Running head: BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK

Bullying Roles and Suicide across Four Years: A Proposal

Martha Nowacki

Loras College
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 2

Abstract

There have been multiple research studies conducted that have looked at the relationship

between suicide and bullying and these studies have continued to add to our understanding of

this connection. However, there has been a lack of research conducted in which examines the

relationship longitudinally. Therefore, this study will propose to look at how bullying roles effect

adolescents’ suicide risk across the four years of high school. Approximately 500-600 students

will be collected as they enter their freshman year, and will be studied each year until they

graduate. This will be a quasi-experimental study that uses both between and within subject

designs. Participants will take two surveys concerning bullying roles and suicide, and data will

be collected based on the results of these surveys. It is expected that victims will be at an

increased risk for suicide compared to perpetrators and witnesses as the four years pass. Further

research should look to examine a number of schools, cross-cultural implications, and minority

students’ situations.
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 3

Bullying Roles and Suicide across Four Years: A Proposal

Suicide is one of society’s most concerning public health problems. For youth

specifically, suicide is the third leading cause of death in the United States (Bauman, Toomey, &

Walker, 2013; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Kodish et al., 2016, and

Sampasa-Kanyinga, Roumeliotis, & Xu, 2014). Depression is the most common risk factor

associated with suicide, however only 20-60% of youth who are suicidal report clinical

symptoms of depression. This raises awareness, because this must mean that there are other risk

factors associated with suicide besides depression alone (Kodish et al, 2016). Bullying, another

serious public health concern, with international prevalence rates ranging from 9-54%, has been

seen to be correlated with suicide, described in previous literature (Bauman et al., 2013; Henry et

al, 2014; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Kodish et al., 2016, and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). This

topic is important and should be discussed, because since suicide is the third leading cause of

death for youth, research must be conducted in order to test what prompts this unfortunate

outcome (Bauman et al., 2013; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008, and Kodish et

al., 2016).

Before discussing the research and findings associated with bullying and suicide, it seems

appropriate to define and distinguish between traditional bullying and cyberbullying, since both

are closely related yet different. Bullying is described in most research studies to have several

key characteristics, including the fact that the behavior is aggressive, repeated, intentional, and

that a power imbalance exists between the individuals involved (Bauman et al., Dooley,

Pyzalski, & Cross, 2009; 2013; Henry et al., 2014; Hinduja & Patchin, 2010; Kodish et al., 2016,

and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). Cyberbullying, in simple terms, is defined as aggressive

behavior that is exerted using various types of technological devices (Bauman et al., 2013).
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 4

Cyberbullying enables anonymity for the perpetrator, it can happen anytime of the day due to the

popularity of technology use, the audience can be limitless, and the victim has an inability to

control the situation (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010 and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). Like

traditional forms of bullying, cyberbullying is intentional, repeated, and includes somewhat of a

power differential (Dooley et al., 2009).

A review on cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying, conducted by Dooley and

colleagues (2009), looked at defining characteristics of both traditional and cyberbullying

extensively. One of the conclusions that this review came to was that repetition is necessary, but

repetition does not always mean the repeating of aggressive behavior by the bully. Repetition can

come from repeated feelings of humiliation by the victim. In other words, while the specific

aggressive behavior is not repeated, the damage that is caused by the interaction is shown

through the ongoing humiliation that a victim must face. The review also concluded that the

aspect of “power differential” in cyberbullying can be portrayed through a perpetrator’s

advanced technological skills and that the perpetrator can continue to bully the victim throughout

the day, unlike traditional bullying. As a result, the victim may often feel powerless and unable

to control the situation. Also, the fact that the bully can be anonymous may lead the victim to

feel even more powerless (Dooley et al., 2009).

In moving on to research and findings specific between bullying and suicide, the first

component examined is the different types of bullying, being traditional (which may include

verbal or physical bullying), and cyberbullying, and their frequent relation to suicidal behavior.

Overall, it was found that bullying, being both traditional and cyber, were related to an increased

risk for suicidal behavior (Bauman et al., 2013; Henry et al., 2014; Hepburn, Azrael, Molnar, &

Miller, 2012; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Klomek et al., 2007; Kodish et
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 5

al., 2016; Rivers & Noret, 2010, and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). Some of the findings,

based on specific studies, concluded that high school students’ experiences with both traditional

bullying and cyberbullying were correlated with suicidal behavior (Bauman et al., 2013),

students involved in bullying behavior in or outside of school were at a higher risk for serious

suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (Klomek et al., 2007), and even more interesting was that

bullying’s relationship to suicidality was examined in 37 studies conducted in different countries

(Kim & Leventhal, 2008), pointing to a cross-cultural implication.

A more recent study’s results were surprising in looking at the relationship between

bullying forms and suicide, in that youth who reported a history of verbal bullying, were 1.5

times more likely to report having attempted suicide. In this study, Kodish and colleagues (2016)

received data from 10 primary care offices in which youth patients completed a screening on an

electronic device. This screening, called the BHS (Behavioral Health Screen), identified at risk

youth and included questions pertaining to bullying, depression, and suicide risk and attempt.

The results concluded that all types of bullying were associated with high levels of suicide risk.

Specifically, verbal, physical, and cyberbullying were related to suicide risk severity, in that as

bullying increased so did the suicidal symptoms. It was also concluded that verbal bullying was

the only form of bullying that was related to suicide attempt (Kodish et al., 2016).

After discussing results from the various studies regarding forms of bullying and suicide

risk, research that examined the various roles of bullying and their relationship to suicidal

behavior will be discussed next in order to look even deeper into this correlation. General

conclusions, based on a few of the studies, explained that traditional bullying and cyberbullying

victimization was associated with a higher risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors than that of

traditional bullying and cyberbullying offending (Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010), traditional bullying
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 6

victims were 1.7 times more likely and cyberbullying victims were 1.9 times more likely to have

attempted suicide than those who were not victims (Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010), and plans,

attempts, and ideation pertaining to suicide were correlated with both forms of bullying

(Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). Also in a review, conducted by Kim and Leventhal (2008), in

12 studies that they reviewed, it was reported that increased risks of suicidal ideation were

associated with victims of bullying.

Victims were not the only individuals to be seen as associated with higher risks of

suicidal behavior. Studies also concluded that bullies were at a higher risk for suicidal ideation

and attempts (Klomek et al., 2007), bully-victims were some of the most disturbed of the roles

(Klomek et al., 2007), traditional bullying offenders were 2.1 times more likely and

cyberbullying offenders were 1.5 times more likely to have attempted suicide than those who

were not offenders (Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010). Also, eight studies examined by a review reported

bullying perpetrators with an increased risk of suicidal ideation as well as victim-perpetrators

being at the highest risk for suicidal behaviors in both general populations of youth and youth

with special needs (Kim & Leventhal, 2008).

Specifically, two studies directly looked at participant roles in bullying and their

relationship to suicide behavior risks. In the first study conducted by Hepburn and colleagues

(2012), 1,838 high schoolers were given a self-report survey regarding health-related behaviors.

Bullying perpetration and victimization along with suicidal behavior were analyzed within this

survey through various questions. Results concluded that involvement in bullying as a

perpetrator, victim, or victim- perpetrator, increased the risk of considering suicide. Also, being a

victim or victim-perpetrator was associated with a higher risk of suicide attempts. Overall, it was
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 7

demonstrated that victim-perpetrators were at the highest risk for self-harming behavior

(Hepburn et al., 2012).

In a study conducted by Rivers and Noret (2010), 2,002 students were given a survey

which included a 15-item anti-bullying inventory, in order to assess bullying, a brief symptom

inventory, in order to assess thoughts of ending one’s life, and a common student concerns

questionnaire, in order to assess concerns and worries that were of interest to the researchers

(drugs, alcohol, family issues, etc.). Based on this survey, the results concluded that students who

had multiple roles in bullying were more likely to report having had thoughts of ending their

lives than those involved in only one role or those not involved in any type of bullying behavior.

Also it was concluded that bully-victims were more likely to report thoughts of ending their lives

compared to those with no involvement in any type of bullying behavior (Rivers and Noret,

2010).

Besides bullying forms and participant roles and their relationships to suicidal behavior in

youth, a third theme was also prevalent within the previous literature. In the literature that was

analyzed, factors such as depression, gender, and meaning in life have either mediated the

association between bullying and suicide or were simply related to the association in some way

(Bauman et al., 2013; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Henry et al., 2014; Kim & Leventhal, 2008;

Klomek et al., 2007; Kodish et al., 2016; Rivers & Noret, 2010, and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al.,

2014). According to Hinjuda and Patchin (2010), it is unlikely that the experience of

cyberbullying solely leads youth to engage in suicidal behavior. Yes, this specifically points to

cyberbullying, but it is believed that both traditional bullying and cyberbullying both do not, by

themselves, lead to youth suicidal behavior.

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 8

The first factor that mediated the relationship between bullying and suicidal behavior was

depression. It was concluded across many studies that bullying was more strongly associated

with severe suicidal behavior for youth who reported more depressive symptoms (Kodish et al.,

2016), depression being linked to social and emotional problems may be the cause of increased

suicide risk in bullied youth (Kodish et al., 2016), depression mediated the relationship between

cyberbullying victimization and suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts (Sampasa-Kanyinga et al.,

2014), and depression mediated the relationship between traditional school bullying and suicide

attempts (Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014). Specifically, in a study conducted by Klomek and

colleagues (2007), youths between the ages of 13-19, belonging to 6 different high schools, were

given a self-report questionnaire which assessed depression, suicidal ideation and attempts, in

addition to involvement in bullying participation. It was concluded that depression was a factor

that was associated in the relationship between severe suicidal ideation and attempts and

victimization of bullying. Higher exposures of victimization or perpetration of bullying were

related to a higher risk for depression and suicidal behaviors (Klomek et al., 2007).

The second factor related to the association between bullying and suicidal behavior for

youths was gender. It was concluded among studies that girls were more likely to report suicidal

ideation and planning than boys were (Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014), cyberbullying

perpetration was a direct risk for suicide attempts for boys only (Bauman et al., 2013),

cyberbullying victimization was strongly linked to depression which in turn was related to

suicide attempts for girls (Bauman et al., 2013), girls who were both victims and bystanders of

bullying were more likely to experience thoughts of ending their lives or death and dying more

than students who were not involved in bullying or those who were bystanders only (Rivers &

Noret, 2010), victims who were girls were at a greater risk for suicidal ideation than boy victims
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 9

(Kim & Leventhal, 2008), and it was reported that there was a higher risk for suicidal ideation in

perpetrators who were girls than those who were boys (Kim & Leventhal, 2008).

The last factor that had a role in the association between bullying and suicidal behavior

was meaning in life. In a study conducted by Henry et al. (2014), the researchers wanted to

assess whether meaning in life had a role in the bullying-suicide risk relationship because

meaning in life refers to individual’s beliefs that their lives are reasonable, make sense, and are

purposeful. Within this study, data was collected from 2,936 youth between grades 6-12. The

data was collected via an online survey in which the participants remained anonymous. Bullying

victimization and perpetration, suicidal ideation, and meaning in life were all assessed within the

online survey. The results concluded that more frequent victimization of bullying was associated

with greater suicidal ideation, a stronger sense of meaning in life was negatively correlated with

victimization and suicidal ideation, meaning in life did mediate but did not moderate between the

bullying-suicide risk relationship, bullying victimization was associated with weaker meaning in

life, and weaker meaning in life was associated with suicidal ideation (Henry et al., 2014).

Overall, across the research that was reviewed, some of the major findings suggested that

bullying, being both traditional and cyber, was related to an increased risk for suicidal behavior,

students who had multiple roles in bullying were more likely to report having had thoughts of

ending their lives than those involved in only one role or those not involved in bullying behavior,

bullying was more strongly associated with severe suicidal behavior for youth who reported

more depressive symptoms, and gender was a significant variable relating to the relationship

between bullying and suicide behavior risk (Bauman et al., 2013; Henry et al., 2014; Hepburn,

Azrael, Molnar, & Miller, 2012; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Klomek et

al., 2007; Kodish et al., 2016; Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014, and Rivers & Noret, 2010).
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 10

In looking at each of these articles, being studies and literature reviews, it is obvious that

the topic of bullying and its relationship to suicide has been covered at an in-depth manner.

However, research is lacking in regards to studies using longitudinal data. Specifically, eight out

of the ten articles that were reviewed made use of cross-sectional data instead, which does not

provide information on casualty but only on association (Bauman et al., 2013, Henry et al., 2014,

Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Klomek et al., 2007; Kodish et al., 2016;

Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014, and Rivers & Noret, 2010). Therefore, the present study

proposes to not only examine the longitudinal effects on bullying and suicide, but more

specifically its effect on roles in bullying (the perpetrator, the victim, and the witnesses) and their

associated risk of suicide within four years. In using a longitudinal design, it is hypothesized that

all bullying roles will have an increased risk for suicide, but specifically, victims will be at a

higher risk of suicide compared to both perpetrators and witnesses, and that the perpetrator role

will be at a higher risk for suicide than witnesses. It is also hypothesized that the risk for suicide

will increase within the four years of high school for each bullying role, but specifically, the

victim role will be at a higher risk compared to both perpetrators and witnesses, and the

perpetrator role will be at a higher risk compared to witnesses.

Method

Participants

Participants will be recruited from a Midwestern public high school located in the United

States. Approximately 500-600 students (a single class) will be recruited as they enter their

freshman year. The students will be both boys and girls, starting at age 14 and ending at age 18,

when the class reaches their final year of high school. A single high school will be randomly

selected from a community school district through the use of a simple random sample. Each
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 11

school’s name in the district will be assigned a number and a random number generator will then

be used to select one of the district schools. After randomly selecting the high school, officials of

that school will be contacted in order to see if they would be interested in partaking in this study.

If not, the random number generator will be used again until a high school is willing to partake.

After settling with one high school, the new freshman class that recently transitioned from junior

high to high school will participate, after being given consent forms.

Materials

Participants involved in the study will make use of two self-report surveys, one being

specifically tied to bullying roles and behavior and the other being tied to suicide. The first

survey, called the Olweus Bullying Questionnaire (OBQ), is a standardized, validated multiple

choice questionnaire. This questionnaire is designed to measure bullying related behaviors and

roles and includes a total of 42 questions of which 24 will be used for this study. The OBQ has

been used in several countries around the world, and the data stemming from the use of the

survey has been reported as relevant, reliable, and valid. Of the 24 questions that will be used

from the survey, they consist of situations involving each of the three roles (victim, perpetrator,

and witness). For example, one states, “other students told lies or spread false rumors about me

and tried to make others dislike me”, and the participant would either mark “hasn’t happened,”

“once or twice,” “two to three times a month,” “about once a week,” or “several times a week”.

After taking the survey, researchers will separate participants into one of three groups, being

victim, perpetrator, or witness based on the results of the questionnaire (Olweus, 1994) (See

Appendix A).

The second survey that will be used is adapted from the National Adolescent Student

Health Survey and was designed to measure student health related knowledge, attitudes, and
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 12

behaviors on several areas of importance. Expert panel members helped in designing relevant

questions for this survey, so that each area of importance was included (drugs, nutrition, suicide,

STD’s, etc.). All items on the survey have been reviewed in depth by specialists, educators, and

students in order to insure of content validity, reliability, and relevance to youth. The four

questions that will be included in this study are adapted from the suicide section on the full

survey. Questions such as “in the past month, how often have you felt sad and hopeless”, and

“have you ever tried to actually hurt yourself in a way that might result in your death”, will be

included and will be answered in a yes/no fashion. Therefore, the scale ranges from 0-4, with

higher scores representing more suicidal tendencies (NASHS, 1989) (See Appendix B).

Procedure

A quasi-experimental study using both between and within subjects will be used in order

to test the effect of bullying roles on suicide risk across four years of high school. The first

independent variable, bullying roles, consists of “victim,” “perpetrator,” and “witness.” Victims

are the ones who are bullied by others, perpetrators are the ones who bully others, and witnesses

are the ones who see students getting bullied. Bullying roles will be measured by using the

Olweus Bullying Questionnaire (Olweus, 1994). This questionnaire will be used in order to

indicate whether the students have been victimized, have witnessed, or have bullied other

students. The second independent variable will be time, in that at the end of each school year,

researchers will measure the students’ suicide risk. The dependent variable, suicide risk, meaning

if one is inclined to commit suicide or not, will be measured by using four questions from the

National Adolescent Student Health Survey (1989).

After the high school is selected and school officials agree to have their freshman class

participate in the study, an assembly will be scheduled at the middle of the freshman year in
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 13

order for the researchers to explain the very basics of the study. After explaining the parameters

of the study, researchers will send out consent forms via email to the parents and students (email

is received through school officials). If parents and their adolescents agree on being in the study,

the consent form will be signed and sent back to the researchers. When the researchers have

received between 500-600 consent forms, the researchers will send the surveys to the school, and

all teachers of freshman students will hand them out at the end of the school year. Teachers will

give each student who signed a consent form the bullying questionnaire first and then the suicide

survey. The surveys will include an ID number so that researchers can keep track of participants’

scores. When students are finished with both surveys, teachers will give the surveys to the school

official and he/she will mail the surveys back to the researchers. Researchers will then separate

students into groups (roles) based on the results of the bullying questionnaire and then will

examine the roles in association with the suicide surveys. Each school year after the students’

freshman year, the researchers will assemble participants again in order to refresh them about the

experiment. Each year after (the end of sophomore, junior, and senior year), the same

participating students will be given only the suicide surveys and will be kept in the same bullying

role, which was established their freshman year. The researchers will receive all suicide surveys

after each year and will make conclusions based on the data after the students’ senior year is

completed.

Results

A One-Way ANOVA will be conducted in order to examine the effect of bullying role on

suicide risk. There will be a significant effect of each type of bullying role on suicide risk (F(df)=

# , p<.05). Post hoc comparisons using Tukey will indicate that the mean score for the victim

role (M=#, SD=#) will be significantly higher than the perpetrator and witness roles, and that the
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 14

mean score for the perpetrator role (M=, SD=) will be significantly higher than the witness role

(M=#, SD=#). These results will imply that the role of bullying will have an effect on suicide

risk.

A Repeated-Measures ANOVA will be conducted to examine the suicide risk at the end

of freshman year and at the end of each of the following years of high school (sophomore, junior,

and senior). There will be a significant effect of bullying roles on suicide risk across the four

years of high school (Wilks’ Lambda=#, F(df)=#, p<.05). Four paired samples t-tests will then be

conducted to see what the differences will be between high school years. There will be

significantly increased suicide risk scores at the end of the sophomore year (M=#, SD=#)

compared to the end of the freshman year (M=#, SD=#). Secondly, there will be significantly

increased suicide risk scores at the end of the junior year (M=#, SD=#) compared to the

sophomore year. Lastly, there will be significantly increased suicide risk scores at the end of the

senior year (M=#, SD=#) compared to each of the other years respectively. These results will

imply that the passing of time will have a significant effect on the suicide risk for each bullying

role.

Discussion

Initially, it will be hypothesized that all bullying roles will have an increased risk for

suicide, but specifically, victims will be at a higher risk of suicide compared to both perpetrators

and witnesses. Secondly, the perpetrator role will be at a higher risk for suicide than witnesses. It

will also be hypothesized that the risk for suicide will increase within the four years of high

school for each bullying role, but specifically, the victim role will be at a higher risk compared to

both perpetrators and witnesses, and the perpetrator role will be at a higher risk compared to

witnesses. The results will find support for both hypotheses and will imply that, yes, the risk for
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 15

suicide increases as the years go by in high school for each type of bullying role, but that the

victims’ risk for suicide will be significantly greater than the risk for perpetrators and witnesses

after four years, and the perpetrators’ risk for suicide will be significantly greater than the

witness role. Also, the results will imply that between each year, the suicide risk will increase for

each bullying role, but will increase the most for the victim compared to both the perpetrator and

witness role, and that the perpetrator role will be at a higher risk compared to witnesses.

These results will be important in understanding the longitudinal effects of bullying role

on suicide risk. Based on this study, we will be able to assume which role is more severe in

suicide risk and how that risk changes as the years pass. These results will be especially

important for high school staff, family members, and mental health professionals as we continue

to grasp this tie between bullying and suicide. These results will add to others’ findings, because

many studies conducted previously have not used a longitudinal design for collecting data

(Bauman et al., 2013; Henry et al., 2014; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008;

Klomek et al., 2007; Kodish et al., 2016; Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014; and Rivers & Noret,

2010). Also, this study will complement others’ findings in understanding the specific roles of

bullying and their risks to suicide (Hepburn et al., 2012; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim &

Leventhal, 2008; Klomek et al., 2007; and Rivers & Noret, 2010). Lastly, these results will

further explain the increased suicide risk primarily among victims and secondly, among

perpetrators (Hepburn et al., 2012; Hinjuda & Patchin, 2010; Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Klomek et

al., 2007; and Sampasa-Kanyinga et al., 2014).

Limitations of this study would include methodological issues, results not being

completely due to cause/effect because of the quasi-experimental aspect, some participants

dropping out due to the lengthy time period, and the use of self-report surveys. Further studies
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 16

should aim at researching the effects of bullying on racial minorities longitudinally, including

more high schools within the study, including a greater number of students within the sample,

getting information from teachers and parents, looking at the long term health effects, looking at

this similar issue cross-culturally, and looking at being a participant in multiple roles at once and

its effect on suicidal behavior longitudinally. Despite this study’s limitations, it will shed more

light on issues that are so widespread and will give the research community, as well as society,

more of an understanding of bullying roles and suicide.

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 17

References

Bauman, S., Toomey, R. B., & Walker, J. L. (2013). Associations among bullying,

cyberbullying, and suicide in high school students. Journal of Adolescence, 36 (2), 341-

350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.12.001

Dooley, J. J., Pyżalski, J., & Cross, D. (2009). Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying: A

theoretical and conceptual review. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie/Journal of

Psychology, 217(4), 182-188. doi: 10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.182

Henry, K. L., Lovegrove, P. J., Steger, M. F., Chen, P. Y., Cigularov, K. P., & Tomazic, R. G.

(2014). The potential role of meaning in life in the relationship between bullying

victimization and suicidal ideation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(2), 221-232.

doi: 10.1007/s10964-013-9960-2

Hepburn, L., Azrael, D., Molnar, B., & Miller, M. (2012). Bullying and suicidal behaviors

among urban high school youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(1), 93-95.

doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.014

Hinduja, S. & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide

Research, 14, 206-221. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2010.494133

Kim, Y. S. & Leventhal, B. (2008). Bullying and suicide. A review. Int J Adolesc Med Health,

20(2), 133-154. https://www.academia.edu/7748522/Bullying_and_suicide._A_review

Klomek, A. B., Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Schonfeld, I. S., & Gould, M. S. (2007). Bullying,

depression, and suicidality in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child &

Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(1), 40-49. doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000242237.84925.18

Kodish, T., Herres, J., Shearer, A., Atte, T., Fein, J., & Diamond, G. (2016). Bullying,

depression, and suicide risk in a pediatric primary care sample. Crisis: The Journal of
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 18

Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 37(3), 241-246. doi: 10.1027/0227-

5910/a000378

Olweus, D. (1994). Olweus bullying questionnaire. Hazelden, 1-72.

https://www.pdastats.com/PublicFiles/Olweus_Sample_Standard_School_Report.pdf

Rivers, I., & Noret, N. (2010). Participant roles in bullying behavior and their association with

thoughts of ending one’s life. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide

Prevention, 31(3), 143-148. doi: 10.1027/0227-5910/a000020

Sampasa-Kanyinga, H., Roumeliotis, P., & Xu, H. (2014). Associations between cyberbullying

and school bullying victimization and suicidal ideation, plans and attempts among

canadian schoolchildren. PLoS ONE, 9(7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0102145

(1989). The national adolescent student health survey: A report on the health of America's youth.

Eric, 1-196. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED316535

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 19

Appendix A

Olweus Bullying Questionnaire (Adaptation)

ID#:

FOR THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS, CIRCLE ONE.

1) Age: Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior

2) Gender: Male, Female, Other

3) How often have you been bullied at school in the past couple of months?

Haven’t been bullied

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

4) I was called mean names, was made fun of, or teased in a hurtful way.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

5) Other students left me out of things on purpose, excluded me from their group of friends,

or completely ignored me.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 20

About once a week

Several times/week

6) I was hit, kicked, pushed, shoved around, or locked indoors.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

7) Other students told lies or spread false rumors about me and tried to make others dislike

me.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

8) I had money or other things taken away from me or damaged.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

9) I was threatened or forced to do things I did not want to do.

Hasn't happened
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 21

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

10) I was bullied with mean names or comments about my race or color.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

11) I was bullied with mean names, comments, or gestures with a sexual meaning.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

12) I was bullied with mean or hurtful messages, calls or pictures, or in other ways on my cell

phone or over the Internet (computer).

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 22

13) When you see a student your age being bullied at school, what do you feel or think?

Probably deserves it

Don't feel much

Feel a bit sorry

Feel sorry and want to help

14) How do you usually react if you see or learn that a student your age is being bullied by

another student(s)?

I have never noticed it

I take part in the bullying

I don't do it, but find it OK

Total

I just watch what goes on

I ought to help

I try to help

15) How often have you taken part in bullying another student(s) at school in the past couple

of months?

Not bullied others

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

16) I called another student(s) mean names and made fun of or teased him or her in a hurtful

way.
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 23

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

17) I kept him or her out of things on purpose, excluded him or her from my group of friends,

or completely ignored him or her.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

18) I hit, kicked, pushed, and shoved him or her around, or locked him or her indoors.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

19) I spread false rumors about him or her and tried to make others dislike him or her.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 24

Several times/week

20) I took money or other things from him or her or damaged his or her belongings.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

21) I threatened or forced him or her to do things he or she did not want to do.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

22) I bullied him or her with mean names or comments about his or her race or color.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week

23) I bullied him or her with mean names, comments, or gestures with a sexual meaning.

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 25

About once a week

Several times/week

24) I bullied him or her with mean or hurtful messages, calls or pictures, or in other ways on

my cell phone or over the Internet (computer).

Hasn't happened

Once or twice

2-3 times a month

About once a week

Several times/week
BULLYING ROLES AND SUICIDE RISK 26

Appendix B

National Adolescent Student Health Survey: Suicide (Adaptation)

ID#:

FOR THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS, CIRCLE ONE.

1) Age: Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior

2) Gender: Male, Female, Other

3) During the past MONTH, how often have you felt sad and hopeless? YES or NO

4) During the past MONTH, how often have you felt that you have nothing to look forward

to? YES or NO

5) Have you ever seriously thought about trying to hurt yourself in a way that might result in

your death? YES or NO

6) Have you ever actually tried to hurt yourself in a way that might have resulted in your

death? YES or NO