y man a t t a c h e s t h e
h i g h e s t i m p o r t a n c e to t h e Tao w h e r e v e r i t i s .

Thus no m oral b e in g can l i v e w ithou t t h e Ta o , for that

w h i c h c a n b e d i s p e n s e d w i t h e v e n f o r a moment i s no m o r e t h e

Tao. It is the f e e l i n g of fe llo w s h ip . 2

The same t h i n g is true w ith L a o tz e whose c h i e f en­

d e a v o u r was to b r i n g th e p e o p le back to the state o f A rcadian

sim p licity . The b r i g i n - n a t u r e o f man i s lik e the s i m p l i c i t y

l Yi C h i n g , X.
2 C f . The D o c t r i n e of t h e M ean, I.
 159

o f Tao. A ccordin g to him . t h e w isd o m o f t h i s w orld, the

know ledge o f good and e v i l , is the r u in o f man. T herefore

l e t man h u t r e t u r n t o an a g e o f p r i m i t i v e sim pli^ty or

em p tin ess, when h e k n o w s no w a n t s a n d i s d i s t u r b e d b y no

cares. "B etter th a t he sh ou ld be ig n o r a n t than th a t he should

possess t h i s w o r l d ’s wisdom . B etter that he should be s t i l l

and r e t i r i n g than that he sh ou ld be r e s t l e s s and s t r i v i n g . "

S i n c e man c o m e s f r o m Tao w h i c h is sim p licity , he is

in h eren tly s im p le and go o d . The r e t u r n to th is o rig in a l

n a t u r e o f man i s the h ig h e s t good o f l i f e . The d a y s o f a

man who d i v e r t s s u c h a r e t u r n a n d g o e s on s t r i v i n g m u s t

n e c e s s a r i l y be s h o r t . T herefore the reward o f n o n - a c t io n

and s i m p l i c i t y is a lon g l i f e , and i n i t v i r t u e ' i-s com pl e t e .

T h is p r e lim in a r y d i s c u s s i o n of the m oral q u a lity of

human n a t u r e caught the a t t e n t io n of the some l e a d i n g d i s c i p l e s

o f b o t h L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s . M e n c i u s was the f i r s t who e n u n ­

c i a t e d more d i s t i n c t l y than h i s m a ste r C o n fu c iu s the d o c t r i n e

of t h e o r i g i n a l g o o d n e s s o f human n a t u r e . K autze, one o f

M en ciu s’ co n tem p oraries, m a i n t a i n e d on t h e c o n t r a r y t h a t

human n a t u r e is d estitu te o f any m oral tendency, and w h o l l y

p a s s i v e under th e p l a s t i c hand o f e d u c a tio n . A fragm ent o f

th is d e b a t e b e tw e e n M e n c iu s and K a u tz e i s r e c o r d e d i n the

works o f M e n c iu s. The mode o f th eir d isp u tation is in s-

tra ctiv e and o r i g i n a l as i t is the f i r s t in sta n ce of th is
 I Go

k in d in the h i s t o r y o f C h in ese th o u g h t.1

Human n a t u r e , s a i d K autze. is a stick of tim ber, and

goodness is the v e s s e l that i s carved out o f i t .2

The b o w l , r e p l i e d M encius, is not a n atu ral product of

the tim b er; but the t r e e r e q u ir e s to be d e s t r o y e d in ord er

to p ro d u ce i t . Is it necessary t o d e s t r o y m a n ’s n a t u r e in

order t o make h i m g o o d ?

Then, s a id K autze, v aryin g h i s illu stra tio n , human

n a t u r e may b e c o m p a r e d t o a s t r e a m o f w a t e r . Open a s l u i c e
to the e a s t , and i t flow es to th e e a s t ; open one to the

w est it flow s to the w estw ard. E q u a lly i n d i f f e r e n t i s huamn

n a t u r e w i t h r e g a r d t o g o o d and e v i l .

W ater, r e j o i n e d M encius, is in d ifferen t as to the

e a s t or th e w e s t; but has it no c h o i c e b e t w e e n up a n d down?

How human n a t u r e in clin es to g o o d , a s w a t e r d o e s t o run

downward; and th e e v i l it does i s the e f f e c t of in terferen ce,

ju st a s w a t e r may b e f o r c e d to ru n up h i l l . Man, h e r e p e a t s ,

in c lin es to v i r t u e , a s w ater does to f lo w do w nw ard, or a s

the w ild b e a s t does to seek the f o r e s t .

In t h i s way M e n c i u s , l i k e many o t h e r C o n f u c i a n i s t s .

^ E a r l y i n t h e t i m e o f ^ ^ h i s t s t h e e t h i c a l n a t u r e o f man
p a r t l y a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e G reek t h i n k e r s ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f S o c r a t e s , In t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y o f o u r
e r a t h i s q u e s t i o n o f human n a t u r e a g i t a t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n
w orld in th e W est. But n e a r l y a th o u san d y e a r s b e f o r e a l l th is
t h e q u e s t i o n was d i s c u s s e d i n C h i n a .
2 C f . The Works o f M e n c i u s . V I , p t . I f f .
 i6 i

n ob ly ad vocates t h e i n h e r e n t g o o d n e s s o f m a n . He s a y s that

an a l t r u i s t i c im p u lse e x i s t s i n e v e r y human h e a r t , H atural

egotism is n o t an o r i g i n a l endowment o f man. He f u r t h e r

a B s e r t s :1

E v e ry b o d y h a s a f e e l i n g f o r o t h e r s which h e Us u n a b le
to e n d p re. . . . Suppose a c h i l d i s a t th e p o i n t o f s l i p r
p i n g down i n t o a p i t . I t a w a k e n s i n t h e s p e c t a t o r a r n i n g i e d
f e e l i n g o f a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d c o m p a s s i o n , w h ic h u r g e s h i m t o
an im m ed ia te r e s c u e o f th e c h i l d . T h is i s n o t b e c a u s e he
w a n ts to i n c u r a f a v o r upon i t s p a r e n t s . T h is i s n o t b e c a u s e
h e w ants to b e h o n o r e d b y h i s p a r e n t s or f e l l o w - v i l l a g e r s .
T h is i s sim p ly b e c a u se he cannot b ear i t s p i t i f u l scream .
Man who h a s no f e e l i n g o f p i t y , t h e r e f o r e , i s no human
b ein g.

It is sa id t h a t e x p e d ie n c y l e d M encius to p r o n o u n c e

th e view t h a t man i s o r ig in a lly endowed w it h t h e g o o d f e e l i n g

of fello w sh ip . T h is w ould be th e m ost e f f e c t u a l m ethod o f

e n c o u r a g i n g men t o p r a c t i c e v i r t u e s . ^ A c c o r d in g ly M encius

in sisted that ’’v i r t u e is the r u le o f H eaven. T h e y who a c c o r d

w i t h Heaven a r e p r e s e r v e d , a n d t h e y who r e b e l a g a i n s t Heaven

p e r i s h . "3 " I f a s c h o l a r o r common man b e n o t b e n e v o l e n t , h e

can n o t p r e s e r v e h i s f o u r lim b s .

T h is f e l l o w - f e e l i n g , o r y e n 5 i s made t o b e the h i g h e s t

v irtu e of the f i v e C h in ese v i r t u e s , nam ely, yen, e, che, sin .

i M e n c i u s . I I . p t . I . 6.
2 C f , Hii S h i h , Ou t l i n e s o f t h e H i s t o r y o f C h i n e s e P h i l . . I .
3 0 0 ; M a r t i n , Th e C h i n e s e . 139*
3 M e n c i u s . IV , p t . I , 7*
4^The D o c t r i n e o f t h e M ean , I I ; M e n c i u s , IV, p t . I . 3*
5The C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r f o r y e n i s made o u t o f two c o m p o n e n t
i d i o g r a m s , man a n d t w o . Out o f a c o n t a c t b e t w e e n two men t h e r e
a r i s e s an i n b o r n f e e l i n g o f f e l l o w s h i p , o r y e n .
 1 62

1 1 . or b e n e v o l e n c e ( f e l l o w - f e e l i n g ) , j u s t i c e , wisdom, good

fa ith , and p o l i t e n e s s resp ectiv ely . A ll C on fucian t h in k e r s

agree that yen i s the norm o f the u n iv e r s e . When t h e norm

is lo st there e n s u e s l a w l e s s n e s s and d i s c o r d . Yen i s the

s o u r c e from w hich o t h e r v i r t u e s sp rin g.

A few y e a rs l a t e r , S e u n tze.i an a c u t e a n d p o w e r f u l

w riter, took t h e g r o u n d t h a t human n a t u r e i s e v il. The

in flu en ce of ed u cation he e x t o lle d in even h ig h e r term s than

K a u t z e . He m a i n t a i n e d th a t w hatever good e d u c a tio n p r o d u c e s,

it a c h i e v e s by a trium ph o v er the bad n a tu re w h ic h i s taught

to y i e l d obedience to the d i c t a t e s of p ra ctice. V irtu e thus

is the slo w r e s u l t of teach in g, and v i c e the spontaneous

fru it of n e g lec ted n atu re. R e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f man,

Seuntze fu r th e r says:^

Erom h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r s man i s a c t u a t e d b y a l o v e o f
g a i n f o r h i s own p e r s o n a l e n j o y m e n t . H i s c o n d u c t i s d i s t i n ­
g u i s h e d b y s e l f i s h n e s s a n d c o m b a t i v e n e s s . He b e c o m e s a
s l a v e t o e n v y , h a t r e d , a n d o t h e r p a s s i o n s . The r e s t r a i n t
o f law , and uWo^the^ g u i d a n c e o f t e a c h e r s , a r e
a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y to good govern m ent and th e w e l l - b e i n g
o f r a c i a l l i f e . J u s t a s wood m u s t b e s u b j e c t e d t o p r e s s u r e
i n o r d e r t o make i t s t r a i g h t , a n d m e t a l m u s t b e s u b j e c t e d
t o t h e g r i n d s t o n e i n o r d e r t o make i t s h a r p , s o m u s t t h e
n a t u r e o f man b e s u b j e c t e d t o t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n i n
o r d e r to o b t a i n from i t th e v i r t u e s o f j u s t i c e and s e l f -
s a c r i f i c e w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e b e s t o f t h e human r a c e .

T herefore, a c c o r d i n g to Seuntze, e v i l men f o l l o w th eir

1 Th e Works o f S e u n t z e w h i c h c o n t a i n s 3 2 b o o k s o r c h a p t e r s
in a l l IS n o t t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h .
2 C f . I b i d . , X; L e g g e ’s Ch i n e s e C l a s s i c s . I I , 9 5 f f .
 163

natural i n c l i n a t i o n s a n d g o o d men s u b m i t to r e s t r a i n t s

and f o l l o w the g u id a n c e o f t h e i r teachers. " I f y o u do n o t

know y o u r s o n ," says the p roverb , "look a t h i s fr ie n d s."

E nvironm ent, then, is s o le ly resp o n sib le for wh at o n e i s

and d o e s .1
A b o u t t h e com m e nc em e nt o f the C h r is tia n era, Y angtze to

whom we a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t , tried to combine the above

o p p o s i n g v i e w s b y s a y i n g t h a t human n a t u r e is b o th good and

bad. B u t h e came t o a d v o c a t e an i d e a t h a t e v e r y man i s f o r

h im self. S i m i l a r a t t e m p t s a t c o m p r o m i s e w e r e made b y o t h e r

th in k ers, n o t a b l y Yan g H s i u n g a n d Han Yu. The f o r m e r t a u g h t

that t h e n a t u r e o f man a t b i r t h is n eith er w h o lly good nor

w h olly e v i l , but a m ix tu re o f b o th , and t h a t d evelop m en t in

eith er d irectio n depends a lt o g e t h e r on e n v i r o n m e n t . Han Yu,

the p i l l a r of la ter C o n fu cian ism , in sisted that the n a tu r e

o f man was n o t u n i f o r m b u t d i v i d e d in to three grades, nam ely,

h ig h est, m id d le, and l o w e s t . Thus, th e n a t u r e s o f th e

good
h ig h e s t grade are good, w h o ll;^ and n o t h i n g b u t good; the

natures of the lo w e s t grade are e v i l , w h olly e v i l , and

n oth in g but e v il; w h ile the n a tu r e s o f the m id d le grade

m ay , under r i g h t d ir ec tio n , rise to the h ig h e s t grade, or.

under wrong d i r e c t i o n , sin k to th e l o w e s t . 2

i C f . K a u t z e ’s s t a t e m e n t : "Human n a t u r e i s n e i t h e r g o o d n o r
b a d , b u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t d e c i d e s t h e e i t h e r ca.se*' M e n c i u s ,
V I, p t . I , 6.
2 C f , G i l e s , Th e C i v i l i z a t i o n o f C h i n a . 141 f f .
 164

A ll th is d is p u t e how ever did n ot shake th e dom in ation

o f C on fucian thought. The C o n f u c i a n y i e w o f .3 o rig in a l

goodness gained the day. M encius a s the c h i e f ad v o ca te of

human n a t u r e was p r o m o t e d to th e s e c o n d p l a c e among t h e

o ra cles of t h e E m p i r e f o r h a v i n g a d d e d a new d o c t r i n e o r

develop ed a l a t e n t o ne i n the C on fucian system . The new

d o ctrin e is sim ply th is: M4n c o m m e n c e s l i f e w ith a v ir t u o u s

n a tu re .1

As we h a v e r e m a r k e d , th e good n a t u r e o f man, y e n , or

a ltr u istic fee lin g , is t h e h i g h e s t and m o st e s s e n t i a l of

a ll its c o n stitu en ts . It is the fo u n d a tio n of s o c i e t y and

t h e r o a d t o a l l human v i r t u e s . There a r e fo u r c a r d i n a l

v irtu es which a l l sp ra n g from y e n : and they are r ig h t e o u s n e s s ,

p rop riety, w isd o m a n d f a i t h f u l n e s s . 2 T h e s e f i v e are said to

be the v i r t u e s b e lo n g in g to th e f i v e so cia l r e la tio n s of

h u sb a n d and w i f e , father and s o n , s o v e r e i g n and s u b j e c t ,

e l d e r and y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , f r i e n d and f r i e n d . M encius s t a t e s

the ch ief f r u it s of v ir t u e , as fo llo w s:3

The r i c h e s t f r u i t o f b e n e v o l e n c e i s t h i s , - - t h e s e r v i c e
o f o n e ’ s p a r e n t s . The r i c h e s t f r u i t o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s i s t h i s ,
- - t h e o b e y i n g o n e ’s e l d e r b r o t h e r s . The r i c h e s t f r u i t o f

I C f . t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e o f C o n f u c i u s w hich seem s t o c o n ­
t r a d i c t t h e e q u a l g o o d n e s s o f a l l human n a t u r e : " T h o se who
a r e born w ith th e p o s s e s s i o n o f kn ow led ge are th e h i g h e s t
c l a s s . T h o s e who 1 e a r n , a n d s o r e a d i l y g e t p o s s e s s i o n o f
k n o w l e d g e a r e t h e n e x t . T h o s e who a r e d u l l a n d s t u p i d , and
y e t s u c c e e d i n l e a r n i n g , a r e a n o t h e r c l a s s n e x t to t h e s e .
\ V h i l e t h o s e who a r e d u l l a n d s t u p i d a n d y e t do n o t l e a r n , a r e
t h e l o w e s t o f t h e p e o p l e . " A n a l e c t s . XVI, 9*
2C f. A n a l e c t s , VI, I 3 .
3 C f . M e n c i u s , IV , p t . I , 2 7 .
 165

w i s d o m i s t h i s . - - t h e k n o w i n g t h o s e two t h i n g s , a n d n o t
d e p a r t i n g f r o m t h e m . The r i c h e s t f r u i t o f p r o p r i e t y i s
t h i s , - - t h e o r d e r i n g a n d a d o r n i n g t h o s e two t h i n g s .

The C o n f u c i a n school su b d iv id es i t s fiv e V irtu es as

f o l l o w s ;1

I, B enevolen ce i s d iv id ed in to p u b lic sp irit, ch a rity ,

filia l p iety , m ercy, m agnanim ity. J u stice is d iv id ed in to

m a n lin ess, fra tern ity , courage, in teg rity , m odesty. 3 . Wisdom

is d i v i d e d i n t o k n o w l e d g e o f man. k n o w l e d g e o f n a t u r e , know l­

edge of P ate, and u se o f th e E yes and E a r s . 4. B o lltè n e ss

is d ivid ed in to r esp ec t, causation, humi 1 i t y . deferen ce. 5»

Good f a i t h is d ivid ed in to sim p licity , tru th, sin cerity of

purpose, hon esty of in te n tio n .

A ll t h e s e moral e x c e lle n c e s are to be s t r i v e n after

and h e l d to. But, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , there are o ffe n c e s

or v i c e s a g a i n s t v i r t u e s . Each o f f e n c e h a s e a c h o p p o s i n g

v irtu e. I. O ffence a g a in s t b en evolen ce is d iv id ed in to

cru elty, envy, m a lic e , selfish n ess, treachery, and p e t u l a n c e .

2 . O ffence a g a in s t j u s t i c e is d iv id ed in to cu p id ity , fla ttery ,

parsim ony* in d ec isio n , d isco n ten t, and p e r v e r s i t y . 3* O f f e n c e

a g a in st w isd o m i s d ivid ed in to d ep ravity, lev ity , sh a llow ­

ness. o b stin a cy , a nd n a r r o w n e s s . 4. O ffence a g a in s t p o l i t e ­

ness is d ivid ed in to p r id e , arrogance, ca relessn ess, and

IC f.M iu ra . Hi s t o r y o f C h i n e s e E t h i c s . I0I-I22.
 166

o sten ta tio n , 5* O f f e n c e a g a i n s t good f a i t h is d ivid ed in to

su p e rfic ia lity , in sin cerity , d eceit, and i n t r i g u e .

In th e Great L e a r n in g a program o f m oral e d u c a t i o n

i s r e c o r d e d i n t h i s m a n n er :1

H e a v e n h a v i n g g i v e n e x i s t e n c e t o man, t h e d o c t r i n e o f
t h e Gr e a t L e a r n i n g s u c c e e d e d , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r i n
s o c i e t y . R e s t r i c t e d in i t s s p h e r e , i t p r o d u ce s the p e r ­
f e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l e x c e l l e n c e - - a H o ly S a g e . H i s aim i s
P e r s o n a l V i r t u e . W ith f r e e s c o p e f o r i t s e x e r c i s e , i t m a k e s
a R e f o r m e r o f t h e W o r l d — a T r u e K i n g . H i s a im i s S o c i a l
Im provem ent.

The m e a n s t o the a tta in m en t of Personal V irtu e are (I)

p r o p r ie ty of conduct, s u ch a s f i d e l i t y , and p r e c i s i o n of

words and a c t i o n s . (2 ) R ight f e e l i n g , such a s r e s t r a i n i n g

t h e p a s s i o n s a n d a v o i d i n g p r e j l r d d d a é •- ( 3 ) S in cerity of

purpose such a s s e l f - e x a r a i n a t i o n and f e a r of self-d ecep tio n .

(4) In tellig en ce o f mind such a s r e j e c t i o n of error, study

of the law s o f N atu re.

The m e a n s t o the attain m en t of Social Improvement a r e

{ lO The d i s c i p l i n e of the fa m ily : filia l p i e t y and c a r e in

ch oice of a sso cia tes; ( 2 ) the government o f t h e Em pire:

love for the p e o p le , r e v e r e n c e f o r Heaven and a n c e s t o r s ;

(3 ) the su b jectio n (lit. p a c ific a tio n ) of th e w orld: w isd o m

i n c o n d u c t i n g war a n d s k i l l in 1 e g i s l a t i o n .2

A b r i e f note on t h e C h i n e s e i d e a o f i m m o r t a l i t y may

I C f . th e p r e f a c e to th e Great L e a r n in g .
2 C f . M e n c i u s . V I I , p t . I I , 4; where w a r r i o r s a r e term ed
as g reat c rim in a ls.
 1 67

be added h e r e . The e a r l y C h i n e s e t h i n k e r s w e r e v a g u e on

t h i s problem . L a o tz e i n s i s t e d however w ith the B u d d h ists

that the i m m o r t a l i t y o f man i s secured by a b so r p tio n in

the e te r n a l Tao o r e m p t i n e s s . C o n fu ciu s d id n ot tr o u b le

h i m s e l f w ith t h e p r o b l e m . How c o u l d y o u kn ow t h e l i f e

after death, he asked, when y o u do n o t kn ow t h i s l i f e ? He

however b e lie v e d in some s p i r i t u a l ex isten ce o f the dead.

As t o l d in the A n a l e c t s , ^ h e sa crificed to t h e dead a s

th o u g h t h e y were p r e s e n t , and to the s p i r i t s a s though they

were b e f o r e h im . But t o sa crifice to the sp irit of a stranger

h e l o o k e d upon a s f l a t t e r y . The s p i r i t s are said to be i n ­

terested in the w e l f a r e o f th eir own d e s c e n d e n t s on e a r t h .

C on seq u en tly the so u ls of departed a n c e s t o r s are consul ted

in .:a ll m atters r e la t in g to th e w e l f a r e o f the fa m ily .

In c o n so n a n c e w ith th is b e lie f o f C on fu ciu s in the

ex isten ce of s p ir its , the C h in ese m a sses b e l i e v e that a

man h a s three sou ls: The f i r s t g o e s to the "d a rk w o r l d "

where i t fin d s a sta te of th in g s very sim ila r to t h a t w hich

it felt in th is l i f e . The s e c o n d r e m a i n s in th e tomb, w h i l e

the th ir d enters the a n c e s tr a l ta b let. The w e l l - k n o w n a n c e s ­

tral w orsh ip o f th e C h in ese is concerned w ith the l a s t two

so u ls.

1A n a lects. Ill, 12.

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Th us t h e C h i n e s e man w h i l e a l i v e isc o n s i d e r e d to he
be
o r ig in a lly virtu o u s, a n d when d e a d , h e i s t o ^ b u r i e d i n a

l u c k y s p o t an d t o b e h o n o r e d and w o r s h i p e d b y h i s o ffsp rin g .

T h is in g e n e r a l is t h e C h i n e s e i d e a o f man.
 1-69

CHAPTER XI

THE CHINESE IDEA OP GOD

As P r o f e s s o r T y l o r w r i t e s , anim ism i s a form o f b e l i e f

in the e x i s t e n c e o f g h o s t-s o u ls in n a tu ra l ob jects; and i t

is, in f a c t , the groundwork o f the p h ilo so p h y o f a n c ie n t

r e l i g i o n . 1 A n im ism a s a b e l i e f in g h o s t - s o u ls is the pop ular

and o r i g i n a l r e l i g i o n o f C hina. The m a s s e s of th eC h in ese

in t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s h a v e b e e n p o l y t h e i s t i c and

id o la tro u s. Everywhere in t h e ho m e s a n d i n p u b l i c p la ces

a sm all sh rin e is b u ilt w h i c h c o n t a i n s an i m a g e o f th e god

of w ealth , or K w an yin (th e g o d d ess o f m e r c y ). The w o r s h i p

of th is god o f w e a lth is su p p lem en ted by th e p o p u la r w orsh ip

o f dead a n c e s t o r s . The s o - c a l l e d s an k i o , or three r e lig io n s

o f Buddhism, Taoism , a n d C o n f u c i a n i s m h a v e e a c h own i n ­

c r e m e n t s o f im a g e s and tem ples, o f g o d s or s p i r i t s . W henev er

an u n u s u a l event ta k e s jp la c e in or o u t s i d e the f a m i ly , the

C h i n e s e a r e r e a d y t o endow c l o u d s , ston es, t r e e s and o t h e r

natural o b j e c t s w ith sp irits and g h o s t s . . As a r e s u l t of th is,

C hina h a s b e e n a n i m i s t i c th ro u g h and th r o u g h .

The c h i e f ch a ra cteristic of th is b e lie f in g h o s t - s o u ls

is the u n iv e r s a l e m p h a s is upon a s t r i c t observance of the

r ite s o f w o rsh ip , e sp ecia lly those of a n c e stra l w orship^

IC f. T ylor, P r im itiv e C u ltu re, I, 426.

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R e lig io u s e tiq u e tte and r i t e s b e c o m e a s o r t of r e lig io n

by th em selv es, and t h e s e r i t e s a r e made n o t o n l y a s e r i o u s

study but a ls o a supreme f a s h i o n in a l l the r e l i g i o u s

system s of C h in a .1

The o r i g i n o f g h o s t - s o u l b e l i e f and th e id e a o f

a n c e s t r a l w orsh ip is in d iscern ib le. They m u st h a v e e x i s t e d

from tim e im m em o ria l. The a n c i e n t C h i n e s e C l a s s i c s m e n t i o n

f r e q u e n t l y th e g h o s t - s o u l s and a n c e s t r a l sa crifices. T h is

lead s to b e l i e v e t h a t anim ism i s p o s s i b l y the k e r n e l of

the r e l ig i o u s l i f e o f the C h in ese p e o p le a s e a r l y a s the

old er h i s t o r i c a l and ev en sem i-h isto rica l tim es. C h in ese

Buddhism, Taoism , and C o n f u c ia n is m i n th eir r e lig io u s

a sp e c ts are the l a t e r system atic r e it e r a t io n of the o r ig i n a l

a n im istic r elig io n o f C hina.

R elig io n in general is a b e lie f in a h i g h e r power or

God. and t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s power d e t e r m i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f

a r elig io n . I n C h i n a we h a v e a s many r e l i g i o n s a s tuples o f g o d s

F ir st is the p o l y t h e i s t i c n atu ralism or f e t i c h ism w hich

b eliev es that sp irits ex ist in n atu ral objects. Second i s

the r e l i g i o n of h ero-w orsh ip . It is the d e i f i c a t i o n of

s u p e r i o r men s u c h a s e m p e r o r s a n d s a i n t s . It i s m entioned

I C r . J . d e G r o o t , The R e l i g i o n s of the C h in e se. 83; W .M artin.

Th e C h i n e s e . 2 5 7 f f *
 171

in the c l a s s i c a l and o t h e r w r i t i n g s o f C h i n a so o f t e n that

i t must h a v e been v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l in th e a n c i e n t C h in ese

fa ith . The d e i f i c a t i o n of the s u p e r i o r man i s extended

to the w orsh ip o f the l i v i n g — in the f i r s t p la c e , of

f a t h e r s and m o t h e r s , the h ig h e s t a u th o rities in the fa m ily .

The t h i r d k i n d o f C h i n e s e r e l i g i o n is C on fu cian ism

w h ich c o n s i s t s m a in ly in r i t u a l i s t i c perform ances o f a n c e s ­

t r a l w orsh ip . The s p i r i t s o f d e c e a s e d a n c e s t o r s which l o o k

after the w elfa re o f t h e l i v i n g a r e h o n o red and a p p e a l e d

to a c c o r d in g to c e r t a i n r u les of p ro p riety . C on fu ciu s d id

much i n r e c t i f y i n g th e cerem onial r u l e s o f a n c e s t r a l w o rsh ip s

The f o u r t h is the T a o ist r e l i g i o n o f m agic. The T a o i s t

t e a c h e r s h a v e m ost e x p l i c i t l y stated t h a t men who p o s s e s s

t h e Tao p o s s e s s a l s o m i r a c u l o u s p o w e r s , by w hich e v i l sp irits

a r e c a s t o u t or d e s t r o y e d . M a nkin d t h e r e b y i s s a v e d from

d isea se, p lagu e, and d r o u g h t . The T a o i s t p r i e s t is a d ev il-

e x p e llin g p h y sicia n . He i s a d istiller o f the e l i x i r of

life , a m a g i c u s e r who commands s p i r i t s and g o d s . M a g ic

thu s i s the c e n tr a l n erv e o f the T a o is t r e l i g i o n .

The f i f t h is th e C h in ese B u d d h ist r e l i g i o n . It is very

sim ila r to the T a o is t r e l i g i o n o f m agic in i t s con cep tion

of gods. The M ahayana B u d d h i s m o f C h i n a c l a i m s to le a d a l l

b e in g s w hatever, e v en a n i m a l s and d e v i l s , through several

 172

stages of p erfectio n in to the v ery h ig h e s t stage of h o l i ­

ness, th a t o f th e buddhas or g o d s. I t l a t e r h a s become a

relig io n of m o n a stic l i f e an d t e a c h e s t h a t p e r f e c t i o n is

p o ssib le o n ly through the a s c e t i c life .

The s i x t h , f o r m o f C h i n e s e r e l i g i o n is the r e l i g i o n

o f S h a n g t i o r "S up reme E m p e r o r . " P r o b a b l y t h i s r e l i g i o n

is d e r i v e d from t h e sa y in g s o f C on fu ciu s. C o n fu ciu s o f t e n

expressed a b e lie f th a t in the v i s i b l e heavens th ere r e s id e s

some v a g u e P ow er w h i c h p r o v i d e s f o r t h e w a n t s o f m en , and

rewards them a c c o r d i n g t o th eir deeds. But h e d id n o t

ex p la in h is b e l i e f in d e ta il. T h i s a u g u s t b u t unknown B e i n g ,

S h an gti, though u n i v e r s a l l y a ck n o w led g ed , is in v o k e d or

w orsh ip ed o n ly to a v e r y l i m i t e d exten t. T h is, it is said ,

is du e t o the f a c t th a t t h i s H eavenly B ein g i s too g r e a t

for the m ortal m asses to w o rsh ip . None b u t t h e E m pero r i s

w o r t h y t o l a y an o f f e r i n g on t h e A l t a r o f H e a v e n . ^ T h i s

h a s become t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c State r e lig io n o f C h in a.

Because the r e l i g i o n s o f Shangti and T a o i s t m a g i c a r e

very p rev a len t, a f e w m o r e w o r d s may b e s a i d o f them. The

1 T h is H ea v e n ly B e in g i s q u i t e s i m i l a r in n a tu r e to th e
T a o i s t Y u h-h w a ng S h a n g t i , t h e P r e c i o u s I m p e r i a l God, who
governs the p h y sica l u n iv er se .
 173

m o s t po m p ou s o f a l l th e form s o f C h in ese r e l i g i o n is th is

r elig io n of S h angti. I n P e k i n g t o d a y t h e m a g n i f i c e n t T e m p le

o f Heaven s t i l l stands. It c o n t a i n s no s p e c i a l im ages, and

the solem n r i t e s are n o t o f t e n perform ed w ith in the tower;

hut, on a m a r b l e a l t a r stan d ing b e fo r e it, it was, u n til

the r ec en t r e v o lu tio n , custom ary to o f f e r a b u llo c k once

a year as a s a c r if ic e w h ile th e Emperor, as the h ig h e s t

p r i e s t and m e d i a t o r o f h i s p e o p l e p r o s t r a t e d h i m s e l f in

adoration to the S p i r i t of the u n iv e r se .^ T h is im p e r ia l

sa crifice is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t pompous and e l a b o r a t e wor-

I
s h i p w h i c h e v e r h a s b e e n p a i d on e a r t h to Heaven and i t s

several p a rts.

N ex t t o Heaven i n the s e r i e s of S ta te -d iv in itie s is

Earth r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e Y in j u s t a s Heaven r e p r e s e n t s the

Yang o f t h e Tao. The r i t u a l for th is d iv in ity is a lso

p e r f o r m e d b y t h e e m p e r o r a s t h e Son o f H e a v e n . There a r e

other S t a t e - d i v i n i t ie s s u c h a s Gods o f t h e G ro und, o f the

M illet or Corn, the Sun-god, th e M oon-goddess, and o t h e r s .

A ll th is is a part of the g e n e r a l C on fucian system o f d e i t i e s

In th e T a o is t r e l i g i o n , we h a v e a n o t h e r g a l a x y o f

d e itie s. For th e T a o i s t s , t h e Y u h-h w a ng S h a n g t i , or the

"P reciou s Im p erial G od ," i s the supreme g o v e r n o r o f the

IC f. J. R oss, Th e O r i g i n a l R e l i g i o n o f C h i n a , 185-225.
 174

p h y sica l u n iverse. As t i m e w e n t o n , m a g i c i a n s a n d a l c h e m i s t s

began to f l o u r i s h . S u b s e q u e n t l y an i d e a a r o s e which b'olds

th at e v er y th in g in natu re c o n s i s t s o f two p a r t s , m a t t e r and

its essence. T h is id e a gave r i s e to the b e l i e f that the stars

were th e su blim ated e s s e n c e s o f th in gs, and a s su c h w e r e

to be reg ard ed a s g o d s, and a s w o r t h y o f a s s o c i a t i o n w ith

Y u h-h w a ng S h a n g t i . The B a r t h , it was s a i d , is composed o f

fiv e co n stitu en ts, v iz .. m etal, fire, w o od , w ater, and e a r t h ,

which a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e h e a v e n s r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e

p l a n e t s Venus, M ars, J u p i t e r , M ercury, and S a t u r n . Many

other s ta r s are a ls o d eified , a ll o f which h a v e d i r e c t

in flu en ce upon t h e a f f a i r s o f m en . Thus i n the heavens there

is an e t h e r e a l i z e d counterpart o f the w orld .

The a b o v e two r e l i g i o n s o f C o n f u c ia n S h a n g t i and T a o i s t

m agic a lo n e y i e l d i d o l s and im ages o f g o d s by t e n s o f th o u ­

sands. E v e r y t h i n g a b o v e a n d upon t h e e a r t h is represented

b y wood en t a b l e t s and i m a g e s i n s c r i b e d w i t h sp ec ific title s,

a n d many o f them b y i m a g e s o f himian f o r m . These o b j e c t s

are h eld to be i n h a b i t e d by the god s or g h o s t - s p i r i t s . In

t h i s way t h e e n t i r e l a n d i s p eo p led w ith the i d o l s and

im a g es o f g o d s and ’ tem p les by th ou san d s. The r e l i g i o u s

in stin ct i n C h i n a s e e m s t o go i t s own f r e e way. H o r s e s ,

cam els, goats, p ig s, and o t h e r a n i m a l s o f sto n e everywhere

 175

s t a n d a n d a r e comm only w o r s h i p e d a n d i n v o k e d . L iv in g anim als

a lso are the o b j e c t s o f w o rsh ip . T ig e r s, fish e s, serpents

and o t h e r s n o t se ld o m h a v e t e m p l e s and s h r i n e s .

In o r d e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e m o t l e y n a t u r e o f C h in ese

relig io u s b e lie fs, t h e m e a n in g o f t h e term t i e n m ust b e

d efin ed . T h i s word i s made up o f two i d i o g r a p h i c w o r d s , one

and b i g , w hich c o l l e c t i v e l y means th e B ig -O n e . T h is B ig-O ne

is Ti e n o r H e a v e n . It is supposed to p r e s i d e over the w orld

of th in gs. Thus, th e C h in e s e v a g u e l y h a s in mind a b e i n g

or power th a t govern s m o r ta ls below . T h is i s a lso the g e n e r a l

m eaning o f t h e term t i e n as used in the C a n o n ica l B o o k s.

It is d iffic u lt to say whether th e e a r l i e s t C h in ese

n o tio n of God o r H e a v e n was p e r s o n a l a s t h e o l d H e b r e w s

thought. From t h e a t t i t u d e of the p e o p le t o w a r d H e a v e n we

may i n f e r that there is an I n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n ob tain ed b e­

t w e e n H e a v e n and m a n k i n d , a s when m i s f o r t u n e v i s i t s the

people^ th e y a r e s u r e to c r y to Heaven a s the so u rc e o f mercy

and r e p e n t o f t h e ir w ick ed n ess. But t h i s a l o n e h a r d l y c o n s t i ­

tu tes a su ffic ie n t reason fo r h o ld in g that there is a m utual

r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y b e t w e e n men a n d t h e C h i n e s e God. The f a c t

that the p eop le appeal to Heaven f o r , h e lp in d iv e r t in g

th e ir presen t m isfortu n es i s a resu lt o f an undue e m p h a s is

upon t h e u t i l i t a r i a n sid e of th eir r e lig io u s b e lie f s . In

 iy6

m ost o f th e ir heaven ly b e l i e f s , it is d iffic u lt to f i n d

any approach to the s p i r i t u a l com m union, to t h e j o y and

d elig h t i n Heaven or i t s works, or to th e i n s p i r a t i o n w ith

w h i c h we a r e f a m i l i a r n o t o n l y i n the B ib le , but in the

e x p e r i e n c e o f s o many b e a u t i f u l so u ls in C h r is tia n countri e s . l

H eaven or T ien i s fr e q u e n tly r e p la c e d by Sh an gti, "Su­

pr e m e E m p e r o r , " A s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Chu s a i d . Heaven i s j u s t

S h angti, and S h a n g t i i s H e a v e n . 2 By S h a n g t i the v ir tu o u s

a r e r ew a r d e d and th e g u i l t y a r e p u n i s h e d . K in g s r u l e by i t s

su fferance, and a r e d e p o s e d b y i t s decree. B u t no o n e c a n

do a n y t h i n g t o i t . I n t h e S h i C h i n g we r e a d o f an o f f i c e r

who s e t s f o r t h h i s h a r d l o t a s f o l l o w s : 3

The K i n g ( a s h i s t h r o n e , s o n s s o r r o w o r moan;
On me f a l l a l l h i s c a r e s .
And when I come h o m e , r e s o l v e d n o t t o r o a m .
Each one i n d i g n a n t s t a r e s .
So l e t i t b e . ’ ’ t i s H e a v e n ’s d e c r e e .
What c a n I s a y - - a p o o r f e l l o w l i k e me?

Each t h i n g o f th e K in g , and th e f a t e o f th e S t a t e ,
On me come m o r e and m o r e .
And w hen, s a d a n d worn, I come b a c k f o r l o r n .
T h e y t h r u s t me f r o m t h e d o o r .
So l e t i t b e . ’ ’t i s H e a v e n ’s d e c r e e .
What c a n I s a y - - a p o o r f e l l o w l i k e me?

Heaven i s in ex o ra b le in its a ct of d ecreein g. The

common s e n s e man y e t p r a y s t o it to d i v e r t h i s m i s f o r t u n e

I C f . L e g g e . R e l i g i o n s o f C hina. C hao.IV .
2 C f . L i K i . T:----------------------------------
3 C f . Sh i C h i n g , I I I . M e t r i c a l t r n a s l a t i o n b y J . L e g g e
 177

which i t s e l f is ca u se d by the v e r y d ec re e o f Heaven. If

H e a v e n ’s d e c r e e i s a b s o l u t e and a d a m a n t in e , how c o u l d

o n e ’s p r a y e r h a v e t o do w i t h i t ? The C h i n e s e m a s s e s a n d

even s h c o la r s did n ot trou b le th e m s e lv e s w ith t h i s under­

m ining contrad iction, b u t t h e y w e n t on p r a y i n g and d e i f y i n g

e v e r y t h i n g i n h o d g e - p o d g e way. I n t h e Shi C h in g , the K in g

8 e u e n on t h e o c c a s i o n of a great drought o f f e r e d the o f f i c i a l

o d e s t o Heaven :I

0 h e a v e n , w h a t c r i m e s h a v e we t o own.
T h a t d e a t h a n d r u i n s t i l l come down?
R e l e n t l e s s fa m in e f i l l s our g r a v e s .
P i t y t h e K i n g who h u m b l y c r a v e s . *
Our m i s e r i e s n e v e r c e a s e .
Tofevery S p i r i t I h a v e vowed*
The c h o i c e s t v i c t i m s ’ b l o o d h a s f l o w e d .
As o f f e r i n g s I h a v e f r e e l y p a i d
M y . s t o r e o f ge ms a n d p u r e s t j a d e .
H e a r me, a n d g i v e r e l e a s e . ’

In th e o d e s o f t h e T e m p le and A l t a r , ap p rop riate to

a sa crifice t o K i n g Wan, we h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g : 2

My o f f e r i n g s kere a r e g i v e n ,
A ram, a b u l l .
A c c e p t them, m ig h t y H ea v en ,
A ll-b o u n tifu l.
Thy S t a t u t e s , 0 g r e a t K i n g .
1 keep, I lo v e ;
So on t h e r e a l m t o b r i n g
P e a c e from a b o v e .

These s t a n z a s seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Heaven r e s i d e s in

th e h ig h h ea v en s f a r above the a f f a i r s o f man, b u t 1%^ i s

ab le to c o n t r o l human a f f a i r s . The f a c t t h a t men t h r o u g h

IS h i C h in g, I I I , 3.
2 I b i d . , IV , I .
 178

th e ir k in g s, th e v i c e g e r e n t o f Heaven, appeal t o Him f o r

h e l p and b l e s s i n g p r o b a b l y s u g g e s t s t h a t Heaven i s b e n e ­

v o l e n t and c o m p a s s i o n a t e . I n B.ti® m e r c y . Heaven p r o v i d e s

fru itfu l seasons; and i n T i s a n g e r w ill cause fam ines

to a r i s e by drough t a t one tim e, a t a n o t h e r by f l o o d . But

a ll t h i s makes i t seem t o us t h a t th e C h in ese b e l i e f in

such a H eaven or S h an gti i s n o t h i n g more than t h e b e l i e f

m o s t men c o u l d h a v e i n tim e o f d i s t r e s s and s u f f e r i n g . The

v a rio u s s a y i n g s and o d e s to Heaven a r e a s a r u l e concerned

w ith appeal f o r h e lp r a th e r than f o r the e x p r e ss io n of

filia l love t o Iltiu. The a p p e a l s a n d p r a y e r s f u r t h e r m o r e

<M
a r e con cern ed w ith t h e p h en o m en a o f n a t u r e s u c h ^ d r o u g h t ,

flo o d , d isea se, and p e s t i l e n c e . In v i e w o f t h i s f a c t .

H e a v e n i s b u t an i m p e r s o n a l p o w e r o r l a w c o n t r o l l i n g the

c h a n g e s or phenomenal w o r ld . It is t h e Tao o f N a t u r e .

I t must be a l s o n o t e d th a t in the s ta n z a s above quoted

t h e w o r d s "King" a n d " A l m i g h t y H e a v e n " a r e u s e d i n id en tica l

m eaning. T h is i s b eca u se t h e word H e a v e n d o e s n o t mean One

Supreme God a b o v e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . In f a c t , T ien o r d i n a r i l y

m e a n s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a " s u p re m e" o r g r e a t - o n e . C o n seq ien tly

th is term i s used to m o d if y th e title of e a r t h l y k i n g s or

emperors in th e O r ie n ta l co u n tries s u c h a s T i e n No H e i Ga o r
"The Supr em e R u l e r o f J a p a n , " a n d Ti e n Wang P e Ha o r t h e
 179

"Supreme Emperor o f K o r e a , " We c a n m o d i f y a . t h i n g w i t h Ti e n

on ly i f it is su p erior to o th e r th in g s. The word i n d i c a t e s

t h a t an o b j e c t i s d eified . W he never an u n u s u a l i n c i d e n t

happens, o r an a p p e a l is to be made t o the sp irits of deceas­

ed a n c e s t o r s , "Oh H e a v e n " i s the u n iv e r sa l address o f the

C h i n e s e and o t h e r A s i a t i c r a c e s who h a v e t h e C h i n e s e i n f l u e n c e

in th eir cu ltu ra l life .

A ll the above e x p la n a tio n s still p oin t to t h e - f a c t

t h a t from the m ea n in g o f H eaven a s u sed in th e C anonical

Books, we d e r i v e the c o n v ic tio n not that the o r ig in a l r e ­

lig io n o f C h in a i s thoroughly m o n o t h e is t ic , but r a th er that

it is a n im istic.^ Many s u p e r i o r a n d i n f e r i o r d iv in ities are

everywhere r e c o g n iz e d in the C on fucian C l a s s i c s a s w e l l a s

in th e F iv e C an on ical Books. T h is g h o s t - s o u l b e l i e f from

pre-h i s to r ic tim es i s su ffic ien t to o v e r t h r o w th e h y p o t h e s i s

o f m onotheism . The v a g u e m e a n i n g o f H e a v e n a n d t h e i d o l a t r y

grown o u t o f i t and t h e s an k i o l e a d to t h e co n clu sio n that

the C h in ese never h a v e had a m o n o t h e is t ic con cep tion of a

God who i s the f a t h e r o f a l l men a l i k e . If there is any

b e lie f i n a m o n o t h e i s t i c God i n C h i n a , it is a recent "by­

p r o d u c t o f C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s . "2

I C f . J o h n R o s s , Th e O r i g i n a l R e l i g i o n o f C h i n a , 1 2 8 f f ,
where t h e a u t h o r s t a t e s t h a t m o n o th eism i s t h e o r i g i n a l
r e l i g i o n o f the C h in e s e .
2 C f , I . T . H e a d l a n d , Some B y p r o d u c t s o f M i s s i o n s , 1 2 3 - 1 3 5 *
 I So

To make c l e a r e r t h e C h i n e s e i d e a o f God, let us

compare b r i e f l y t h e God o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s and t h e H e a v e n s

of the C h in e s e . The t h r e e g r e a t . r e l i g i o n s o f C hina, Buddhism,

T aoism , and C o n f u c ia n is m , a ll b e lie v e that there are f o r c e s

in t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f H e a v e n a n d E a r t h w h ic h w o r k and

reg u la te t h e g o o d and b a d f o r t u n e s o f m a n k i n d . C on fucian ism

has stood fo r m orals, a n c e s to r w orsh ip , a n d t h e unknown

Sh angti; T a o i s m f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l m y s t i c i s m and a f o r m o f

p riv a te relig io n i n w h ic h the s t a t e of the im m ortals i s

sought, often in grotesq u e fa sh io n ; B u d d h ism i s a llie d w ith

Taoism i n seek in g n oth in gn ess of th in gs through i d o l a t r y

and m a g ic a l p r a c t i c e . ^

In c o n t r a s t w ith t h e s e C h in ese r e l i g i o n s o f H e a v e n an d

E arth, the C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e f o l l o w ­

in g p o in ts: (l) It preaches the g o s p e l future l i f e in

H eaven. Thus a h a r s h c o n t r a s t is em p hasized b etw een the w orld

of e v il and t h e w orld o f good. (2) It ra tifies an a f f i r m ­

a tio n of l i f e through th e death o f C h r is t , the redem ption

o f man f r o m s i n b y h i s death. (3) It teaches that through

work and f a i t h t h e r e in can the i n d iv i d u a l b r in g h i s salva­

tio n and t r u t h in c o o p e r a tio n w ith t h e b e n e v o le n t God. (4)

I t h old s that God o r L o g o s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e end

IC f. Sooth i l l . Th r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . 2 5 4 .
 I8l

of a ll th in gs, but t h i s Logos i s ever a c tiv e in m aking

the world b e t t e r i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h man. He i s thus both

immanent a nd t r a n s c e n d e n t . ( 5 ) It tea ch es u n iversal and

rew ard less lo v e contrary to th e r e c i p r o c a l and p a r t i a l love

o f C on fucian ism . ( 6) It b e lie v es in the a u th o r ity of the

in d iv id u a l w ill an d d e c i s i o n n o t o n l y i n m a n ' s own a f f a i r s

but a lso in a l l others.

tain
We a r e a l s o c o g n i z a n t o f t h e weak p ô i n t s in be^ C h r istia n

. w hich c a n n o t sta n d b e fo r e any e x p e r i e n t i a l test, such

as the im m aculate c o n c e p t io n of th e V i r g i n and t h e O r i g i n a l

s i n o f man. But i t seem s that t h e e m p h a s i s u p on i n d i v i d u a l

a u th ority as the c e n tr e of e v e r y th in g alon e co u ld c o u n tera ct

t h e many weak p o i n t s o f i t s d octrin e. P r o f e s s o r Eueken w e l l

expresses the i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c or p e r s o n a l i s t i c phase of

C h r i s t i a n i t y a s f o l l o w s :I

The i n n e r w o r l d was t o C h r i s t i a n i t y e s s e n t i a l l y a
r e a l m o f c o n v i c t i o n a n d d e c i s i o n * a r e l i g i o n o f w i l l to
w i l l , o f p e r s o n a l i t y to p e r s o n a l i t y : f r e e a c t i o n , in
p o w e r and l o v e , i n g u i l t and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , f o r m e d t h e
e s s e n c e o f a l l e v e n t s and g a v e t o t h e w o r l d a s o u l .

The C h i n e s e r e l i g i o n s l a c k th is dy n a m ic sp irit of

i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l life . With a l l th eir su p e rstitio n s

and s t u p o r t h e y c a n n o t b e an e n l i g h t e n e d sp iritu a l agency

lE u ck en , L i f e ' s B a s i s and L i f e ' s Id ea l, iiff.

 182

to the O r ie n t a l races. T heir h i g h e s t developm ent stops

short of t h e j o y i n God a n d man, and t h a t e x h i l a r a t i n g s e n s e

o f freed o m and ind ep en d en ce, t h r o u g h communion w i t h Him.

T h ey h a v e n o t r i s e n above the t h r a lld o m o f form s and o e r c -

m o n ies.

What t h e n s h a l l we do w i t h a l l the su p erstitio u s

elem en ts in the r e l i g i o u s life o f C hina? T h e . f i r s t and

d irect way t o s o l v e t h i s problem i s by th e a p p l i c a t i o n of

modern s c i e n t i f i c m eth od and t e c h n i q u e . The o r i g i n a l teach-

in g^ s o f L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s , out o f which th e r e l i g i o u s

s u p e r s t i t i o n s g r e w , m u s t b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d on an e m p i r i c a l

b a sis. F a i t h i n God a n d human l i f e must be ta k e n a s a l i v ­

in g f a c t , not a th in g m erely to b e w o r s h i p e d a n d a d o r e d i n

id o la try . The s e c o n d way t o s o l v e th e problem s o f C h in ese

r elig io u s l i f e is t h e a d o p t i o n o f a d y n a m ic c o n c e p t i o n . In

a v i g o r o u s and h e a l t h y l i f e there w i l l be v e r y l i t t l e chance

for t h e germ o f i d o l a t r y to grow. C u st o m s and r u l e s w i l l

not e x is t in it for th eir own s a k e . T h is w i l l h e l p man t o

cope w ith the ever ch an gin g c o n d it io n s o f l i f e . ^

I n a s o c i e t y w h e r e C o n f u c i a n - l i k e c e r e m o n i a l i s m and

T a o ist-lik e r esig n a tio n are the r u l e s o f l i f e , "how f e w

I C f . L i a n g Sou M i n g , C i v i l i z a t i o n and P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e
O r i e n t and t h e O c c i d e n t ^ &7 f f *
 1 83

t h e r e a r e who h o n e s t l y b e l i e v e t h a t im provem ent i s p o s s i b l e

a n y w h e r e and e v e r y w h e r e . ’ Who e x p e c t s c h a n g e i n w o r s h i p or

fu n era ls, as he e x p e c ts i t in s u r g e r y ? Who a d m i t s t h a t the

m arriage i n s t i t u t i o n or th e c o u r t o f j u s t i c e is im provable

as w ell as t h e dynamo?*’!

I C f . E .A .R o ss, So c i a l Cont r o l . 195*

 184

CHAPTER X I I

CONCLUSION: THE FAMILY AND OTHER BASES

OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION

The f a m i l y i s the fo u n d a tio n of the C h in ese so cia l

structure. Its id e a ls are th e C h in ese i d e a l s . The C h i n e s e

is h o r n and d i e s in h i s fa m ily . It co n stitu tes h is u n iverse.

When h e d i e s h e i s t o h e w o r s h i p e d and v e n e r a t e d b y t h e r e ­

m ainder o f h i s fa m ily . T h is f a m ily t i e th r o u g h w o r s h ip and

ven eration i s the core of the so cia l so lid a rity of

C h in ese so ciety .

The s y s t e m o f C h i n e s e v i r t u e s is b a s e d upon t h e f a m i l y

rela tio n s. The h i g h e s t so cia l id ea l c o n s is ts in d i s c i p l i n e

o f f a m i l y d e v o t i o n and s a c r i f i c e . The d e f i n i t i o n o f b lood

rela tio n s i s v e r y im p ortan t, for the h i g h e s t fa m ily v i r t u e ,

i.e ., filia l p iety , co n sists in the c o m p le te s u b o r d i n a t i o n

of the in ferio r t o t h e s u p e r i o r members o f the f a m i ly . T h is

is n e c e ssa r y in order that "the p a r e n t s , when a l i v e , should

be se r v e d a c c o r d in g to p r o p r ie t y ; when d e a d , they sh ould

be b u rie d a cco rd in g to p r o p r i e t y ; an d t h e y s h o u l d b e sa cri­

ficed to a c c o r d in g to p r o p r i e t y . " I T h is f a m ily p r o p r i e t y

keeps a ll in d iv id u a l a ss e r tio n co n sta n tly in the background.

" F ilia l p ietyjis not b ein g d is o b e d ie n t."

Out o f the d e v o t i o n and v e n e r a t i o n o f such a f a m i l y

iC f. The C o n f u c i a n A n a l e c t s . I, 5•
 I85

system th e r e h a s e v o lv e d a sem blance o f r e l i g i o n . The C h i n e s e

fa m ily i s lik e a relig io n s in stitu tio n . The f a m i l y r e l i g i o n

co n sists ch iefly in reveren ce fo r a n c e s t o r s b o t h dead and

liv in g . E v e r y f a m i l y whether r i c h or poor h a s i t s fa m ily

sh rin e i n w hich a n c e s t o r sp irits are supposed to d w e l l . On

h o lid a y s e a s o n s we s e e many f a m i l y g a t h e r i n g s a t t h e tem p les

and t o m b s . These g a t h e r i n g s se em a s p l e a s a n t a s t h e y a r e

u n iv ersa l, and p r o b a b l y a s p r o d u c t i v e o f k i n d l y sentim en t

a s any r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s or s o c i a l reu n ion s in the w orld .

These g a t h e r i n g s , further, h elp the C h in ese to m a i n t a i n a

constant r e la tio n w ith unseen r e l a t i v e s . It is b eliev ed

that t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f a f a m i l y l a r g e l y d e p e n d s up on t h e

ben evolen t in flu en ce of the d e c e a s e d a n c e s t o r s .

How much i m p o r t a n c e the e a r ly C h in ese t e a c h e r s l a y upon

the r e a l i t y of t h e f a m i l y a nd i t s r e v e r e n c e may b e shown b y

th eir own s t a t e m e n t s . M e n c i u s b e l i e v e s in f i l i a l p iety to such

an e x t e n t t h a t o n e *s l o v e f o r h i s p a r e n t s should take p r e ­

cedence of h i s l o v e f o r f e l l o w men and e v e n h i s country. It

is far b etter t o abandon th e em pire than to t h r o w away t h e

r e l a t i o n and o b l i g a t i o n to p a r e n ts. ’^A man c a n h a v e no

greater c r i m e t h a n t o d i s o w n h i s p a r e n t s and r e l a t i v e s .

Thits t h e serv ice of parents is the r o o t of other serv ices.

IC f. The C o n f u c i a n A n a l e c t s . IV , p t.I, I9 .
 186

C on fu ciu s l i k e w i s e states that ’’w h i l e a m a n ’s f a t h e r

is a liv e , look , at the b e n t of h is w ill; when h i s father

is dead, look a t h i s conduct. If for th r e e y e a r s he does

n o t a l t e r f r o m t h e way o f h i s father, h e may b e c a l l e d

filia l." ! L aotze has a s im ila r view c o n c er n in g f i l i a l p iety

when h e s t a t e s that " t h o s e who h a v e v i r t u e a t t e n d to th eir

o b lig a tio n s; t h o s e who h a v e no v i r t u e a t t e n d to t h e i r own

c l a i m s . "2

K e e p in g i n mind t h e a b o v e f a m i l y id ea ls of the C h in ese,

th eir c o n s e q u e n c e s must be n o te d . Due t o the i n t e n s e f e e l i n g

of fa m ily o b lig a tio n t h e r e n e v e r was d e v e l o p e d a t r u e p a t r i ­

o tism in C h in a. O nly i n r e c e n t y e a r s a f t e r the c o n ta c t with

t h e W estern p e o p l e s d id a s e n s e o f C h in e s e " w e-feelin g"

a rise. In th e p a s t t r i b a l h a t r e d and c l a n f e u d s m o s t l y c o n s ­

titu ted the l i f e of the C h in ese r a c e . The p r e s e n t c iv il str ife

among t h e Tu c k - C h u n s or G en er a ls i s c h i e f l y b r e d from th e

d i s e a s e o f an e x c e s s i v e n e p o t i s m .

The d e s i r e to rem ain in the f a m ily to s e r v e p a r e n t s and

to be b u r ie d w ith them , a lw a y s d e te r m in e s the a c t i v i t y of

the C h in ese. C o n se q u en tly v e r y few C h in ese are w i l l i n g to

go a b r o a d and l i v e th e re p erm an en tly. E v e n when t h e y go o u t

to liv e in o th e r la n d s , th eir u ltim a te dream i s to r e tu r n

iC f. A n a lects. I, I I .
2C f, L a o t z e , Ta o Teh C h i n g . 79*
 18?

to t h e i r hom eland, at lea st to be b u r ie d . T h i s among o t h e r

factors cau sed th e C h in ese p e o p le to be i n d u s t r i a l l y un­

se ttle d i n o t h e r l a n d s and to be o v e r p o p u l a t e d i n t h e home

country.

The p a t e r n a l system o f C h in ese s o c ie t y a lso brought

about the s u b ju g a t io n o f the fe m a le s e x and th e p r e v a l e n c e

of s u p e r s t it io n s . I n C h in a e v e r y f a m i l y d e s i r e s a s o n t o

con tin u e the f a m ily l i n e . The d a u g h t e r i s not counted as

a real quota of it. L aotze, C on fu ciu s, and o t h e r C h in e s e

t e a c h e r s l o o k e d upon women a s In ferio rs, good f o r n o t h in g

except as agents to bear a son. The h i g h e s t id eal for

a m a r r i e d woman t h e n i s to g i v e a son t o h e r h u sb a n d . T h is

id eal is u p h e l d so in ten sely t h a t a woman, in order to b e a r

a son, not a daughter, is a lw a y s r ea d y to c o n s u l t f o r t u n e

teller s and o l d sorceresses. In t h i s way m o s t o f C h i n e s e

s u p e r s t i t i o n and i d o l a t r y is c r e a t e d b y women.

In w h a t f o l l o w s a f e w o f the deeper c u l t u r a l conse­

quences of the f a m ily system a s the b a s i s o f C hinese

c iv iliz a tio n w ill be p o i n t e d o u t . When t h e p r i m a c y o f a

fa m ily l i f e is overem phasized, a m a ter ia listic co n sid era tio n

is a lw a y s dom inant. I m a g i n a t i v e and m e t a p h y s i c a l q u a lities

o f m i n d do n o t a c c o r d w i t h a h e a v y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to support

a la r g e fa m ily . C reative a c t i v i t y o f mind i s n o t e a s i l y

op erative in the enjoym ent o f f a m ily l i f e . C o n seq u en tly the

 188

C h in ese t h i n k e r s su ch a s C o n f u c iu s and M encius u s u a l l y

adhere to the t h i n g s a c t u a l an d common s e n s e . T h e s e men

are the p lo d d in g u t i l i t a r i a n s who i n s i s t that eith er th is

w orld i s in ten sely real a n d n e e d s no e x p l a n a t i o n or t h i s

w orld i s in te n se ly p ain fu l and n e e d s to he n e g a t e d f o r a

w o r l d o f wu w e i or n o n - a c t i o n . The C o n f u c i a n s c h o o l re­

p r e s e n t s the form er a t t i t u d e w h ile the T a o is t school teaches

the l a t t e r . D o m e s t i c and s o c i a l usages stand fo r a l l th in gs,

scien ce, p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o n . The C h i n e s e c u l t u r e is

t h o r o u g h l y d o m e s t i c and m a t e r i a l i s t i c .

The e a s y a s s u m p t i o n b y C h i n e s e th in k ers of t h e cosmo­

lo g ica l p rin cip les sh o w s how i n c a p a b l e they are of transcend­

in g the s p h e r e o f common s e n s e a n d t h e o r g a n i c h a b i t s o f

fa m ily l i f e . T h ey s i m p l y a s s u m e th a t the w orld h a s a s e l f ­

sh apin g fo r c e s u c h a s Tao a n d t h a t t h e f i r s t man m u s t h a v e

fash ion ed the w o r l d - s t u f f w i t h a hammer and c h i s e l , h im self

and h i s to o ls b ein g alread y a part of i t . T heir s p e c u la t io n

alw ays h o ld s f a s t to the a c t u a l and c o n c r e t e . They t a k e

t h e human f o r the d iv in e , and t h e p o s i t i v e v isib le work f o r

the b e s t p a r t o f t h e human. I n t h i s way t h e y f a i l to r i s e

from th e f o r m a lis m o f e t h i c a l ru les to the freedom o f a b s t r a c t

id ea s.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , the h i g h e s t e l e m e n t i n man i s h i s

a b ility to s e i z e h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and m o l d i t in to form s

 189

a s he w i s h e s . T h is power over m a t t e r i s effectiv e when o n e

tran scen ds th e m a t e r i a l by means o f th o u g h t or i n t e l l e c t .

T ran scendentalism in th is sense isnot o n ly u s e f u l but

The
n e c e ssa r y fo r the l i f e o f a c t i v i t y .^M ind w h i c h n e v e r l e a r n s

to t r a n s c e n d th e im m ed iate o b j e c t s in l i f e w ill p aralyze

i t s e l f by i t s own i m p o t e n c y and t h e o b s t i n a c y o f the m a te r ia l

ob jects. The a c t of in stru m en ta lizin g t h e o b s t i n a t e and s o l i d

m a t t e r means th e l i b e r a t i o n o f m in d -en ergy .

The i n c a p a c i t y o f t h e C h in e s e mind t o s t a n d a p a r t from

the co n crete l i f e of a fa m ily r e s u lte d in i t s state of con­

s e r v a t i s m and im m a tu r ity o f c u l t u r e . It is a ll t h e more

natural that th e C h in ese f a m i ly i s the c e n tr e o f C h in ese

c o n s e r v â t ! sm. The f a m i l y is the p la c e where t h e o l d ways

a r e h o n o r e d and p r a c t i c e d . H ere C o n f u c i u s e x p l i c i t l y says

that "to f o l l o w t h e ways o f a f a t h e r a t l e a s t three years

may b e c a l l e d f i l i a l . " T h is c o n se r v a tism tends to e f f e c t

th e im m a tu rity o f m ind.

Im m aturity i s in c lin ed to th e sid e o f n e g a t i o n and

su b m ission . T h is i s t h e m a i n r e a s o n why t h e . C h d n e a e c o n ­

s i d e r s ob ed ien ce as the r o o t of fa m ily v i r t u e . The n a t u r a l

in clin a tio n of a c h ild to obey i t s eld ers is due to h i s

in ca p a city to see th in gs as h is eld ers s e e them. But there

are t h r e e main fo r m s o f o b e d i e n c e : that of a su b ject toward

 190

h is sovereign , that of th e son toward h i s f a t h e r , and t h a t

of a w ife toward her husband. What a r e c a l l e d the f i v e

etern al id e a ls o r wu s a n g : h u m a n e n e s s , u p righ tn ess, p rop riety,

in sig h t, and f a i t h , a r e a l s o b a s e d upon t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

ch ild ob ed ien ce. C on fu ciu s ask s : " F i l i a l p i e t y and f r a t e r n a l

su b m issio n -- are they not the r o o t of a ll b en evolen t a c tio n s? " !

T h is i d e a l of obedience c r e a te s u n i f o r m i t y and r o u t i n e .

It resu lts i n d e a d m o n o t o n y and f o r m a l i s m . Throughout th e

thousand p a g e s o f C h in ese h i s t o r y , n oth in g i s w r i t t e n which

i s new and s t i r r i n g . Ho i r r e g u l a r i t y of surface is found, for

there i s no f r e e id eal and a c t i v i t y . A ll i s bound e t e r n a l l y

to th e r i g i d i t y o f c o n c r e te form s. The Ch u n g - Y u n g o r t h e

m achine-1 ik e smooth p a t h i s t h e h i g h e s t C h i n e s e w isd o m . We

m eet th is id ea l everywhere in p o l i t i c s , in e t h i c s , an d i n

r elig io n . The "Mean" i s a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e and p e r p e t u a l

harm ony o f two o p p o s i n g p o l e s , the n ot-too-m u ch o f e it h e r .

To d e f i n e t h i s mean, th e h o r d e o f p e t t y m axims, of m in u tely

m easured v i r t u e s , anti th e tic a lly set and s q u a r e d i n p e d a g o g i c

form u las, was n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e f o r m u l a s h a v e made up t h e

en tire e d u c a t i o n a l program in a l l the p a st thousand y e a r s

o f C h i n a ’s e x i s t e n c e . These are n ev er to be s e i z e d w ith

fre ed o m or e n t h u s i a s m , but fo llo w e d as the p e r f e c t p r e s -

i C f . A n a le c ts. I, 2,
 191

c r ip tio n for secu rin g the b l i s s o f e q u i l i b r i u m and l e v e l

in th e elem en ts of l i f e . B o t h L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s taught

th is id ea of a p e a c e fu l m id d le path as the e sse n c e of

t h e i r moral teach in gs. E v e r y th in g C h in ese i s d e f i n e d and

p r e s c r i b e d by t h i s id ea l of b alan ce. Personal w ill an d

p u b lic purpose are a l l suppressed in d eferen ce to th is

lev e lin g id e a l.!

The f o l l o w i n g f e w q u o t a t i o n s o f C o n f u c i u s and M e n c i u s

w ill show how i m p o r t a n t the e q u ilib r iu m o r t h e mean o f

th in gs is i n human a f f a i r s . C on fuciu s says: E q u ilib riu m is

t h e g r e a t r o o t o f human a c t i o n , an d ha rm o ny t h e u n i v e r s a l

path t h a t human f e e l i n g s should pursue. Then h e a v e n and

e a r th are in happy o rd er, a nd a l l th in gs w ill prosp er.

Man b e c o m e s g r e a t b y f o l l o w i n g it. The g r e a t k i n g Shun

" t o o k h o l d o f t h e two e x t r e m e s i n men ; d e t e r m i n e d t h e m ea n ,

a nd e m p l o y e d i t in h i s government o f the p e o p le . It was b y

th is t h a t h e was S h u n . "3 M e n c i u s a l s o says: "The r e a s o n I

h a t e h o ld in g to one p o i n t is that i t d is r e g a r d s a hundred

o t h e r p r i n c i p l e s . "4

We h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d i n C h a p t e r V I I I that^um an

w ill does not ten d to r e s t in eq u ilib riu m as i t s g o a l. The

I C f . A n a l e c t s . IX . X I .
2 C f . Th e Do c t r i n e o f t h e M e a n . I ,
3 I b i d . , VI;' A n a l e c t s . X I . 15."
4 C f . Sa y i n g s o f M e n c i u s . V I I , p t . I, 26.
 192

source of l i f e , in f a c t , lie s in the u p s e t t in g o f th e o ld

eq u jlib riu m . I n v e n t i o n an d d i s c o v e r i e s a r e th e c h i e f means

o f d e s tr o y in g the s o - c a l l e d mean. Even t h e p r o c e s s o f p u t ­

tin g these i r r e g u la r i t ie s in to u n iversal a c c e p ta n c e can not

be c a l l e d the f u n c t i o n o f e q u ilib r iu m , for the p r o c e ss of

p ropagation i t s e l f w ill lead to fu r th e r irreg u la rities of

ne w i n v e n t i o n a n d d i s c o v e r y . B u t what C o n f u c i u s a n d M e n c i u s

m e a n t b y t h e Mean o r e q u i l i b r i u m was t h e b r i n g i n g b a c k o f

t h e new i r r e g u l a r i t i e s to th e o ld stan dard o f v a lu e s , w hich

is ob viou sly a r e g r e ssio n . "To f o l l o w t h e ways o f t h e a n c i e n t s

is an e x c e l l e n t q u a lity ," c o n c lu d e s C on fu ciu s.

The human i m p u l s e i s o r i g i n a l l y a » th r u s tin g out energy,

w hich i m p l i e s a c o n s t a n t b r e a k i n g o f t h e eq u ilib riu m a lrea d y

esta b lish ed . T h is v i o l a t i n g tendency i s the sou rce o f im agin ­

a t i o n and l o v e o f a d v e n t u r e , w it h o u t which so ciety soon b e ­

c o m e s s t a g n a n t and d e c a d e n t . Thus, c o n flic t and c o m p e t i t i o n ,

provid ed they are not d e s t r u c t i v e and b r u t a l , are n e c e s s a r y

in order to s t i m u l a t e m e n ’s a c t i v i t i e s , and t o secu re the

v icto ry o f what i s liv in g o v e r w h at i s dead or m e r e ly t r a d i ­

t i o n a l . 1 Again, in su ch an i d e a l c o n flic t v irtu e of so cia l

so lid a r ity and l o v e o f o n e ’s n eig h b o r s p r in g , and a s e n s e

o f u n i t y and l o y a l t y is common ly g e n e r a t e d . T h is s t a t e of

IC f. B .R u ssell, Why Men F i g h t ? . 9 7 .

 193

th in gs i s w ell-n ig h im p ossib le in such a s o c i e t y a s the

C h i n e s e w h er e n e p o t i s m r u l e s supreme.

In c o n c lu d in g , we may r e m a r k t h a t the c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f C h in ese e t h i c a l w isd om i s the te a c h in g t h a t t h e human

goal, whether i t be h a p p in e s s or p e r f e c t i o n , can be r e a c h e d

b y n e g a t i o n and r e s t r i c t i o n o f a l l human f a c u l t i e s from

ex ercise. T h is i s the irect op p osite o f W estern e t h i c s

w hich f o l l o w i n g t h e e a r l y Greeks t e a c h e s th a t the h i g h e s t

goal of l i f e co n sists in the p e r f e c t ex ercise o f a l l human

fa c u ltie s. The C h i n e s e s e e i n g t h a t man b y n a t u r e i s o rig in a lly

g o o d and v i r t u o u s endeavours to r e tu r n to that o r ig in a l nature,

w h e r e a s t h e W e s t e r n e r k n o w i n g t h a t man i s so m e th in g to be

r & a d e g o e s on t o d e v e l o p the b e s t that is p o ssib le i n man.

B u d d h i s m and T a o i s m p r e a c h e d t o t h e C h i n e s e the n e g a t i v is m

of the w ill to l i v e , and C o n f u c i a n i s m s u p p l ie d a m ethod o f

cerem onialism to th is p rocess of n egation . Thus t h e three

great eth ica l system s of th e C h in e s e a r e u n i t e d i n one

g i g a n t i c program o f n e g a t i o n . i - - to r e a c h a s t a t e o f non­

action or e q u i l i b r iu m . T h i s work b e g a n f r o m t h e l i f e of

the f a m i ly w h ich, a s we h a v e shown i n the p r e se n t chapter,

form s the b a s i s o f C h in ese c iv iliz a tio n .

 194

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G root, J .J .M .d e, Th e R e l i g i o n s o f t h e C h i n e s e . G .P u tna m s ’

Sons, N . Y . , I 9 IO.

H irth , F . , An c i e n t Hi s t o r y of C h in a. The C o l u m b i a U n i v .

Press, N .Y ., I9 I I .

Hockmann, H . , B u d d h ism a s a R e l i g i o n . B r a b s t h a i n and C o . ,

London, I 9 IO.
 195

Hu S h i h . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e L o g i c a l M eth o d i n

A n c ie n t C hina. K egan P a u l and C o . , London, 1922.

_________ , Ou t l i n e s o f th e H i s t o r y o f C h in ese P h i lo s o n h v .

I2th C h in ese e d i t i o n . The C o m m e rc ia l P r e s s , Shanghai,

1926.

Hume, Edward H. , " S c i e n c e and t h e C h i n e s e M i n d , " As i a .

XXVII: July I 9 2 7 .

Johnson, Sam uel, Or i e n t a l R e l i g i o n s - - C h i n a . H o u g h t o n M.

and C o ., B oston, I88I .

L atou rette, K .S.., The D e v e l o p m e n t o f C h i n a . H o u g h t o n M.

a n d Co. , N . Y . , I 9 2 0 .

Legge, Jam es, Th e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r *s

Sons, N .Y ., I 8 8 1 .

L iu, C h i-F un g, "The E t h i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s o f Moh T i h ’s

P h i l o s o p h y , " I n t e r n a t ! o n a l J o u r n a l of E t h i c s . XXXV

(O ct. 1 9 2 7 ). 27 f f .

L iu n g .P in g , Ou t l i n e s o f C h i n e s e H i s t o r y . The C o m m e r c ia l

Press, Shanghai, I9I4 .

M acgowan, J . , Men a n d M a n n e r s o f Modern C h i n a . Dodd, Mead

and C o ., N .Y ., I912.

M artin, W .A .P ., Th e C h i n e s e . H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s , N .Y .,

I88I.

Th e L o r e o f C a t h a y . F l e m i n g H. R e v e l 1 & C o . ,

N.Y., I90I.
 196

M iura, Hi s t o r y o f C h in ese E t h i c s . C h in ese e d i t i o n . The

C o m m e r ic a l P r e s s , Shanghai, 1925*

R eid, G ilb ert, " R e v o l u t i o n t a u g h t by C o n f u c i a n i s m , " I n t .

Journal of E th ic s . X X X II I: Jan. I923.

R einsch, P .S .. "Energism i n the O r ie n t," In t e r n a t ! onal

J o u r n a l o f E t h i c s . XXI: Ju ly I9 I I .
R oss, E .A ., The C h a n g i n g C h i n e s e . The C e n t u r y C o . , N .Y ,,

I9II.

R u ssell, Bertrand, Th e P r o b l e m o f Chi n a . The C e n t u r y C o . ,

N .Y ., 1922.

8 0 0 t h i l l , W .E . , Th e T h r e e R e l i g i o n s o f C h i n a . 2nd e d i t i o n .

The O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London, I923.

S ta n ley , H igh, Ch i n a ’s P l a c e in t h e S u n . The M a c m i l l a n C o . ,

N .Y ., 1922.

Stew art, J .L ., Ch i n e s e C u l t u r e and C h r i s t i a n i t y . F l e m i n g H.

R evelT & C o ., New Y o r k, I92I.

Suzuki, D . T . , A B r i e f H istortr o f E a r ly C h in ese P h i lo s o p h y .

2nd e d i t i o n . P r o b s t h a i n and C o ., London, I924.

Tsuda, R e l a t i o n s Be t w e e n C o n f u c i a n i s t s a n d T a o i s t s . T r a n s ,

f r o m t h e J a p a n e s e by L i Chi H uang. The C o m m e r c ia l

Press, Shanghai, I926.

W illiam s, S . W . , Th e M i ddl e K in g d o m . R e v i s e d e d i t i o n . C.

S c r i b n e r ’s S o n s , N .Y ., I 883.
 197

II. REFERENCES ON SPECIFIC FIELDS

I. C h i n e s e B u dd hism

So u r c e s

B u dd hlst-M ah a ya n a T e x t s . T r a n s l a t i o n from the S a n s k r i t .

The C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , O xford, I 894. ("The S a c r e d B o o k s

o f t h e E a s t . " V o l. XLIX).

The G o s p e l o f Buddha a c c o r d i n g t o O ld R e c o r d s . T o ld by

Paul C a m s. 15th P r i n t i n g . The Open C o u r t P u b . C o.,

C h icago. 1894.

N a n j 1 o , B u n y i n , Ca t a l o gu e o f t h e C h i n e s e Tr a n s i a t i o n s o f

Bu d d h i s t T r i n i t a k a . The C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , O xford, 1883.

T r i n i taka-Ami ta y u h -S u t r a . T r a n s l a t e d from the C h in e s e

V e r s io n o f X um arajiva by N ishu U t s u k i. K yoto, Japan.

1924.

Se c o n d a r y A u t h o r i t i e s

A rm strong, R .C ., Bu d d h i s m a n d B u d d h i s t in Japan. The Mac­

m illa n C o .. N .Y ., 1927.

B eal, S a m u e l , B u d d h i sm i n C h i n a . P u b l i s h e d b y t h e S o c i e t y

f o r P ro m o tin g C h r i s t i a n K nowledge, London, I884.

_________ , A C a t e n a o f B u d d h i s t S c r i p t u r e s f r o m t h e C h i n e s e .

Trubner and C o ., London, I87I.

Sd kin s, J ., C h i n e s e B.udd h i s m . K. P a u l , Trench, T r u b n e r and

C o., London, 18 9 3 »
 198

E lio t, C h arles, H i n d u i s m and B u d d h i s m . 4 v o ls. E t ward

A rn o ld and C o ., London, I 921

F a-H ien, A R e c o r d o f Buddh i s t K i n g d o m s. Tran, b y J . L e g g e .

The Clarendon P r e s s , L on do n , I886.

A
H a ll, M.P. , Th e N o b l e E i g h t f o l d P a t h , the D o c tr in e o f

Pharma . H a l l P u b . C o . , Los A n g e l e s , 192$.

Hearn, L . , G1 e a r n in g s i n B u d d h a - f i e l d s . H . M i f f l i n a n d C o . ,

N .Y ., 1897.

Johnston, R .F ., B u d d h i s t C h i n a . John M u r ra y , A l b e m a r l e

St. W ., L o n d o n , I 9 I3 .

La V a l l i e , P .L ., The Way t o N i r v a n a . The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

Cam bridge, 1917*

Lu, Ching, A BrefiV S t u d y o f B u d d h i s t i c L i t e r a t u r e . C h in ese

e d itio n . The C o m m e r c ia l P r e s s , Shanghai, I926.

Satom i, K ., Japanese C i v i l i z a t i o n . D u t t o n & Company, N . Y . ,

1924.

Starr, F . , Korean Buddhism . The M a r s h a l l Jones C o ., B oston,

1918.

T achibana, S. , Th e E t h i c s o f Budd h i s m . The O x f o r d U n i v .

Press, London, I926.

2. Taoism

So u r c e s
Canon o f R e a s o n a n d V i r t u e . T r a n s l a t e d b y P a u l C a m s w i t h

c o m m e n ts and a l t e r n a t i v e r e a d i n g s . The Open C o u r t P u b .

C o., C h icago, I913*

 199

Chu a n g Tzu: The M u s l n g s o f a C h i n e s e M y s t i c . T r a n , b y H . A.

G i l e s . K e l l y and W a l s h , L td ., Shanghai, 1926.

L a o t z e * s S i m p l e Way. A new t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Tao Teh C h i n g

w i t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d c o m m e n t a r y b y W. J . O l d . H ider

and C o ., London, I9%3*

L a o t z e ’s Tao a n d Wu Wei . T r a n s l a t e d b y D. Goddarfltd; an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b y H. B o r e l , t r a n s l a t e d by M .E .R ey n o ld s.

B r e n t a n o ’s C o ., H .Y ., I919*
Secondary A u th o r!ties

B o r e l, H en ri, Th e Rhythms o f L i f e , b a s e d on t h e P h l l o s o n h y

o f L a o t z e . T r a n s la te d by M .E .R eyn old s. N .Y .B u tton & C o.,

N.Y . , 1 9 2 1 .

D ou glas, R . K . , Taoism and C onfuc i a n i s m . P u b lis h e d by the

London S o c i e t y f o r P r o m o t i n g C h r i s t i a n K n o w l e d g e , 191I.

H astin gs, James, Th e B n c y c l o n a e d i a o f R e l i g i o n a n d E t h i c s .

V ol. X II. C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s and C o . , N .Y ., I922.

M artin, A . W . , Co n f u c i u s a n d L a o t z e . H a r p e r , B r o t h e r s C o . ,

N .Y ., 1880.

Tao ^ e i Hu, "TheTChinese V e r s i o n o f t h e Law o f N a t u r e , "

Int. Journal of E th ic s . XXXVIII ( C c t . 1 9 2 7 ) 27 f f .

3 . C on fucian ism

So u r c e s

The A n a l e c t s o f C o n f u c i u s . The C o m m e r c ia l P r e s s , Shanghai,

The D o c t r i n e o f t h e Mean. The C o m m e r c ia l P r e s s , Shanghai.
 200

The G r e a t L e a r n i n g . The C o m m e rc ia l P r e s s , Shanghai.

Heo C h i n g , "The Book o f F i l i a l P i e t y . " The Com. P r e s s ,

S h angh ai.

Li K i, "The Book o f C e r e m o n i e s . " The Com. P r e s s . Shanghai.

The M e n c i u s . The C o m m e r c ia l P r e s s , S h angh ai.

The V/orks o f Moh Ti h . C om piled by t h e Com. P r e s s , Shanghai.

The Wor k s o f S e u n t z e . Com piled by t h e Com. P r e s s , Shanghai.

Shi Ching, "The Book o f P o e t y . " The Com. P r e s s , Shanghai.

Shu Chi n g . "The Book o f H i s t o r y . " The Com. P r e s s . Shanghai.

S o r i n g a n d Autiomn. The Com. P r e s s . Shanghai.

The Wo r k s o f Y a n g t z e . C o m p i l e d b y t h e Com. P r e s s , Shanghai.

The P h i l o s o p h y o f Wang Y a n g - m i n g . T r a n s l a t e d from th e

C h i n e s e b y P. G . H e n k e . The Open C o u r t P u b . C o.. C hicago,

1916.

Se c o n d a r y A u t h o r i t i e s

A lexander, G .G ., Co n f u c i u s , t h e G r e a t T e a c h e r . K. P a u l and

C o., London, I 8 9 O.

Chen H u a n - C h a n g , Th e E c o n o m i c P r i n c i p l e s o f C o n f u c i u s and

h i s S c h o o l . L on g m a n s, G re en , and C o ., N.Y. , I9II.

D aw so n , M.M., Th e E t h i c s o f C o n f u c i u s . G .P , P u t n a m ’ s S o n s

& C o . , N.Y . , 1 9 1 5 .

Faber, E ., D igest of t h e D o c t r i n e s o f Co n f u c i u s . H o n g k o n g .

1975.
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G iles, H .A ., Co n f u c i a n i s m and I t s R i v a l s . C. S c r i b n e r ’s

Sons and C o .. N . Y . , 1915*

Ha s t i n g s . Jame s , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f Re l i g i o n an d E t h i c s .

V ol. IV . C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ’s Sons & C o .. N .Y ., 1922.

Legge. J am e s , The L i T e a nd T e a c h i n g s o f C o n f u c i u s . 5th

ed itio n . N .T rubner & C o., London, 1 877*

_____________ , Th e L i f e a n d Works o f M e n c i u s , w ith E ssays

a nd N o t e s . L i p p i n c o t t a n d - C o . , P h i l a . , 1875*

III. GENERAL WORKS REFERRED TO IN THESIS

A r isto tle , Th e N i c o m a c h e a n E t h i c s . C h a s e ’s t r a n s l a t i o n ,

new ly r e v i s e d . W alter S c o t t P ub. C o ., London.

B erg sb n y _Henri, Cr e a t i v e E v o l u t i o n . T r a n s la t e d by Arthur

M i t c h e l l . H. H o l t an d C o . , N .Y .. 19I I .

Bown e, B .P ., Me t a p h v s i c s . A m e r i c a n Book C o . , N .Y ,, i 9 IQ.

C a r r , W i l d o n , A T h e o r y o f Mon a d s . The Macm.i 11 an Company.

London. I9 2 2 .

Eucken, R. , Li f e ’s B a s i s a n d L i f e ’s I d e a l . 2nd e d i t i o n .

T r a n s la t e d by A .J .W id g e r y . C .B lack & C o ., London, I918.

Dewey, John, E x p e r i e n c e a nd N a t u r e . The Open C o u r t Pub. C o.,

C hicago, 1926.

H egel, F . Ph i l o s o p h y o f H is t o r y . T ra n sla ted by J .S ib r e e .

B o h n ’s L i b r a r y , London, I 8 6 O.

H ock in g, W .E ., Human N a t u r e a n d I t s R e m a k i n g . The Y a l e U n i v .

Press, Boston, 1023.

V,
 202

K ey serlin g , H ., Th e Tr a v e l D i a r y o f a Ph i l o s o p h e r . T ran slated

by J.H . R eece. H arcourt, B r a c e and C o . , N .Y ., I 925.

Paul sen. P ., In tr o d u ction to P h i lo s o p h y . T r a n s la t e d by F.

T h illy . H en ry H o l t a n d C o . . N.Y., I924.

_________ , A S y s t e m o f E t h i c s . T r a n s l a t e d by F. T h illy .

C. S c r i b n e r ’s S o n s a n d C o . , N . Y . , 1899*

Perry, R. B . , A G e n e r a l T h e o r y o f V a l u e ; i t s Me a n i n g and

Ba s i c P r i n c i p l e s c o n s t r u e d i n terms o f I n t e r e s t .

L on g m a n s, Green, and C o ., N . Y . , I926.

R adhakrishnan. S ., I n d i a n P hi l o s o p h y . 2 v o ls. The M a c m i l l a n

Company, L o n d o n , I922.

R oss, E . , Pr i n c i p l e s o f Soci o lo g y . Rev. ed itio n . The C e n t u r y

Company, N . Y . , 1 9 2 0 .

___ , S o c i a l C on trol. The M a c m i l l a n Company, N .Y .,

I 9 IO.

R u ssell, B . , Wh y Men F i g h t . The C e n t u r y Co. , N . Y . , I 9 1 7 ,

S ch iller, F .C .S ., Stu d ies i n H um anism . The M a c m i l l a n Company,

London, 1907-

S p e n c e r , H . , Fi r s t P r i n c i p l e s . D. A p p l e t o n a n d C o . , N .Y .,

1896.

________, Pr i n c i p l e s o f B i o l o g y . Rev. ed itio n . D. A p p l e t o n

a n d Company, N . Y . , 18 9 6 .

Sp en gler, 0 ., The De c l i n e of the W est. T r a n s la t io n w ith

n o t e s b y C. F . A t k i n s o n . A . A . K n o p f and C o . , N .Y . , I 9 2 6 .
 203

Schopenhauer, A ,, Th e W orld a s W i l l a nd I d e a . V o l . I. Tran,

f r o m t h e German b y R . B . H a l d a n e a n d K.Kemp. K. P a u l ,

T. T r u b n e r and C o . , L on don , I 9 OO.

Spinoza, Et h i c s . Tran, f r o m t h e L a t i n b y W.H. W h i l t e ; rev.

b y A. H. S tirlin g . Duckworth and C o . , London, 18 9 9 *

Tagore, R ab in dranath , Person alit v . The M a c m i l l a n C o . ,

N .Y ., I917.

T ylor, E . , P r im itiv e C u ltu re. V o l.I. John M u r r a r y and C o . ,

London, I 87I .

Ward, L . E . , Pure S o c i o l o g y . The M a c m i l l a n Company,

N .Y .. 1916.
 18?

to t h e i r hom eland, at lea st to be b u r ie d . T h i s among o t h e r

factors cau sed th e C h in ese p e o p le to be i n d u s t r i a l l y un­

se ttle d i n o t h e r l a n d s and to be o v e r p o p u l a t e d i n t h e home

country.

The p a t e r n a l system o f C h in ese s o c ie t y a lso brought

about the s u b ju g a t io n o f the fe m a le s e x and th e p r e v a l e n c e

of s u p e r s t it io n s . I n C h in a e v e r y f a m i l y d e s i r e s a s o n t o

con tin u e the f a m ily l i n e . The d a u g h t e r i s not counted as

a real quota of it. L aotze, C on fu ciu s, and o t h e r C h in e s e

t e a c h e r s l o o k e d upon women a s In ferio rs, good f o r n o t h in g

except as agents to bear a son. The h i g h e s t id eal for

a m a r r i e d woman t h e n i s to g i v e a son t o h e r h u sb a n d . T h is

id eal is u p h e l d so in ten sely t h a t a woman, in order to b e a r

a son, not a daughter, is a lw a y s r ea d y to c o n s u l t f o r t u n e

teller s and o l d sorceresses. In t h i s way m o s t o f C h i n e s e

s u p e r s t i t i o n and i d o l a t r y is c r e a t e d b y women.

In w h a t f o l l o w s a f e w o f the deeper c u l t u r a l conse­

quences of the f a m ily system a s the b a s i s o f C hinese

c iv iliz a tio n w ill be p o i n t e d o u t . When t h e p r i m a c y o f a

fa m ily l i f e is overem phasized, a m a ter ia listic co n sid era tio n

is a lw a y s dom inant. I m a g i n a t i v e and m e t a p h y s i c a l q u a lities

o f m i n d do n o t a c c o r d w i t h a h e a v y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to support

a la r g e fa m ily . C reative a c t i v i t y o f mind i s n o t e a s i l y

op erative in the enjoym ent o f f a m ily l i f e . C o n seq u en tly the

 188

C h in ese t h i n k e r s su ch a s C o n f u c iu s and M encius u s u a l l y

adhere to the t h i n g s a c t u a l an d common s e n s e . T h e s e men

are the p lo d d in g u t i l i t a r i a n s who i n s i s t that eith er th is

w orld i s in ten sely real a n d n e e d s no e x p l a n a t i o n or t h i s

w orld i s in te n se ly p ain fu l and n e e d s to he n e g a t e d f o r a

w o r l d o f wu w e i or n o n - a c t i o n . The C o n f u c i a n s c h o o l re­

p r e s e n t s the form er a t t i t u d e w h ile the T a o is t school teaches

the l a t t e r . D o m e s t i c and s o c i a l usages stand fo r a l l th in gs,

scien ce, p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o n . The C h i n e s e c u l t u r e is

t h o r o u g h l y d o m e s t i c and m a t e r i a l i s t i c .

The e a s y a s s u m p t i o n b y C h i n e s e th in k ers of t h e cosmo­

lo g ica l p rin cip les sh o w s how i n c a p a b l e they are of transcend­

in g the s p h e r e o f common s e n s e a n d t h e o r g a n i c h a b i t s o f

fa m ily l i f e . T h ey s i m p l y a s s u m e th a t the w orld h a s a s e l f ­

sh apin g fo r c e s u c h a s Tao a n d t h a t t h e f i r s t man m u s t h a v e

fash ion ed the w o r l d - s t u f f w i t h a hammer and c h i s e l , h im self

and h i s to o ls b ein g alread y a part of i t . T heir s p e c u la t io n

alw ays h o ld s f a s t to the a c t u a l and c o n c r e t e . They t a k e

t h e human f o r the d iv in e , and t h e p o s i t i v e v isib le work f o r

the b e s t p a r t o f t h e human. I n t h i s way t h e y f a i l to r i s e

from th e f o r m a lis m o f e t h i c a l ru les to the freedom o f a b s t r a c t

id ea s.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , the h i g h e s t e l e m e n t i n man i s h i s

a b ility to s e i z e h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and m o l d i t in to form s

 189

a s he w i s h e s . T h is power over m a t t e r i s effectiv e when o n e

tran scen ds th e m a t e r i a l by means o f th o u g h t or i n t e l l e c t .

T ran scendentalism in th is sense isnot o n ly u s e f u l but

The
n e c e ssa r y fo r the l i f e o f a c t i v i t y .^M ind w h i c h n e v e r l e a r n s

to t r a n s c e n d th e im m ed iate o b j e c t s in l i f e w ill p aralyze

i t s e l f by i t s own i m p o t e n c y and t h e o b s t i n a c y o f the m a te r ia l

ob jects. The a c t of in stru m en ta lizin g t h e o b s t i n a t e and s o l i d

m a t t e r means th e l i b e r a t i o n o f m in d -en ergy .

The i n c a p a c i t y o f t h e C h in e s e mind t o s t a n d a p a r t from

the co n crete l i f e of a fa m ily r e s u lte d in i t s state of con­

s e r v a t i s m and im m a tu r ity o f c u l t u r e . It is a ll t h e more

natural that th e C h in ese f a m i ly i s the c e n tr e o f C h in ese

c o n s e r v â t ! sm. The f a m i l y is the p la c e where t h e o l d ways

a r e h o n o r e d and p r a c t i c e d . H ere C o n f u c i u s e x p l i c i t l y says

that "to f o l l o w t h e ways o f a f a t h e r a t l e a s t three years

may b e c a l l e d f i l i a l . " T h is c o n se r v a tism tends to e f f e c t

th e im m a tu rity o f m ind.

Im m aturity i s in c lin ed to th e sid e o f n e g a t i o n and

su b m ission . T h is i s t h e m a i n r e a s o n why t h e . C h d n e s e c o n ­

s i d e r s ob ed ien ce as the r o o t of fa m ily v i r t u e . The n a t u r a l

in clin a tio n of a c h ild to obey i t s eld ers is due to h i s

in ca p a city to see th in gs as h is eld ers s e e them. But there

are t h r e e main fo r m s o f o b e d i e n c e : that of a su b ject toward

 190

h is sovereign , that of th e son toward h i s f a t h e r , and t h a t

of a w ife toward her husband. What a r e c a l l e d the f i v e

etern al id e a ls o r wu s a n g : h u m a n e n e s s , u p righ tn ess, p rop riety,

in sig h t, and f a i t h , a r e a l s o b a s e d upon t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

ch ild ob ed ien ce. C on fu ciu s ask s : " F i l i a l p i e t y and f r a t e r n a l

su b m issio n -- are they not the r o o t of a ll b en evolen t a c tio n s? " !

T h is i d e a l of obedience c r e a te s u n i f o r m i t y and r o u t i n e .

It resu lts i n d e a d m o n o t o n y and f o r m a l i s m . Throughout th e

thousand p a g e s o f C h in ese h i s t o r y , n oth in g i s w r i t t e n which

i s new and s t i r r i n g . No i r r e g u l a r i t y of surface is found, for

there i s no f r e e id eal and a c t i v i t y . A ll i s bound e t e r n a l l y

to th e r i g i d i t y o f c o n c r e te form s. The Ch u n g - Y u n g o r t h e

m achine-1 ik e smooth p a t h i s t h e h i g h e s t C h i n e s e w isd o m . We

m eet th is id ea l everywhere in p o l i t i c s , in e t h i c s , an d i n

r elig io n . The "Mean" i s a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e and p e r p e t u a l

harm ony o f two o p p o s i n g p o l e s , the n ot-too-m u ch o f e it h e r .

To d e f i n e t h i s mean, th e h o r d e o f p e t t y m axims, of m in u tely

m easured v i r t u e s , anti th e tic a lly set and s q u a r e d i n p e d a g o g i c

form u las, was n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e f o r m u l a s h a v e made up t h e

en tire e d u c a t i o n a l program in a l l the p a st thousand y e a r s

o f C h i n a ’s e x i s t e n c e . These are n ev er to be s e i z e d w ith

fre ed o m or e n t h u s i a s m , but fo llo w e d as the p e r f e c t p r e s -

i C f . A n a le c ts. I, 2,
 191

c r ip tio n for secu rin g the b l i s s o f e q u i l i b r i u m and l e v e l

in th e elem en ts of l i f e . B o t h L a o t z e and C o n f u c i u s taught

th is id ea of a p e a c e fu l m id d le path as the e sse n c e of

t h e i r moral teach in gs. E v e r y th in g C h in ese i s d e f i n e d and

p r e s c r i b e d by t h i s id ea l of b alan ce. Personal w ill an d

p u b lic purpose are a l l suppressed in d eferen ce to th is

lev e lin g id e a l.!

The f o l l o w i n g f e w q u o t a t i o n s o f C o n f u c i u s and M e n c i u s

w ill show how i m p o r t a n t the e q u ilib r iu m o r t h e mean o f

th in gs is i n human a f f a i r s . C on fuciu s says: E q u ilib riu m is

t h e g r e a t r o o t o f human a c t i o n , an d ha rm o ny t h e u n i v e r s a l

path t h a t human f e e l i n g s should pursue. Then h e a v e n and

e a r th are in happy o rd er, a nd a l l th in gs w ill prosp er.

Man b e c o m e s g r e a t b y f o l l o w i n g it. The g r e a t k i n g Shun

" t o o k h o l d o f t h e two e x t r e m e s i n men ; d e t e r m i n e d t h e m ea n ,

a nd e m p l o y e d i t in h i s government o f the p e o p le . It was b y

th is t h a t h e was S h u n . "3 M e n c i u s a l s o says: "The r e a s o n I

h a t e h o ld in g to one p o i n t is that i t d is r e g a r d s a hundred

o t h e r p r i n c i p l e s . "4

We h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d i n C h a p t e r V I I I that^um an

w ill does not ten d to r e s t in eq u ilib riu m as i t s g o a l. The

I C f . A n a l e c t s . IX . X I .
2 C f . Th e Do c t r i n e o f t h e M e a n . I , 4-5*
3 I b i d . , VI;' A n a l e c t s . X I . 1 5 5
4 C f . Sa y i n g s o f M e n c i u s . V I I , p t . I, 26.
 192

source of l i f e , in f a c t , lie s in the u p s e t t in g o f th e o ld

e q u i1 ibriu m . I n v e n t i o n an d d i s c o v e r i e s a r e th e c h i e f means

o f d e s tr o y in g the s o - c a l l e d mean. Even t h e p r o c e s s o f p u t ­

tin g these i r r e g u la r i t ie s in to u n iversal a c c e p ta n c e can not

be c a l l e d the f u n c t i o n o f e q u ilib r iu m , for the p r o c e ss of

p ropagation i t s e l f w ill lead to fu r th e r irreg u la rities of

ne w i n v e n t i o n a n d d i s c o v e r y . B u t what C o n f u c i u s a n d M e n c i u s

m e a n t b y t h e Mean o r e q u i l i b r i u m was t h e b r i n g i n g b a c k o f

t h e new i r r e g u l a r i t i e s to th e o ld stan dard o f v a lu e s , w hich

is ob viou sly a r e g r e ssio n . "To f o l l o w t h e ways o f t h e a n c i e n t s

is an e x c e l l e n t q u a lity ," c o n c lu d e s C on fu ciu s.

The human i m p u l s e i s o r i g i n a l l y a » th r u s tin g out energy,

w hich i m p l i e s a c o n s t a n t b r e a k i n g o f t h e eq u ilib riu m a lrea d y

esta b lish ed . T h is v i o l a t i n g tendency i s the sou rce o f im agin ­

a t i o n and l o v e o f a d v e n t u r e , w it h o u t which so ciety soon b e ­

c o m e s s t a g n a n t and d e c a d e n t . Thus, c o n flic t and c o m p e t i t i o n ,

provid ed they are not d e s t r u c t i v e and b r u t a l , are n e c e s s a r y

in order to s t i m u l a t e m e n ’s a c t i v i t i e s , and t o secu re the

v icto ry o f what i s liv in g o v e r w h at i s dead or m e r e ly t r a d i ­

t i o n a l . 1 Again, in su ch an i d e a l c o n flic t v irtu e of so cia l

so lid a r ity and l o v e o f o n e ’s n eig h b o r s p r in g , and a s e n s e

o f u n i t y and l o y a l t y is common ly g e n e r a t e d . T h is s t a t e of

IC f. B .R u ssell, Why Men F i g h t ? . 9 7 .

 193

th in gs i s w ell-n ig h im p ossib le in such a s o c i e t y a s the

C h i n e s e w h er e n e p o t i s m r u l e s supreme.

In c o n c iu d in g , we may r e m a r k t h a t the c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f C h in ese e t h i c a l w isd om i s the te a c h in g t h a t t h e human

goal, whether i t be h a p p in e s s or p e r f e c t i o n , can be r e a c h e d

b y n e g a t i o n and r e s t r i c t i o n o f a l l human f a c u l t i e s from

ex ercise. T h is i s the irect op p osite o f W estern e t h i c s

w hich f o l l o w i n g t h e e a r l y Greeks t e a c h e s th a t the h i g h e s t

goal of l i f e co n sists in the p e r f e c t ex ercise o f a l l human

fa c u ltie s. The C h i n e s e s e e i n g t h a t man b y n a t u r e i s o rig in a lly

g o o d and v i r t u o u s endeavours to r e tu r n to that o r ig in a l nature,

w h e r e a s t h e W e s t e r n e r k n o w i n g t h a t man i s so m e th in g to be

r & a d e g o e s on t o d e v e l o p the b e s t that is p o ssib le i n man.

B u d d h i s m and T a o i s m p r e a c h e d t o t h e C h i n e s e the n e g a t i v is m

of the w ill to l i v e , and C o n f u c i a n i s m s u p p l ie d a m ethod o f

cerem onialism to th is p rocess of n egation . Thus t h e three

great eth ica l system s of th e C h in e s e a r e u n i t e d i n one

g i g a n t i c program o f n e g a t i o n . i - - to r ea c h a s t a t e o f non­

action or e q u ilib r ita m . T h i s work b e g a n f r o m t h e l i f e of

the f a m i ly w h ich, a s we h a v e shown i n the p r e se n t chapter,

form s the b a s i s o f C h in ese c iv iliz a tio n .

 194

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I. C h i n e s e B u dd hism

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