Sensors and Transducers

Useful books

PART I Ian Sinclair: Sensors and Transducers, ISBN 0750649321

Good general overview in sensors and sensor electronics.
Sensors and Transducers John Bentley: Principles of measurement systems
ISBN 0130430285; Pearson Prentice-Hall Verlag

A sensor is a device which converts a physical variable to an

electrical signal. As such, sensors represent part of the interface
between the physical world and the world of electrical devices,
such as computers. The other part of this interface is represented
by actuators
actuators, which convert electrical signals into physical variable.

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Overview Overview
§ The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are both widely used in § Sensors and transducers are classified according to;
the description of measurement systems.
§ physical property that they use
§ The former is popular in the USA whereas the latter has been
used in Europe for many years. (piezoelectric, photovoltaic, etc.)
§ A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is § function that they perform
`A device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns (measurement of length, temperature, etc.).
it into a signal which can be measured or recorded’
§ Since energy conversion is an essential characteristic of the
§ The corresponding definition of 'transducer' is sensing process, various forms of energy conversions should
‘A device that transfers energy from one system to another in also be considered.
the same or in the different form'.

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PART I 1
Sensors and Transducers

Overview Common Transducers

Simple Input/Output System using Sound Transducers Quantity being Input Device Output Device
Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Lights & Lamps
Photodiode
Light Level LED's & Displays
Phototransistor
Fibre Optics
Solar Cell

Thermocouple
Heater
Temperature Thermistor
Fan
Resistive temperature detectors (RTD)

Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks

Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnetic
Load Cells Vibration
There are many different types of transducers available in the
Potentiometer Motor
marketplace, and the choice of which one to use really depends Position Encoders Solenoid
LVDT Panel Meters
upon the quantity being measured or controlled.
Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors
Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake

5 Bell 6
Carbon Microphone
Sound Buzzer
Piezo-electric Crystal

Analogue Sensors Digital Sensors

Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is
generally proportional to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities
such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For example, the
temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down.
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or
voltage that is a digital representation of the quantity being measured. Digital
sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a logic "0",
("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only produces discrete
(non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single "bit", (serial
transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte" output
(parallel transmission).

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PART I 2
Sensors and Transducers

Performance characteristics Performance characteristics

Transfer Function Dynamic Range
For ADXL50A accelerometer, the functional relationship between For ADXL50A accelerometer, the stated dynamic range is +/- 50g. For
voltage and acceleration is stated as signals outside this range, the signal output is saturated at either
0.25V or 4.75V. The device can withstand up to 2000g without
é mV ù
V ( Acc ) = 1.8V + ê Acc ´ 19 damage.
ë g úû
Hysteresis
This expression may be used to predict the behavior of the sensor, There is no fundamental source of hysteresis in this device. There is
and contains information about the sensitivity and the offset at no mention of hysteresis in the Data Sheets.
the output of the sensor.
Temperature Coefficient
Sensitivity In this device, temperature can introduce a change in sensitivity. The
The sensitivity of the sensor is given by the derivative of the voltage change is less than 1% over the range from -40 to +85 degrees
with respect to acceleration at the initial operating point. For this Celsius. There is also a shift in offset of up to 35 mV.
device, the sensitivity is 19 mV/g.

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Performance characteristics Performance characteristics

Linearity Noise
In this case, the linearity is the difference between the actual transfer Noise in this device comes from the electronic measuring circuit, and
function and the best straight line over the specified operating range. is expressed as 125 uV/sqrt(Hz). This noise density should be
For this device, this is stated as less than 0.2% of the full scale output. used to calculate the actual noise for a particular measurement.
For example, if the output is filtered by a 10Hz low-pass, the RMS
Accuracy Noise would be
The accuracy is essentially limited by the nonlinearity and the temperature mV
VRMSNoise = 125 ´ 10 Hz = 395mV
coefficients. Altogether, the device is accurate to within 3% over the Hz
Resolution
full scale signal range and over temperatures from -40 to +85 degrees The resolution is the minimum detectable signal fluctuation. This is
Celsius. given by the voltage noise density divided by the sensitivity
mV
125
Bandwidth Noise Density Hz = 6.6 mg
Re solution = =
The bandwidth of this sensor depends on choice of an external capacitor. Sensitivity mV Hz
19
g
For C = 0.022 uF, the Bandwidth is approx. 1300Hz. For C = 0.007 uF, Again, for a real experiment with a 10Hz bandwidth, the resolution
B/W = 10kHz. would come to 20mg.

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PART I 3
Sensors and Transducers

Common sensors Principles of operation

Listed below are some examples of common transducers • There are several transducers that we can examine in
and sensors that we may encounter: terms of their principles of operations.
• Those include:
§ Ammeter - meter to indicate electrical current.
§ Potentiometer - instrument used to measure voltage. 1. Temperature sensors
§ Strain Gauge - used to indicate torque, force, pressure, 2. Force and Pressure Sensors
and other variables. Output is changed in resistance due 3. Optical and Flow Sensors
to strain, which can be converted into voltage. 4. Position, Displacement and Distance
§ Thermistor - Also called a resistance thermometer; an 5. Environment Sensing
instrument used to measure temperature. The operation 6. Sensors for Medical Electronics
is based on change in resistance as a function of 7. Sensors for Robotics
temperature.

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Displacement Sensors/Transducers
Displacement transducers measure two mechanical
Displacement Sensors quantities:

Linear displacement (translation) and angular

displacement (rotation)

They can be distinguished as Resistive, capacitive,

In this section we look at a number of devices which are inductive and optical.
classed as Input Devices and are therefore called "Sensors"
and in particular those sensors which are Positional in nature
which means that they are referenced either to or from some
fixed point or position. As their name implies, these types of
sensors provide "positional" feedback.

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PART I 4
Sensors and Transducers

Resistive displacement transducers Examples for Linear & Rotary potentiometers

If the internal resistance of the cell is negligible

I V0 = (Rx/R) Vs
If the cross sectional area A is a constant,
Rx/R = x/xm; V0 = (x/xm) Vs
R
Vs x = (V0/ Vs) xm

xm
Rx xm– maximum length of the wire, Linear potentiometer: Rotary potentiometer:
V0 x –displacement with respect to a reference The main parts are the two The shaft of the rotary potentiometer
x terminals of the fixed converts rotary motion into a change of
point,
Vs – cell voltage (constant) resistor and the center tap. resistance. Some rotary potentiometers
V0 – output voltage are the single-turn type while others are
the multiple-turn type.

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Capacitive displacement transducers Capacitive displacement transducers

Capacitance fixed
fixed
e0 A fixed a
C = C (d, A, e) C ( x) =
x x b b
A
d d
d - distance between the electrodes x
A - the surface area of the an electrode and variable variable e0 x e
e - the permitivity of the dielectric medium C(x) C(x)
fixed
C(x)

C can be varied with one variable parameter keeping other

two parameters constant.
x x
0 x 0 0
The measurable distance for d is few mm, & output is non- e0 A e 0bx ì x ü
C ( x) = C ( x) = C ( x) = C0 í1 + (e - 1)ý
linear, measurable distance for A and e is greater and x d î a þ
output is linear. (a) Variable distance (b) Variable surface area (c) Variable dielectric media

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PART I 5
Sensors and Transducers

Inductive displacement transducers Advantage of LVDT

Example: The linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT)

+ Eout - When the core is moved to the left:

1st secondary is more strongly coupled to q The lack of friction between the hollow shaft and the core prolong
+ ~ - the primary than the 2nd secondary. the life of the LVDT and no risk of damage even if the core movement is
excessive
V0 = Vs1 –Vs2 > 0

hollow The output voltage is IN-PHASE with the q Has a linear output
core cylindrical primary voltage
shaft q Gives a very good resolution
When the core is moved to the right:
2nd secondary is more strongly coupled to
the primary than the 1st secondary. q The small mass of the core allows for good sensitivity in dynamic
1st secondary primary 2nd secondary
tests.
V0 = Vs2 –Vs1 > 0
Two identical secondaries placed
symmetrically on either side of a primary The output voltage is OUT-OF-PHASE with
contained within the hollow cylindrical shaft. the primary voltage

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Level Sensors/Transducers
Optical displacement transducers
Displacement is measured optically. We use q These are Special class of displacement sensors, which can measure solid or
v Encoding strip è translatory motion liquid level.
v Rotary encoder è rotary motion
q The level measured is most commonly associated with material in a tank or
The position of the strip is converted directly to a digital signal with a narrow beam hopper (funnel-shaped container).
of light and number of light sensors (e.g. LEDs, photo cells etc.)
The digital code is determined by the position of the transparent and opaque bars q A great variety of measurement techniques exist.
on the rotator.

Types of level sensors

Mechanical level sensors

Electrical level sensors
Ultrasonic level sensors

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PART I 6
Sensors and Transducers
Mechanical level sensors
One of the most common
mechanical technique for level
measurement, particularly for
liquids, is a float that is allowed
to ride up and down with level
changes.
The float may be connected to
·A potentiometric device
·An LVDT core
PART I
Electrical level sensors
There are several electrical methods
of measuring the level.
One Example: Two concentric
cylinders contained in a liquid tank.
The level of the liquid & column of air
between the cylinders, acts like two
capacitors in parallel.
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Ultrasonic level sensors
The use of ultrasonic reflection to measure level is favored because
qit is a "noninvasive" technique
qit does not involve placing anything in the material
Two techniques: External and Internal
T è Transmitter R è Receiver
The external technique is
better suited to solid-material
level measurement.
In both cases the
measurement depends on the
length of time taken for
reflections of an ultrasonic
pulse from the surface of the
material.
Ultrasonic techniques based on reflection time also have become popular for
ranging measurements.
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