Ready To Digest 6th NCERT-History

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W
Whheerree ddiidd P
Peeooppllee L
Liivvee??
 The Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest were some of the areas where women and men first to
grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago. People also began rearing animals like
sheep, goat, and cattle, and lived in villages.
 The places where rice was 1st grown are to the north of the Vindhyas.
 In ancient times area along the river Ganga and its tributary son, was known as Magadha.
 People moved in search of livelihood, some driven by a spirit of adventure, as also to escape from
natural disasters like droughts or floods.
i. Men marched in armies, conquering others ’lands.
ii. Merchants travelled with caravans or ships carrying valuable goods from place to place.
iii. Religious teachers walked from place to place, stopping to offer instruction and advice
on the way.
 All this lead to the sharing of ideas between people.
N
Naam
meess ooff tth
hee L
Laan
ndd::
 The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
 The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar
with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India.
 The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the north-west, and who are mentioned
in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago).
F
Fiin
nddiin
ngg oou
utt aabboou
utt tth
hee P
Paasstt::
 Books that were written long ago are called manuscripts, because they were written by hand (in Latin
word ‘manu’, means hand).
 These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the
‘brich’ which were grown in the Himalayas.
 These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine
and science, epics, poems and plays.
 These were written in Sanskrit, other were in Prakrit and Tamil.
 Writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal are called inscriptions.
 Those who study many other things that were made and used in the past are called archaeologists.
i. They study the remains of buildings made of stone and bricks, paintings and sculpture.
ii. They explore and excavate to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins
(objects are made of stone, other of bone, baked clay or metal).
iii. They look for bones – of animals, birds, and fish – to find out what people ate in the past.
W
Whhaatt ddoo ddaatteess m
meeaan
n??
 Years are counted from the date generally assigned to the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of
Christianity.
 All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letter BC (Before
Christ).
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Thhee eeaarrlliieesstt ppeeooppllee:: W
Whhyy w
weerree tth
heeyy oon
n tth
hee m
moovvee??
 People who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago were hunter-gatherers.
 They hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gather fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks and
eggs.
 Reasons why Hunter gatherers moved from place to place:
i. Limited resources at one place.
ii. Animals moved in search of prey so the hunters had to move along too.
iii. Plants and trees have different seasons in which they bear fruit so people moved.
iv. People living alongside seasonal rivers would have to move in search of water during dry
seasons.
H
Hoow
w ddoo w
wee k
knnoow
w aabboou
utt tth
heessee ppeeooppllee??
 People made and used tools made of stone, bone and wood provide us info about these people.
 Tools were used to cut meat and bone, scrape bark and hides (animal skins), digging ground to collect
edible roots, chop fruit or roots, chop wood, stitching clothes made of animal skin.
 Spears and arrows were made by attaching handles of bone or wood used for hunting.
C
Chhoooossiin
ngg aa ppllaaccee ttoo lliivvee iin
n::
 Hunter gatherer sites have been found alongside rivers.
 People tried to find places where good quality stones were found for making stone tools.
 Factory sites: places where people made tools.
 Habitation cum factory sites: sites where people lived for longer spells.
M
Maak
kiin
ngg SSttoon
nee ttoooollss::
 Two Techniques:
i. Stone on Stone: Stone which was to be made tool (core) hammered from another stone to strike
off flakes to give shape.
ii. Pressure Flaking: core placed on a firm surface and hammered to remove flakes that could be
shaped into tools.
N
Naam
meess aan
ndd D
Daatteess::
 ‘Palaeo’ means ‘old’, ‘lithos’ means ‘stone’.
 Palaeolithic period –2million years ago till 12000 yrs ago. This period covers 99% of human history.
 Palaeolithic Period Divided into:
i. Lower
ii. Middle
iii. Upper
 ‘Meso’ means ‘Middle’, ‘lithos’ means stone.
 Mesolithic period - Period about 12000yrs ago when Environmental changes began till 10000yrs ago.
 Microliths: Tiny stone tools. Stuck to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws & sickles.
R
Roocck
k ppaaiin
nttiin
nggss aan
ndd w
whhaatt tth
heeyy tteellll u
uss::
 Rock paintings found on the walls of the caves e.g. - Southern U.P and M.P
 Ostrich eggs - Paleolithic period – Patne in Maharashtra.
A
A cclloossee llooook
k –– H
Huun
nssggii::
 Large numbers of tools mostly made from limestone (locally available).
 Probably a habitation-cum factory sites.
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D
Doom
meessttiiccaattiioon
n::
 A process in which people grow plants and look after animals.
i. Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants will have the
same qualities.
ii. Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for breeding.
iii. Domesticated animals and plants become different from wild animals and plants.
 Began 12000yrs ago
 Earliest plants domesticated were Wheat and Barley.
 Earliest animals domesticated were Sheep and Goat.
F
Fiin
nddiin
ngg oou
utt aabboou
utt tth
hee ffiirrsstt ffaarrm
meerrss aan
ndd h
hoollddeerrss::
 Early farmers herders - Present day Kashmir, East and south India
 Evidence of Plants and bones of different animals, seeds of plants, remains of burnt grain.
Grain and Bones Sites

Wheat, barley, sheep, goat, cattle Mehrgarh (in present day Paki.)
Rice, fragmentary animal bones Koldihwa (in present day U.P)
Rice, cattle (hoof marks on clay surface) Mahagara (in present day U.P)
Wheat and lentil Gufkral (in present day Kashmir)
Wheat and lentil, dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo Burzahom (in present day Kashmir)
Wheat, green gram, barley, buffalo, ox Chirand(in present day Bihar)
Millet, cattle, sheep, goat, Pig Hallur (in present day A.P)
Black gram, millet, cattle, sheep, pig Paiyampalli (in present day A.P)
T
Toow
waarrdd aa sseettttlleedd L
Liiffee::
 Traces of huts or houses at some sites: Burzahom in Kashmir (pit houses).
 People cook food depending on weather indoor or outdoor.
 Cooking hearths both inside and outside huts.
 Stone tools different from Paleolithic tools found at some sites therefore called as Neolithic.
 Neolithic Tools: Fine cutting edge. Mortars or pestles used to grind grain and plant produce.
 Earthen pots used for storing things.
T
Trriibbeess::
 Generations living together in small settlements or villages. Most families related to one another and
groups of such families form a tribe.
 Tribes have rich and unique cultural traditions, language, music, stories and paintings and their own
gods and goddesses.
 Difference between tribes and societies:
 Tribes are different from many other societies: land, forests, grasslands, water are
regarded as wealth of entire tribe and everybody shares and uses these together.
A
k –– ((aa)) L
Liivviin
ngg aan
ndd D
Dyyiin
ngg iin
nMMeeh
hrrggaarrh
h::
Mehrgarh - Located in a fertile plain near Bolan Pass.
 Place where people learnt to grow barley and wheat and rear sheep & goats for the first time.
 One of the earliest villages.
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 Bones of wild animals such as deer and pig, later bones of sheep and goat.
 Remains of Square and Rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, which may
use for storage.
 Several Burial sites found. Dead was buried with goats which meant to serve as food in next world.
A
k –– ((bb)) D
Daaoojjaallii H
Haaddiin
ngg
Daojali Hading – Located near Brahmaputra Valley
 Stone tools including mortars and pestles have been found.

 Other Findings:
i. Jadeite – stone brought from china
ii. Tools made of fossil wood
iii. pottery
T
Thhee ssttoorryy ooff H
Haarraappppaa::
 Harrapan cities developed 4, 700 yrs ago.
 Special features of Harrapan Cities:
 Divided into 2 or more parts.
i. Citadel -The Part to the west i.e. smaller and higher.
ii. Great bath in Mohenjodaro built in this area West East
 Lower town - Larger but lower Citadel Lower town
 Kalibangan & Lothal had fire altars where sacrifices may have been performed.
 Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal had elaborate store houses.
 Walls of baked brick built around each part.
H
Hoou
usseess,, ddrraaiin
nss aan
ndd ssttrreeeettss::
 Houses - 1 or 2 storey high; Built around a courtyard.
 Drains were well covered and drainage of houses connected to the bigger drains.
 Inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean drains.
 All three – houses, drains and streets were probably planned and built at the same time.
L
Liiffee iin
n tth
hee cciittyy::
 Rulers - People who planned the construction of special buildings in the city.
 They sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones etc.
 Scribes - People who knew how to write; prepared seals.
N
Neew
w ccrraaffttss iin
n tth
hee cciittyy::
 Objects found in Harrapan cities:
i. Made of stone, shell and metal including Copper, Bronze, Gold and silver
ii. Copper and Bronze: tools, weapons, ornaments n vessels
iii. Gold and silver: ornaments n vessels
iv. Beads (made of carnelian), weights (made of chert) and blades found
v. Rectangular seals made of stone
vi. Pots with black designs
vii. Cotton pieces found in Mohenjodaro attached to a silver vase.
viii. Spindle whorls (use to spin thread) made of terracotta and faience
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 Specialists - person trained to do only one kind of work for e.g. cutting stone, carving seals.
 Faience - artificially produced Gum used to shape sand or powdered quartz and then object was
glazed; colours were usually blue or sea green.
 Used to make beads, bangles, earrings and tiny vessels.
IIn
n sseeaarrcch
h ooff rraaw
wmmaatteerriiaallss::
 Copper - Harappans got it from Rajasthan, Oman.
 Tin + Copper = Bronze from Afghanistan and Iran.
 Gold – Karnataka.
 Precious stones - Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
F
Foooodd ffoorr ppeeooppllee iin
n tth
hee cciittiieess::
 Farming: Farmers and herders supplied food to cities
 Remains of plants – wheat, rice, barley, pulses, peas, sesame, linseed and mustard.
 Plough was used to dig the earth
 Stored water was used for irrigation as region gets less rainfall
 Reared sheep, goat, buffalo
 Caught fish, hunted wild animals and collected fruits
A
A cclloosseerr llooook
k –– H
Haarraappppaan
n ttoow
wnnss iin
nGGu
ujjaarraatt::
 City of Dholavira located on Khadir Beyt (Rann of Kutch), Gujarat.
 Divided into 3 parts not 2
 Each part surrounded by massive stone walls with entrances through gateways
 Open area for public ceremonies
 Large letters of the Harappan script that was carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.
 City of Lothal located beside a tributary of Sabarmati close to Gulf of Khambat.

 Situated near areas where raw materials like semi-precious stones were easily available.
 Important centre for making objects out of stone, shell and metal
 Many seals and sealings found in store house in city.
 Workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and
finished beads found here.
T
Thhee M
Myysstteerryy ooff tth
hee een
ndd::
 3900 yrs ago people stopped living in many cities
 writings, weights, seals no longer used
 Raw materials from bought from longer became rare
 In Mohenjodaro garbage piled up on the streets
 Drainage system broke
 Less elaborate houses
 Reasons suggested:
i. Drying up of rivers
ii. Deforestation: Fuel was required for smelting Copper ores and baking bricks
iii. Destruction of Green cover due to grazing by large herds of cattle
iv. Floods in some areas
v. Rulers lost control
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O
Onnee ooff tth
hee oollddeesstt bbooook
kss iin
n tth
hee w
woorrlldd::
 Four Vedas: 1. Rigveda; 2. Samaveda; 3. Yajurveda; 4. Atharvaveda.
 Oldest Veda: Rigveda (3500yrs ago)
 Contains ‘Suktas’ or hymns (well - said).
 Written in Old or Vedic Sanskrit.
 Some hymns were in form of dialogues. Dialogue between sage Vishvamitra and two rivers
(Beas & Sutlej).
 Hymns praising god and goddesses. Agni – god of Fire, Indra – warrior god, Soma (plant from
which special drink was prepared).
 Most hymns were composed by men, few by women.
 Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.
 Written down several centuries after it was first composed.
 Many prayers in Rigveda for cattle, children (esp. sons) and horses.
 Rigveda composed in N-W of the subcontinent.
W
Woorrddss ttoo ddeessccrriibbee ppeeooppllee::
 Description of People as per Rigveda:
 2 groups described in terms of their work,
i. Brahmins (performed rituals)
ii. Rajas
 2 words used to describe people or community as a whole:
i. Jana
ii. vish (vaishya comes from vish)
 Aryas: people who composed hymns.
 dasas or dasyus –their (aryas) opponents. People speaking different language, & not performing
sacrifices.
SSiilleen
ntt sseen
nttiin
neellss –– tth
hee ssttoorryy ooff tth
hee m
meeggaalliitth
hss::
 Megaliths - Big stones used to mark burial sites.
 Practice began about 3000 years ago and was prevalent throughout in
 Deccan, South India, N-E, Kashmir
 Burials in megaliths have some common features:
 Dead buried with distinct pots (black and red ware)
 Tools and weapons of iron, skeletons of horses, horses equipment
 Ornaments of stone and gold.
 Megaliths:
 There were some difference in status amongst the people who were buried, some buried with gold
beads, ornaments etc and normal people with few pots.
 Same place for burial for one family. Bodies brought into the graves through portholes.
A
A SSppeecciiaall bbu
urriiaall aatt IIn
naam
mggaaoon
n::
 Inamgaon: - site on the river Ghod, a tributary of the river Bhima.
 Occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago.
 Peoples laid out straight – head towards north. Buried inside the houses along with food and water.
 Seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame. Bones of animals used as food – buffalo,
goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted dear, blackbuck, antelope, hare and mongoose,
birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish. Fruits – ber, amla, jamun, dates.
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H
Hoow
w ssoom
mee m
meen
n bbeeccaam
mee rru
ulleerrss::
 3000yrs ago some men became rajas by performing very big sacrifices like ‘Ashvamedha’ or horse
sacrifice.
 Period after Rigveda = Later Vedic. Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda are all later Vedic texts.
 Varna system – priests divided people into 4 groups:
 Brahmins – priests (study/teach Vedas, perform rituals & sacrifices and receive gifts)
 Kshatriyas – rulers (fight battle and protect people)
 Vaishyas – farmers, herders, traders
 Shudras – had to serve other groups (couldn’t perform rituals)
 Women and shudras were not allowed to study Vedas.
 Varna decided by birth (different set of functions)
J
Jaan
naappaaddaass::
 The land where ‘jana’ sets its foot and settled down.
 Rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now known as rajas of janapadas rather than janas
(vish).
 Settlements inside janapadas – Purana Quila – Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, Atranjikhera near
Etah. (People live in huts, kept cattles and grew variety of crops. They made earthen pots some grey
and red in colour)
 Rajas of janapadas were given gifts by the Jana.
M
Maah
haajjaan
naappaaddaass::
 Some janapadas became more important and were now called as Mahajanapadas
 They had a capital city, many were fortified.
 Rajas now began to maintain armies; soldiers paid regular salaries; some payments were through
punch marked coins.
T
Taaxxeess::
 Taxes were imposed now to maintain armies and to raise resources to build forts.
 Bhaga or a share: tax on crops =1/6th of what was produced.
 Tax on craft persons in form of labour like work for a day.
 Herders were also expected to pay taxes for animals or animal produce.
 Hunters and Gatherers also had to provide forest produce.
C
Chhaan
nggeess iin
nAAggrriiccu
ullttu
urree::
 2 major Changes in Agriculture:
 Growing use of Iron ploughshares which meant more grain as iron plough could turn the soil
over better then wooden ones.
 Transplantation of paddy began: Instead of scattering seeds, saplings were grown n then
planted on fields. It leads to an increased production as many more plants survived.
 ‘Dasas’ or agricultural labourers (Kammakaras) did this work.
A
k:: ((aa)) M
Maaggaaddh
haa::
 Became important Mahajanapada in 200yrs
 Ganga and Son flowed through it which were important for:
 transport
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 water supplies
 made land fertile
 Iron ore mines used to make tools & weapons.
 Forest woods used to build houses, carts and chariots.
 Bimbisara and Ajatsattu were 2 very powerful rulers of Magadha.
 used all means to conquer other Janapadas
 Mahapadma Nanda:
 Extended his control to North West part of subcontinent.
 Rajgriha (present day Rajgir ) was capital of Magadha for many years. Later it was shifted to
Pataliputra (Patna)
A
k:: ((bb)) V
Vaajjjjii::
 Capital: Vaishali (Bihar)
 Government type: Gana (group having many members) or sangha (organisation or association)
 Gana or Sangha :
 Not one but many rulers' each one individually called as raja.
 performed rituals together
 Met in assemblies to decide what to do and how (women, dasas, kammakaras could not participate
in such discussions.)
 Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas.
 Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas.
 Last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Guptas.
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Thhee SSttoorryy ooff tth
hee B
Buuddddh
haa::
 Siddhartha aka Gautama founder of Buddhism was born around 2500yrs ago.
 Belonged to a small Gana: Sakya Gana & was a Kshatriya.
 Left his home in search of true knowledge.
 Attained enlightenment under a peepal tree at Bodh gaya in Bihar; now he was known as Buddha or
the Wise One.
 Went to sarnath near Varanasi and taught there for the first time.
 Passed away at Kusinara.
T
Teeaacch
hiin
nggss ooff B
Buuddddh
haa::
1. Life is full of suffering and unhappiness due to cravings and desires;
2. Tanha or thirst - we always want more n are never satisfied. It can be removed by following
moderation in everything.
3. Taught people to be kind & to respect lives of others including animals.
4. Karma i.e. the result of our actions affects us in this life n the next.
 He taught in Prakrit.
5. Encouraged people to think for themselves rather than accepting what he tells them.
U
Uppaan
niissh
haadd::
 A Later Vedic text Upanishad literally means approaching and sitting near.
 Contains conversations between teachers and students and ideas presented through simple dialogues.
 Mostly Upanishadic thinkers were rajas and brahmins mostly.
 Gargi: famous women thinker and took part in debates held in royal courts.
 Though poor people seldom took part 'Satyakama Jabala' was an exception.
 Panini prepared a grammar for Sanskrit.
J
Jaaiin
niissm
m::
 Timeline: 2500yrs ago around same time as Buddha.
 Kshatriya prince of Lichchhavis, a group that was part of Vajji Sangha.
 At 30 he left his home and after 12yrs he attained enlightenment.
 Teachings of Mahavira:
1. Men and women who wish to know the truth must leave their homes.
2. Must follow Ahimsa very strictly.
3. Taught in Prakrit.
4. Followers of Mahavira known as Jainas (comes from word Jina meaning the conqueror) had to
lead simple lives, begging for food and had to be absolutely honest, never to steal.
5. Observe celibacy.
6. Men had to give up everything including their clothes
 Jainism was mainly supported by traders as farmers had to kill insects to save their crops.
 Jainism spread to parts of North India, Gujarat, TN, Karnataka
T
Thhee SSaan
nggh
haa::
 Mahavira and Buddha arranged for the people who left their homes to stay together in form of an
association i.e. Sangha.
 Vinaya Pitaka: Book containing rules made for Buddhist sangha.
 All men could join but women needs permission of husband.
 Children needed permission of their parents and debtors of creditors.
 Men n women who joined sanghas were known as Bhikkhus (prakrit for beggar) and Bhikkhunis.
 Varna system was not followed inside sanghas.
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M
Moon
naasstteerriieess::
 Monasteries were built as the need for a permanent shelter was felt by nuns and monks .They were
known as Viharas.
 They were made of wood earlier and then later on of wood and some were in caves in western India.
T
Thhee SSyysstteem
m ooff A
Assh
hrraam
maass::
 Brahmins developed system of ashramas .It was done at the same time when Buddhism and Jainism
were becoming famous.
 Ashrams do not mean a place to live and meditate. It is used for a stage of life.
1. Bramhcharya - Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya men lead simple lives, studied Vedas during early
years of life.
2. Grihastha - marry and live as householders.
3. Vanaprastha - live in forest and meditate.
4. Samnyasa - give up everything and become samnyasins.
 Women had to follow the ashrama chosen by their husbands.
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A
A vveerryy bbiigg k
kiin
nggddoom
m== aan
nEEm
mppiirree::
Important cities of Mauryan Empire
 Pataliputra – Capital
 Taxila – a gateway to the northwest, including central Asia.
 Ujjain – on route from north to south India.
H
Hoow
w aarree eem
mppiirreess ddiiffffeerreen
ntt ffrroom
mkkiin
nggddoom
mss??
 Empires are larger than kingdoms requires huge resources and need to be protected by big armies.
 Large numbers of official also required to collect taxes.
R
Ruulliin
ngg tth
hee E
Emmppiirree::
 Area around Pataliputra was under direct control of the emperor.
 Officials appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders etc. They also punished those who disobeyed
ruler's orders.
 Messengers were used and spies kept watch on officials.
 Other areas or provinces were ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain.
 Rulers tried to control roads, rivers and tried to collect resources as tax and tribute.
 Megasthenes was sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Greek Ruler Seleucus Nicator.
A
Assh
hook
kaa:: aa u
unniiqqu
uee rru
ulleerr
 First ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions written in Brahmi script
and were in Prakrit.
 Horrified at the bloodshed in the war for Kalinga (Orissa) that he gave up the conquest after winning
the war.
 He decided to spread his message of Dhamma (Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term 'Dharma').
W
Whhaatt w
waass A
Assh
hook
kaa''ss D
Dhhaam
mmmaa??
 Dhamma did not involve worship of a god or any sacrifice.
 Inspired by teachings of Buddha.
 Appointed officials as ‘Dhamma Mahamatta’ who went from place to place teaching people about
dhamma.
 Inscribed his message on rocks and pillars.
 Sent messengers to other lands such as Egypt, Syria, Greece and Sri Lanka to spread dhamma.
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IIrroon
n ttoooollss aan
ndd aaggrriiccu
ullttu
urree::
 Use of Iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago.
 Megalithic burial sites had large collections of iron tools and weapons.
 Around 2500years ago use of iron tools increases. Axes for clearing forest and iron ploughshare used for
agriculture.
 Irrigation works built during this time includes canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
W
Whhoo lliivveedd iin
n tth
hee V
Viillllaaggee::
 Southern (Tamil) region Villages:
 Large landowners – Vellalars;
 Ordinary ploughmen – uzhavar;
 Landless labourers including slaves – Kadaisiyar and adimai
 Northern region Villages:
 Grama Bhojaka – Village headman (hereditary post)
i. Largest landowner often.
ii. Hired slaves & workers to work on his land.
iii. King used him to collect taxes from village.
iv. Functioned as a judge and policeman sometimes.
 Grihgapatis – other independent famers, smaller landowners.
 Dasas / karmakaras – Men & women who did not own land and worked in fields to earn a living
 Sangam Literature: Earliest work in Tamil called as ‘sangam’ because these texts were composed and
compiled by assemblies of poets held in city of Madurai.
F
Fiin
nddiin
ngg oou
utt aabboou
utt cciittiieess:: ssttoorriieess,, ttrraavveelllleerrss,, ssccu
ullppttu
urree aan
ndd aarrcch
haaeeoollooggyy::
 Jatakas: Stories composed by ordinary people; written down n preserved by buddhist monks.
 Many cities that developed from about 2500yrs ago were capitals of Mahajanapadas.
 Ring wells found in many such cities used as toilets or drains and garbage dumps. Found in individual
houses.
 Earliest coins used about 500years were ‘punch marked’. Designs were punched on the metal – silver or
copper.
C
Ciittiieess w
wiitth
hmmaan
nyy ffu
unnccttiioon
nss::
 Mathura an important city as it was located at the cross roads of 2 major routes of travel from NW to east
and from North to South.
 Around 2000yrs ago became the second capital of Kushanas.
 Religious centre with monasteries, Jaina shrines and important centre for Krishna worship.
C
Crraaffttss aan
ndd ccrraaffttss ppeerrssoon
n::
 Northern Black Polished Ware:
 Extremely fine pottery; found in Northern part of subcontinent; Black in color with fine sheen.
 Shrenis:
 Associations formed by merchants and craft persons.
 Shrenis served as banks also where rich people deposits their money which is invested and part
of interest was returned or used to support religious institutions.
i. Shrenis of craft persons:
 Provided training, procured raw material and distributed finished product.
ii. Shrenis of merchants:
 Organised trade
A
k –– A
Arriik
kaam
meeddu
u::
 A coastal settlement around 2200 and 1900 years ago, where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
 Pottery from Mediterranean region:
i. Amphorae ware (tall double-handled jar that contained liquids such as wine or oil)
ii. Arretine ware (stamped red-glazed pottery named after a city in Italy).
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H
Hoow
w ttoo ffiin
ndd oou
utt aabboou
utt ttrraaddee aan
ndd ttrraaddeerrss::
 South India was famous for gold, spices especially pepper, and precious stones.
 Pepper was known as black gold in Rome and valued most.
 Roman gold coins found in south India.
N
Neew
wKKiin
nggddoom
mss aalloon
ngg tth
hee ccooaassttss::
 Muvendar: Mentioned in sangam poems, a tamil word meaning used for heads of 3 ruling families i.e.
Cholas; Cheras & Pandyas.
 Became powerful in south india around 2300 years ago.
 Each chief had two centre of power an inland and coastal.
 2 important out of 6 were:
 Kaveripattinam ( Puhar): Port of Cholas.
 Madurai: Capital of Pandyas
 The Chiefs did not collect taxes instead demanded regular gifts from people.
 Went on military expeditions and collected tributes and distributed them amongst their followers
including their own family members and poet soldiers etc.
 Satvahanas: 200 yrs later they became powerful in western india.
 Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni was the most important ruler.
 It was mentioned in an inscription composed by his mother, Gautami balashri.
 Satavahan rulers were known as Lords of Dakshinapatha
T
Thhee ssttoorryy ooff tth
hee SSiillk
kRRoou
uttee::
 Techniques of making silk were first invented in China 7000yrs ago.
 People from china went to distant lands on foot, on camels and horseback and the route they followed
came to be known as Silk Route.
 Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to Iran and West Asia and from there the knowledge of silk spread
further west.
 Rulers tried to control the route for tributes and gifts from traders and they protected them instead
from robbers.
 Kushanas controlled silk route.
 Ruled over central Asia and North West India.
 Peshawar and Mathura their major centers of Power.
 Taxila also included in their kingdom.
 Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issued gold coins.
SSpprreeaadd ooff B
Buuddddh
hiissm
m::
 Kanishka an important Kushana ruler.
 Organised a Buddhist council in 1st AD.
 Ashvaghosha – Poet who composeed biography of Buddha i.e. budhhacharita.
 Ashvaghosha and other poets now began writing in Sanskrit.
 Mahayana Buddhism (New form of Buddhism) developed now.
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
Earlier in sculptures buddha was shown thru signs like by peepal tree but now his statues were
made in mathura and taxila.
 Bodhisattvas - those who attained enlightenment could live in complete isolation but now they
lived in the world teaching other people
 Worship of boddhisattvas spread to central Asia ,China and later to Korea and Japan
 Buddhism also spread to western and southern India.
 Caves were hollowed in the hills for the monks to live in.
 Caves were located near passes thru Western Ghats where traders coming from the ports and
going to the cities of the Deccan halted.
 Theravada Buddhism (Older form of Buddhism):
 Buddhism spread South East to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
T
Thhee qqu
ueesstt ooff tth
hee P
Piillggrriim
mss::
 Chinese buddhist pilgrims.
 Fa-Xian – 1600 yrs ago
 Xuan Zang – 1400 yrs ago
 I-Qing – 50 yrs after Xuan – Zang
 Spent time at Nalanda studying Buddhism and visited places & monasteries associated with Buddha
T
Thhee B
Beeggiin
nnniin
ngg ooff B
Bhhaak
kttii::
 Worship of certain deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses like Durga gained in importance,
 Deities worshipped through ‘bhakti’ (a person’s devotion to his or her deity).
 Anyone rich or poor could follow path of Bhakti.
 Idea of bhakti is present in Bhagwad Geeta (sacred book of the Hindus).
 Bhakti followers emphasised devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess rather than
performance of rituals.
 According to this system devotee who worships with a pure heart, deity will appear in the form in
which he or she desires .so deity could be thought of anything like tree, lion or human figure etc.
 Image worship: Artist started making images of deities.
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P
Prraassh
haassttiiss aan
ndd w
whhaatt tth
heeyy tteellll u
uss::
 The inscription of special kind known as ‘Prashasti’ (meaning ‘in praise of’).
 We know about Samudragupta from a long poem in Sanskrit by court poet Harishena 170 years ago
(inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad).
 Prashastis became important during Gupta’s rule.
 Prashasti was composed in very long sentences.
SSaam
muuddrraaggu
uppttaa’’ss P
Prraassh
haassttii::
 Harishena describes 4 kinds of rulers and tell us about Samudragupta’s policy towards them
(information provided in the Prashasti.)
1. Rulers of ‘Aryavarta’: 9 rulers here were uprooted and their kingdoms were made a part of
Samudra’s Empire.
2. Rulers of ‘Dakshinapatha’: 12 rulers were here; surrendered to him after being defeated and
samudra allowed him to rule again.
3. Inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, Coastal Bengal, Nepal and number of gana
sanghas in NW brought tributes to his court, followed his orders and attended his court.
4. Rulers of outlying areas: Descendents of Kushanas and Shakas, ruler of Srilanka submitted to him n
offered their daughters for marriage.
G
Geen
neeaallooggiieess::
 Samudragupta’s mother (Kumara Devi) belonged to Lichchhavis gana.
 Chandragupta was first ruler of Gupta dynasty to adopt the title of Maharaj-adhiraja was his father.
 Chandragupta II the son of Samudragupta known from his inscriptions and coins led an expedition to
western India to overcome last Shaka’s ruler.
H
Haarrssh
haavvaarrddh
haan
naa aan
ndd tth
hee H
Haarrssh
haacch
haarriittaa::
 He ruled nearly 1400yrs ago. He became king after both his father and elder brother died.
 Banabhatta his court poet wrote ‘Harshacharita’ his biography in Sanskrit.
 Xuan Zang Chinese traveler also spent a lot of time in his court.
 Harsha took over Kanauj (ruled by his brother-in-law) and then Bengal by killing ruler of Bengal,
magadha but was stopped in his march towards Deccan by Pulakeshin II a ruler of Chalukya dynasty.
T
Thhee P
Paallllaavvaass,, C
Chhaallu
ukkyyaass aan
ndd P
Puullaak
keessh
hiin
n’’ss P
Prraassh
haassttii::
 Pallavas and Chalukyas ruled during this period in South India
 Pallavas: Kingdom was spread from capital city of Kanchipuram till Kaveri delta.
 Chalukyas: Kingdom centered around Raichur Doab between river Krishna and Tungabhadra.
 Aihole, the capital of Chalukyas, important trading centre.
 Pulakeshin -II, known by Prashasti composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
 He led expeditions along both the west and east coasts. He also checked the advancement
of Harsha.
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 He also attacked the Pallava King, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram.
 Both dynasties fought with each other and raided capital cities as they were prosperous.
 Eventually they gave way to Rashtrakutas & Cholas
H
Hoow
w aarree tth
heessee K
Kiin
nggddoom
mss aaddm
miin
niisstteerreedd??
 Land revenue remained important.
 Village remained the basic unit of administration.
 New developments: Measures taken by kings to win support of powerful men
 Important admin posts were made hereditary like Harishena (the poet) was a maha-danda-nayaka
(chief judicial officer).
 1 person held many posts. He was also a kumar-amatya (important minister) and sandhi-vigrahika
(minister of war & peace)
 Important men had a say in Local administration which include nagara-shreshti (chief banker or
merchant of the city), Sathavaha (leader of merchant caravans), prathama-kulika (chief craftsman
& the head of Kayasthas or scribes).
A
ANNeew
wkkiin
ndd ooff aarrm
myy::
 Well maintained armies like earlier rulers with chariots, elephant’s cavalry, and foot soldiers.
 Military leaders or samantas who provided troops to the king when he needed them. They were paid
grants of land and not regular salaries.
 They collected revenue from the land and used them to maintain soldiers & horses & for providing
equipment for warfare
A
Asssseem
mbblliieess iin
n tth
hee SSoou
utth
heerrn
nKKiin
nggddoom
mss::
 Inscriptions of Pallavas mention local assemblies namely:
 sabha – assembly of Brahmin land owners; looked after irrigation, roads ,local temples etc.
 ur – an assembly of land owners who were not Brahmins.
 Nagaram – organisation of merchants & landowners.
 Many of these local assemblies continued to function for centuries.
O
Orrddiin
naarryy ppeeooppllee iin
n tth
hee k
kiin
nggddoom
mss::
 Lives of ordinary people are depicted in plays.
 The King and Brahmins use to speak in Sanskrit while other people use to speak in Prakrit is the
interesting feature about plays.
 Kalidas’s famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is a love story between king Dushyant and young
women Shakuntala.
 Untouchability prevalent: The untouchables were expected to live outskirts of the city.
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T
Thhee iirroon
n ppiillllaarr::
 The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is made of iron, 7.2m height, and weights over 3 tonnes about 1500
years ago.
 An inscription on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra (belongs to Gupta dynasty).
B
Buuiillddiin
ngg iin
n bbrriicck
k aan
ndd ssttoon
nee::
 Stupa means a mound. There are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and small having certain
common features.
 Stupas: A Small box (Relic casket) placed at the heart of stupa; may contain bodily remains of Buddha
or his followers or things they used as well as precious stones and coins.
 ‘Pradakshina patha’ was laid around the stupa. Devotees walked around stupa in clockwise direction.
 Earliest Hindu temples also built during this time. Most imp part of the temple was ‘garbhagriha’ -
where image of chief deity was placed.
 Shikhara – a tower was built on the top of garbhagriha to mark it as a sacred place.
 Mandapa - a hall where people could assemble.
 Mahabalipuram temple at Mahabalipuram and Durga temple at Aihole - example of monolithic temple.
P
Paaiin
nttiin
ngg
 Ajanta caves were monasteries for Buddhist monks and were decorated with paintings.
 Paintings were done in the light of torches, the colours made of plant and minerals are still vivid even
after 1500 years.
T
Thhee w
woorrlldd ooff bbooook
kss::
 Epics: Grand long compositions about heroic men and women & include stories about gods.
 Silappadikaram: Tamil epic composed by Ilango around 1800 years ago.
 Manimekalai: Tamil epic composed by Sattanar around 1400years ago.
 Kalidasa wrote in Sanskrit.
R
Reeccoorrddiin
ngg aan
ndd pprreesseerrvviin
ngg oolldd ssttoorriieess::
 Puranas were written during this period only and were written in simple Sanskrit.
 They were meant to be heard by everyone including women & shudras.
 Mahabharata: known previously but written about 1500 years ago.
 Both Mahabharata and Puranas are compiled by Vyasa.
 Sanskrit Ramayana –Valmiki.
 Jatakas and Panchatantra were the collection of stories.
W
Wrriittiin
ngg bbooook
kss oon
n sscciieen
nccee::
 Aryabhata: wrote ‘Aryabhatiyam’ in Sanskrit.
 Stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of earth on its axis.
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 He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well.

 He also found out the way for calculating the circumference of a circle.
Paper:
 Paper invented in china by Cai Lun about 1900yrs ago.

 The secret reached Korea about 1400 years ago and then to Japan.
 From Baghdad where it was known about 1800yrs ago it spread to Europe, Africa and other parts
of Asian subcontinent.
***********
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Grain and Bones Sites

 Stone tools including mortars and pestles have been found.

 City of Lothal located beside a tributary of Sabarmati close to Gulf of Khambat.

 He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well.

 Paper invented in china by Cai Lun about 1900yrs ago.

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