Services to Homeless Students and Families:

The McKinney-Vento Act and Its Implications

for School Social Work Practice
Debra M. Hernandez Jozefowicz-Simheni and Nathaniel Israel

In 1987 Congress authorized the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act to protect the
rights of homeless students and to ensure that they receive the same quality and appropriate
education that other students receive. This article summarizes key aspects of the 2001
reauthorization of the act, now known as the McKinney-Vento Act, outlines how school
social workers can become more involved in the implementation, and offers suggestions for
expansion of services and further evaluation of service provision effectiveness.

KEY WORDS: education; homelessness; McKinney- Vento; school social work practice; students

n recent years, research has shed light on the

I
numerous educational barriers that homeless
children and adolescents face, including lack of
transportation, residency restrictions, lack of per-
sonal and school records, guardianship problems,
and a lack of resources such as clothing and school
supplies (Rafferty, 1995; U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, 2001; Wall, 1996). Academically, homeless
and runaway students face increased risk of school
dropout, grade retention,low test scores,low grades,
educational disabilities, and school behavior prob-
lems (Israel, Urberg, & Toro, 2001; Jozefowicz-
Simbeni, 2003; Masten, MiUotis, Graham-Bermann,
Ramirez, & Neemann, 1993; Ziesemer, Marcoux,
& Marwell, 1994).
Such conditions do not develop in a vacuum,
but are nested in a complex web of structural and
environmental conditions. Homeless children ex-
perience emotional and behavioral disorders, physi-
cal health problems, and developmental delays.The
problems are compounded by family circumstances
of financial troubles, substance abuse, and mental
and physical health issues. Furthermore, the nature
of homelessness lends disturbingly well to parenting
distress. AU of these forces conspire to nearly elimi-
nate the homeless child from public school educa-
tion. Yet, burgeoning research has begun looking
into the strengths of homeless students and has found
such youths to possess numerous qualities that can
lead to positive adaptation to adulthood, including
being strong and resilient, as well as possessing spiri-
tual values.
This article looks at the problem of homeless-
ness in the United States, particularly for children
and youths and presents the needs and strengths of
homeless students. In addition, we explore key pro-
visions of the 2001 McKinney-Vento Act (P.L. 100-
628), which was designed to address these concerns.
Finally, we propose several pathways to greater in-
volvement of school social workers in the imple-
mentation of the legislation as well as how they
might augment the services they provide and evalu-
ate the efEcacy of their work.
HOMELESSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES
Homelessness is an extreme condition of poverty
that has been a long-standing concern of the social
work profession. Although single adult men make
up the majority of the homeless population, grow-
ing numbers of children, youths, single mothers,
and poor or working poor families are experienc-
ing homelessness in the United States (Swick, 2004;
U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2001). In a study of
homelessness among urban women of childbear-
ing age, 11.4 percent of the 44,430 women in the
study reported at least one episode of homelessness
in a seven-year period surrounding the birth of
theirfirstchild (Webb, Culhane, Metraux, Robbins,
& Culhane, 2003). Mothers who were African
American, who had less education, and who had

CCCCode: 1532-8759/06 S3.00 O2006 National Association of 5ocial Workers 37

more children were much more likely to experi-
ence homelessness than other groups. Indeed, more
than half (53 percent) ofAfrican American women
in the study who had dropped out of school and
who had four or more children during the seven-
year period assessed (either three years before the
birth of their first child or within the four years of
the birth of their first child) reported being home-
less during that period.The results bode poorly for
the risk of homelessness of young urban children,
particularly African American children.
Older children suffer homelessness in great num-
bers as well. One recent estimate indicated that more
than 900,000 children and youths experience home-
lessness in a given year (U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, 2001). In a national survey on the annual preva-
lence of homelessness among youths ages 12 to 17,
Ringwalt, Greene, Robertson, & McPheeters (1998)
estimated youth homelessness (not including dou-
bling-up with friends or extended family mem-
bers) at nearly 8 percent. Although boys were more
likely than girls to be homeless, they found no other
differences in the prevalence of youth homeless-
ness based on race, poverty status, family structure,
or region of the country. These findings suggest
that youth homelessness is not just a concern for
urban, poor youths, but also a broader concern that
merits national attention (Ringwalt et al.).
Although prevalence estimates are an empirical
indicator of the scope of homelessness, homeless
children and youths are likely undercounted and
underidentified, in part, because shelters may be
inaccessible to them, they are turned away from
shelters, or they avoid shelters and other services
because of the stigma (Aron & Fitchen, 1996;
Swick, 2004; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2001,
2003) .The size of the homeless population, coupled
with the fact that severe poverty and homelessness
pose significant risks to child development, indi-
cates that homelessness is a pressing social concern
for children, youths, and families (Masten et al.,
1997; Schmitz,Wagner, & Menke, 2001). Ensuring
that homeless children and youths receive an edu-
cation on par with their peers is necessary in ad-
dressing the needs of homeless people in the
United States.
NEEDS AND RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED
WITH HOMELESSNESS
Students and their families end up homeless for
numerous reasons. Structural factors, such as pov-
Children &Schoob
erty, lack of affordable housing, and eviction can
lead to sudden or prolonged bouts of homeless-
ness (Reganick, 1997). In addition, personal or re-
lationship factors, such as substance abuse, mental
health difficulties, abuse and neglect, and family
conflict and violence are also reasons that children,
youths, and families may find themselves without
a place to stay (Reganick; Swick, 2004).The stresses
and strains associated with poverty, frequent mo-
bility, and homelessness relate consistendy to health,
emotional, behavioral, and academic difficulties
among homeless students (Hart-Shegos & Associ-
ates, Inc., 1999; Masten et al., 1993; Masten et al.,
1997; Reganick).
Reganick (1997) categorized the struggles that
homeless children and youths face into the follow-
ing five areas: (1) physical conditions and health
problems that result from environmental factors such
as poor nutrition, (2) unacceptable behaviors re-
sulting from coping and survival strategies, (3) in-
adequate social skills and insecurities stemming fi-om
frequent moves and self-consciousness about being
homeless and lacking resources, (4) psychological
trauma resulting from multiple stressors that con-
tributes to negative mental health, and (5) develop-
mental delays due to a lack of stimulating environ-
mental conditions.
Emotional and Behavioral Issues
Homeless children and youths often display higher
levels of emotional and behavioral disorders than
the general population. They are more likely to
experience stress, depression, anxiety, worries,a sense
of isolation, withdrawal, aggression, antisocial be-
havior, and substance use (Hart-Shegos & Associ-
ates, Inc., 1999; Masten et al., 1993; Schmitz et al.,
2001). For instance, Masten and colleagues (1993)
found that homeless children had levels of behav-
ior problems above national norms.They were also
more likely to be exposed to recent stressful events
and school and friendship disruption than matched,
nonhomeless peers. Behavioral problems in both
samples were related to parental distress, cumula-
tive risk, and recent stressful events, suggesting that
there are significant mediators of emotional and
behavioral outcomes for homeless and other low-
income students.
Homeless children and youths can also experi-
ence shame, self-consciousness, and insecurity about
being without a home (Reganick, 1997; Schmitz
et al., 2001). These emotional and behavioral
VOLUME 28, NUMBER I JANUARY 2006
problems, as well as negadve self-attitudes about
being homeless, can lead to academic problems at
school.
Academic Achievement
Homeless students are more likely to experience
low achievement test scores, poor grades, educa-
tional disability, school behavior problems, grade
retention, truancy, and school dropout (Israel,
Urberg, & Toro, 2001; Jozefowicz-Simbeni, 2003;
Masten etal., 1993; Ziesemer etal., 1994). Ziesemer
and colleagues found that homeless students and
matched low-income mobile students both have
higher levels of academic difHculdes compared with
other normative samples.This finding suggests that,
although homeless students face barriers to educa-
tional access and academic success and have unique
challenges as a result of not having a home, poverty
and resultant high mobility also take their toll on
students.Yet homeless students, compared with poor
students who live at home, are at greater risk of
school mobility and related educational challenges
(Masten et al., 1993).
Family-Related Challenges
Homelessness is not only associated with child dif-
ficulties, but parent and family difficulties as well.
Although some studies report lower substance use
and mental health disorders among homeless
women with children compared with other adult
homeless populations, homeless parents are more
likely to be single women who have a substance
abuse problem, mental health disorder, or physical
health problem, and they are less likely than other
mothers to receive services (Hart-Shegos & Asso-
ciates, Inc., 1999). The reality of homelessness can
also mean more parental distress, an undermining
of views of parents and the parental role, less re-
sponsiveness to child needs, and a splintering of the
family unit (Reganick, 1997; Schmitz et al., 2001).
Thus, several risks and barriers encountered by
homeless students can be linked to the struggles of
their parents and to family functioning.
Strengths of Homeless Children and
Their Families
Finally, although homeless students and families
display many struggles and needs, it is important to
attend to and emphasize their strengths. Despite
the numerous stressors homeless youths face, re-
search has identified significant strengths in these
HERNANDEZ JOZEFOWICZ-SIMBENI AND ISRAEL / Services to Homeless Students and Families: The McKinney-Vento Act
children (Israel & Jozefowicz-Simbeni, 2004;
Schmitz et al., 2001). In an interview study of home-
less and runaway youths, Lindsey and colleagues
(2000) found that the ability to change attitudes
and behaviors; penonal characteristics, such as be-
ing strong; and reliance on spirituality were strengths
that contributed to a construcdve transidon to adult-
hood for this group.
In response to the needs of homeless children
and their families, numerous social services and
educational policies have marshaled resources to
stem the dde against poor academic achievement
and child development, as well as poverty. One piece
of legislation, the McKinney-Vento Homeless As-
sistance Act, has been hailed as a landmark law that
explicidy addresses the needs and concerns of home-
less students and their families.
THE MCKINNEY-VENTO ACT
In 1987 the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assis-
tance Act (P.L. 100-77) was first authorized to pro-
tect the rights of homeless students and to ensure
that they receive the same quality and appropriate
public school educadon that nonhomeless students
receive by addressing some of the barriers home-
less children and adolescents face when enrolling
and succeeding in school (U.S. Department of
Education, 2004).The act also mandated the des-
ignation of a state coordinator whose purpose was
to promote educational access for homeless stu-
dents. In 1990 and again in 1994, the law was
amended to expand services to preschool-age chil-
dren and other student groups, decrease noncom-
pliance, and provide incentives for compliance
(Markward & Biros, 2001). Incentives included the
allocation of funding to State Educational Agen-
cies (SEAs) for distribution to Local Educational
Agencies (LEAs) through granting mechanisms.
Such funding not only stimulated the removal of
enrollment barriers, but also increased focus on
programming and community collaborations for
improved academic success of homeless students
(Markward & Biros).
In 2001 the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assis-
tance Act was reauthorized as a part of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-110).The reau-
thorized act further clarified the definition of who
should be considered homeless. Homeless students
include those who do not have afixed,regular, and
adequate nighttime residence and find themselves
in any of the following situations:
39
 • waiting for a foster care placement or being
abandoned in a hospital
• staying in a shelter, abandoned building, or
motel
• staying at a campground or inadequate trailer
park
• living out of a car or in a bus or train station
• staying with friends or relatives as a result of
no housing
• staying in any public or private space not
designed for or used as a regular sleeping place
for human beings
• staying in any of the described locations be-
cause they are from migratory families (U.S.
Department of Education, 2004).
It is important to note that McKinney-Vento
included reference to preschool-age children, an-
other group of homeless students that are often
more difficult to identify and pull into the main-
stream educational system. Also, the law refers to
special populations of homeless students that may
have unique needs, such as those living in domestic
violence shelters (U.S. Department of Education,
2004).
McKinney-Vento also increased the scope of
policies and potential services to assist homeless
students in gaining access to and succeeding in their
education. There are explicit prohibitions against
segregating students into a separate program or
school solely on the basis of homelessness, a pre-
sumption of school of origin as the placement in
the best interests of the student unless otherwise
indicated by the student or family, an immediate
and continued enrollment in school of choice re-
gardless of pending disputes, a required designation
of a liaison for every LEA, and transportation to
and from school of choice (U.S. Department of
Education, 2004).
Two main ideas pervade the act. First, school
mobility should be minimized to mitigate school
disruption and its effect on academic success. Fed-
eral guidelines for implementing McKinney-Vento
apply a "One Child, One School, One Year" policy
and spell out requirements regarding enrollment,
transportation, and dispute resolution that include
immediate enrollment in school without proof of
residency, school records, or immunization records;
choice between school attended before loss of hous-
ing, last school enrolled, or school affiliated with
present living arrangement; and a process for timely
40
dispute resolution (National Law Center on Home-
lessness & Poverty, 2002) .Second, McKinney-Vento
indicates that services should be provided in a way
that allows homeless children to remain in the
mainstream setting with their peers to avoid being
ostracized, segregated, and harassed (U.S. Depart-
ment of Education, 2004).
States receive a minimum allotment of
McKinney-Vento funding, which was $150,000 in
2003 (U.S.DepartmentofEducation,2004).Grants
are given to all states, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico depending on the amount of Title I
funds they receive. Grants also are given to the
outlying areas including the Virgin Islands, Ameri-
can Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands. Funds also go to the
Bureau of Indian Affairs (U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, 2004). States with a minimum allotment can
spend 50 percent of the funds on state-level activi-
ties performed by the state Office of Coordinator
for Education of Homeless Children and Youth.
States with more than the minimum allotment must
award 75 percent of their federal dollars to LEAs
through competitive grants.
BARRIERS TO MCKINNEY-VENTO
IMPLEMENTATION
Although awareness, implementation, and funding
of the McKinney-Vento Act have been expanding,
evidence suggests that barriers to its implementa-
tion still exist (U.S. Department ofEducation, 2001).
In a 2000 Congressional report based on a survey
of state coordinators, respondents indicated that
difficulty identifying homeless students, lack of
awareness of the needs of homeless students and
families, staff turnover, high staff to student ratios,
and limited funding were the primary barriers to
implementing the act at that time. There is also
evidence that low levels of awareness of the act
more generally remain problematic. In a study of
homeless liaisons in one county in Illinois,Thomp-
son and Davis (2003) found that significant num-
bers of liaisons were not aware that they were des-
ignated as homeless liaisons by their LEAs, and they
had little or no knowledge of the McKinney-Vento
Act. Such ignorance could reflect school districts'
own lack of knowledge or unwillingness to devote
resources to training and outreach. A lack of train-
ing and outreach to parents, however, could be
viewed as passive ways to deny services to these
students and families.
Children &Schoob VOLUME 28, NUMBER I JANUARY 2006
 With the excepdon of some exemplary programs,
these barriers mean that homeless students and fami-
lies condnue to be underidentified and underserved,
and a program of services to meet their needs is
often nonexistent, unrecognized, or inadequate.
Increasing awareness of the act, identifying and
tracking homeless students, mainstreaming and re-
ducing the negative effect of mobility, and devel-
oping and coordinating services to homeless stu-
dents and their families all require individuals,
including the mandated officials and social workers
who can educate and prompt school officials to
apprehend and comply with the law.
State Coordinators
McKinney-Vento requires each state to have an
Office of Coordinator for Education of Homeless
Children with a state coordinator whose job is to
develop and carry out the state's McKinney-Vento
plan and collect information on the problems faced
by homeless students and the ability of programs to
address the needs of these students.The coordina-
tor is also responsible for creating and coordinadng
activities and comprehensive services (including
health and social services) for homeless students
and families, partly through linking the shelters,
schools, and community organizations that serve
these students and families. Coordinators are also
expected to provide support and technical assis-
tance to LEAs and local liaisons through developed
documents,Web sites, newsletten, and other media
to increase knowledge, compliance, and activides
associated with the McKinney-Vento Act. Finally,
state coordinators prepare reports to the U.S. De-
partment of Education about the status of meeting
the needs of homeless students as needed (For more
information on state coordinator activities, see
Education for Homeless Children andYouth Pro-
gram: Non-Regulatory Guidance,U.S. Department
of Education, 2004).
LEA Liaisons
Each LEA (or school district) must designate a
homeless liaison who is responsible for ensuring
the smooth matriculation into school and associ-
ated school programs that homeless students re-
quire, as well as facilitating the education of school
personnel and parents regarding the rights guaran-
teed under the McKinney-Vento Act. The liaison
may act as an intermediary between parents and
students and the requirements, or felt requirements.
HERNANDEZ JOZEFOWICZ-SIMBENI AND ISRAEL / Services to Homeless Students and Families: The McKinney-Vento Act
of schools and school districts in meeting those
needs. As intermediaries, local liaisons may need
to assist in document procurement and delivery,
dispute resolution, school enrollment, and ongo-
ing educadon so that all parties understand the law
and receive or deliver services. Liaisons can be in-
volved in securing material needs such as food and
clothing, as well as transportation to and from
schools.They can also be stabilizing forces in home-
less students' and families' lives through centralized
contact and the indirect and direct provision of
services.
A Role for School Social Workers
The role and functions of homeless liaisons are so
consonant with the role and fiincdons ofsocial work,
it is no surprise that school social workers have
been recruited explicidy or implicidy into these
roles. For instance, homeless liaisons need to be
advocates for homeless children and families, need
to attain resources for these students and families,
and need to connect with community organiza-
tions and agencies on behalf of these students and
families. School social workers often do this for at-
risk and special needs students more generally, and
have likely been doing so for homeless students
more specifically.
Unfortunately, school social workers'involvement
with homeless students and families, and their po-
sidons as homeless liaisons remain largely anecdotal.
There is no formal documented accounting of the
level of involvement school social workers have had
or are having with this populadon. As a result, we
are only beginning to understand the infiuence of
McKinney-Vento Act on the school social work
profession. Markward and Biros (2001) wrote about
the implementation of the 1987 act and implica-
tions for school social work practice. Recommen-
dations for school social workers then included
advocating for adequate housing and funding, iden-
tifying preschool and special needs homeless stu-
dents and linking them to educational programs
and services, increasing parental involvement, link-
ing families to services, providing direct services,
and evaluating the effectiveness of services
(Markward & Biros). Despite such recommenda-
tions and the strengthening of the act in 2001,
awareness and social workers' position in imple-
mentadon of McKinney-Vento continue to be a
challenge.
41
Overcoming Barriers
To increase knowledge and compliance, schools
need to identify local liaisons, educate them about
their function and roles, and advocate for training
and real support for these individuals.To overcome
barriers to appropriate service delivery and facili-
tate parental involvement, key roles homeless liai-
sons and school social workers can play are those of
parent and staff educator and system advocate.They
can educate and sensitize school staff, other fami-
lies and students, and community agency workers
(for example, shelter staff, protective service work-
ers) to the needs and rights of homeless children
and families. Concerted awareness-raising efforts
would help increase compliance with McKinney-
Vento requirements, as well as decrease stereotyp-
ing and other negative attitudes toward homeless
students and families that impede children's and
adolescents' emotional and academic growth
(Reganick, 1997). Furthermore, a strengths-based
approach that emphasizes homeless mothers' posi-
tive views of their children (Israel & Jozefowicz-
Simbeni, 2004) and homeless students' high aspira-
tions and positive views of themselves (Reganick)
could lead to more construcdve views, supports,
and service provision for this population.
Because of a lack of knowledge and implemen-
tation surrounding the McKinney-Vento Act, pro-
grams designed to increase knowledge and com-
pliance continue to emerge and expand, and public
awareness of such programs is beginning to grow.
For instance, an article that appeared in the Chicago
Tribune described several programs for homeless stu-
dents that are run by the Regional Education Of-
fice and the Illinois Coalition to end Homelessness
(Mastony, 2003). One program involves four social
workers who serve as centralized contacts to ad-
dress student enrollment and problems that home-
less students and families face. They also perform
outreach to schools and shelters, educate schools
about the act, and attempt to identify local liaisons
for each local school district (Mastony).
In an attempt to develop and evaluate services to
homeless students and families in an urban, high
poverty district in Michigan, a quantitative and
qualitative needs assessment was conducted with
50 elementary students and their mothers staying
in homeless shelters (Israel, Toro, & Jozefowicz-
Simbeni, 2003). Preliminary analyses of interview
data revealed that these children were highly mo-
bile (moving an average of four times in the past 12
Children ei-Schoob VOLUME 28, NUMBER 1 JANUARY 2006
months) and rarely were able to obtain services the
law designates. Possibly as a result of this, parents
perceived schools as being inadequately prepared
to deal with their needs or their children's needs.
However, a strength of the mothers was that they
also stated a willingness to become and to stay in-
volved with their children's education. School so-
cial workers could build on such strengths by link-
ing parents with the resources necessary to facilitate
their involvement in their child's education.
Based on the findings, key recommendations to
the district included hiring sufficient staff to effec-
tively implement all aspects of the district's Educa-
tion of Homeless Student Plan, developing a sys-
tem to identify and track homeless students and
families, providing in-service training to educate
staff about the McKinney-Vento Act, and conduct-
ing outreach efforts to local shelters to provide in-
formation to homeless students and families regard-
ing the act and their rights (Israel et al., 2003). In
addition, the study made recommendations regard-
ing expanded school and social services to improve
educational access and the academic success of
homeless students from preschool through high
school. Key recommendations in such reports have
broad applicability and can be used not only to
inform local program efforts, but also to inform
efforts in other districts and states more generally.
Wider dissemination of program descriptions and
evaluations, therefore, should be attempted, and
school social workers can be instrumental in writ-
ing and publishing such reports. In addition to
increasing knowledge, staffmg, and outreach to
shelters, McKinney-Vento and reports on
McKinney-Vento also suggest the importance of
linking homeless students and families to existing
services and school programs, including programs
such as the free and reduced lunch program, after-
school programs, tutoring, special education. Tide
I, and adult and vocational education (U.S. Depart-
ment of Education, 2001). One important area in
need of more attention is the underrepresentation
of homeless preschoolers in early education pro-
grams (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). Early
intervention and education is critical for both
remediation of early childhood delays and the pro-
motion of school readiness, particularly for poor
preschoolers (McLoyd, 2000). Early childhood pro-
grams can serve as stable forces in the lives of home-
less preschoolers who experience homelessness
(Douglass, 1996). Putting families of preschoolers
in contact with Even Start and Head Start pro-
grams is needed, as well as identifying and devel-
oping other options for homeless preschool-age
children.
In addition to linking students and families with
educational programs, liaisons and school social
workers can connect students and families with
other services and community agencies. As stated,
studies have indicated significant mental health and
substance abuse problems for homeless students and
their parents. These children and families may also
have contact with the public assistance, child wel-
fare, and juvenile justice systems. Thus, school so-
cial workers need to be knowledgeable about these
systems and how children and families can obtain
the appropriate services.
Finally, school social workers can engage not only
in risk reduction, but also in resource building
(Jozefowicz-Simbeni & Allen-Meares, 2002) for
homeless students, families, and the communities
and schools they serve.This can occur through per-
sistent outreach, community involvement, and
grant-writing activities. Resources can include food,
clothing, school uniforms, bus tickets, backpacks,
books, school supplies, computers, personal hygiene
items, and of course, housing.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
School social workers have an opportunity to make
a significant impact in the lives of homeless school
children and youths. The McKinney-Vento Act
spells out numerous avenues for involvement that
are compatible with social work values, roles, and
functions.These include the identification and track-
ing of homeless students, and the development and
implementation of a broad range of interventions
and services designed to increase educational ac-
cess and success for these children and adolescents.
To gain a clearer understanding of the signifi-
cance of the McKinney-Vento Act to homeless stu-
dents and families, its implications for school social
work practice, and whether its implementation has
been successful, more research is needed to deter-
mine how many homeless students and families are
being served, what their needs are, what types of
services are being provided to them, and how ef-
fective service provision has been in meeting their
needs. Consistent with current models of social
work practice, there is a need to identify best prac-
tices in this area. In addition, identification of ways
in which these efforts can be folded into other ef-
HERNANDEZ JOZEFOWICZ-SIMBENI AND ISRAEL / Services to Homeless Students and Families: The McKinney-Vento Aa
forts to track highly mobile and high-risk children
is also needed. Ideally, efforts to address the unique
needs of homeless students and families should
become part of a comprehensive and seamless ser-
vice delivery system.This legislation offers a unique
opportunity to encourage local human services,
community, and business organizations to band
together to help a targeted group of individuals
who are undeniably in need. It is also an opportu-
nity to develop community awareness of the needs
of economically disempowered families and to en-
courage communities to develop services that rely
on integrated service delivery models, such as full-
service schools or school-linked services (for ex-
ample,Jozefowicz-Simbeni & Allen-Meares, 2002).
The importance of this legislation to develop and
assess the effects of implementing a coordinated
system of care has implications for homeless stu-
dents in particular, and all at-risk students more
broadly. S
REFERENCES
Aron, L.Y., & Fitchen, J. M. (1996). Rural homelessness: A
synopsis. In J. Baumohl (Ed.), Hometessness in America
(pp. 81-85). Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
Douglass, A. (1996). Rethinking the effects of homeless-
ness on children: Resiliency and competency. Child
Wetfare, 75,741-751.
Hart-Shegos & Associates, Inc. (1999, December).
Hometessness and its effects on chitdren. Minneapolis:
Author.
Israel, N., & Jozefowicz-Simbeni, D. M. (2004, April).
Strengths and support needs ofhometess students in
Detroit. Poster session presented at the Children's
Bridge Conference, Wayne State University, Detroit.
Israel, N.,Toro, PA., & Jozefowicz-Simbeni, D. M. (2003).
An evaluation of homeless children and youth services.
Unpubhshed manuscript,Wayne State University,
Detroit.
Israel, N., Urberg, K., & Toro, PA. (2001,August).
Academic performance and maladjustment in housed and
hometess adolescents. Paper presented at the annual
convention, American Psychological Association,
San Francisco.
Jozefowicz-Simbeni, D.M.H. (2003,April). Why do they
leave? Why do they stay? Quantitative and quatitative
perspectives on high school dropout. Poster session
presented at the Biennial Meeting, Society for
Research in Child Development,Tampa, FL.
Jozefowicz-Simbeni, D.M.H., & Allen-Meares, P. (2002).
Poverty and schools: Intervention and resource
building through school-linked services. Chitdren &
Schoots, 24,123-136.
Lindsey, E.W., Kurtz, P D.,Jarvis, S.,Williams, N. R., &
Nackerud, L. (2000). How runaway and homeless
youth navigate troubled waters: Personal strengths
and resources. Child & Adolescent Sociat Workfournat,
/ 7,115-140.
Markward, M. J., & Biros, E. (2001). McKinney revisited:
Implications for school social work. Chitdren &
Schoots, 23,182-187.
Masten, A. S., Miliotis, D , Graham-Bermann, S. A.,
Ramirez, M., & Neemann, J. (1993). Children in
43
 homeless families: Risks to mental health and Philadelphia, Pa. American fournat ofPubtic Health, 93,
development._/oMraa/ ofConsutting and Clinical 1895-1896.
Psychology, 61,2,35-343. Ziesemer, C , Marcoux, L., & Marwell, B. E. (1994).
Masten,A. S., Sesma, A., Jr., Si-Asar, R., Lawrence, C , Homeless children: Are they different from other
Miliotis, D , & Dionne,J.A. (1997). Educational low-income children? Sociat Work, 39,658-^68.
risks for children experiencing homelessness. JowrMd/
of School Psychology, 35, 27-46.
Mastony, C. (2003,July 2). Education program to aid Debra M. Hernandez Jozefowicz-Simbeni, PhD, is
homeless suburban kids. Chicago Tribune, p. Al.
assistant professor, Schoot of Sociat Work, Wayne State
McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1988, PL.
100-628,101 Stat. 482. University, 4756 Cass Avenue, Thompson Home, Room
McLoyd,V. C. (2000). Poverty: Childhood poverty. In 314, Detroit, MI 48202; e-mail: debj-s@wayne.edu.
A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyctopedia of psychology (Vol. 6, Nathaniel Israel, MA, is Visiting Assistant in Research,
pp. 251—257). Washington, DC: American Psycho-
logical Association and Oxford University Press. Department ofChitd & Family Studies, Louis de la Parte
National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty. (2002). Florida Mental Health Institute, University of South
Education of chitdren & youth in hometess situations. Ftorida, Tampa.
Washington, DC: Author. Available at http://
www.nlchp.org/content/pubs/Edu-new- Accepted June 7, 2005
children%20in%20homeless%20situations.doc
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), PL. 107-
110, 115 Stat. 1425.
Rafferty,Y. (1995).The legal rights and educational
problems of homeless children and youth. Educa-
tional Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17, 39—61.
Reganick, K. A. (1997). Prognosis for homeless children
and adolescents. Childhood Education, 73, 133—135.
Ringwalt, C. L., Greene, J. M., Robertson, M., &
McPheeters, M. (1998).The prevalence of homeless-
ness among adolescents in the United States.
American fournat of Public Health, 88, 1325-1329.
Schmitz, C L., Wagner, J. D , & Menke, E. M. (2001).The
interconnection of childhood poverty and home-
lessness: Negative impact/points of access. Families in
Society, 82,69-77.
Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987,
PL. 100-77,101 Stat. 1425.
Swick, K.J. (2004). The dynamics of families who are
homeless: Implications for early childhood
educators. Childhood Education, SO, 116-120.
Thompson, J. A., & Davis, S. M. (2003, June). Educating
homeless children: Perceptions of school homeless tiaisons.
Poster presented at the 9th Biennial Conference,
Society for Community Research and Action, Las
Vegas.
United States Conference of Mayors. (2001, December).
A status report on hunger and homelessness in America's
cities, 2001:A 27-city survey. Retrieved May 18,
2004, from http://www.usmayors.org/uscm/
hungersurvey/2001/hungersurvey 2001.pdf
United States Conference of Mayors. (2003, December).
A status report on hunger and homelessness in
America's cities, 2003:A 25-city survey. Retrieved
May 18, 2004, from http://www.usmayors.org/
uscm/hungersurvey/2003/onlinereport/
HungerAndHomelessnessReport2003.pdf
US. Department ofEducation. (2001, December).
Education for hometess chitdren and youth program:
Report to Congress fiscat year 2000. Retrieved
October 24, 2004, from http://www.ed.gov/
programs/homeless/rpt2000.doc
U.S. Department ofEducation. (2004,July). Education for
hometess chitdren and youth program: Non-regutatory
guidance. Retrieved October 24,2004, from http://
www.ed.gov/programs/homeless/guidance.pdf
Wall,J. C. (1996). Homeless children and their families:
Delivery of educational and social services through
school systems. Sociat Work in Education, 18,135—
144.
Webb, DA., Culhane,J., Metraux, S., Robbins,J. M., &
Culhane, D. (2003). Prevalence of episodic
homelessness among adult childbearing women in

Chitdren & Schools VOLUME 28, NUMBER I JANUARY I O O 6

44