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A WORKTEXT FOR BEGINNERS IN DRAFTING

The Steck Industrial Arts Series ,·

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BY ~'
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Everett R. Glazener :.,....
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Head, Industrial
·.
Education Department-, 1,, ,, l
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Arkansas Agricultural and Mechanical College'~ 7
College Heights, Arkansas \ C'\
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IN COLLABORATION WITH

Coty Clark /

Instructor, Public Schools - ,-

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Fort · Smith, Arkansas ./ .

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WoRI<TEXT
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®
MARK
TA-'QI
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THE STECK COMPAN ·Y • PUBLISHERS • AUSTIN, TEXAS

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To the Teacher
This Worktext has been planned to fit .the inter-
ests, needs, and capacities of average boys and
girls, and other beginners in drafting. It should
furnish an exploratory background for those stu-
dents desiring general training, as wen · as for those
who are interes~ed in becoming draftsmen, or ih
further study of engineering and other technical or
mechanical vocations where the skills of actual
. drawing practices are needed.
There 1s sufficient material to permit students
to become familiar with the drafting performance,
terms, and symbols used in every-day life. Work
sheets and other spaces are provided for sketching
to be done in many pr_oblems, with or without the
use of instruments. There are extra work sheets
for students, use in expressing new ideas and in
developing their own initiative .
The book may be used in either of two ways:
in selected sections for an introductory course, or
in its entirety as text material for courses. The
material ·is suffi:ciently flexible to permit use as
assignments for a full 36 weeks or more, or in divi-
s~ons for 9, 12, or 18 weeks of interesting study,
or in integration -with shop work or other programs.
The organization should not be considered bind-
ing. It is designed to serve as' a suggestive -guide,
allowing the individual teacher to exercise his own
initiative and to adapt the · sequence of subject mat-
ter to his ideas and methods for presenting ma-
terial. · After assignments and other explanations · and
Teachers should also consider the value of news-
papers, magazines, -and trade - literature to them-
selves and to their students. · Much of this source
material contains information not usually or cur-
~ ~ ently available in textbooks. It should be made
av....
ailable to students and teachers in the classroom .
a
-as source of ideas for all types of drafting, sketch-
ing, and blueprint reading.
It is suggested that teachers use, in addition to
these printed materials, such aids as modeling clay,
Copyright © 1958 by The Steck Company, Austin, Texas·.
NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM WITHOUT
-,
soap, prepared "boxes" (as illustrated in various
divisions of this Worktext), wax, film (still and
moving), opaque projectors, field trips, actual ob -
-jects from the home, shop, or community, and any
other items or activities which may assist in
teaching. .
Division 9, "Designing and Building of Models,»
has been included for the particular purpose of de-
veloping student interest in sketching, design,
drafting ·, or other phases , of . industrial arts work .
Drawing has been combined successfully in many
places with construction as a motivation of the
interest of the "casual" drafting student, and as an
incentive for greater accomplishment. This com-
bination is effective also for those who will even-
tually use it professionally in a major area of work.
To the Pupil
This Worktext has been prepared to offer you
general information and practice in some of _the
v_arious areas of drafting.
By performing a number of the basic operations
in drafting you will acquire techniques which are
essential in industry, in numerous professions, and
in general around the home and at work . All drafts-
men, designers, architects, and engineers started
by doing much ·work similar to that which you will
do. Almost everybody needs at various times some
of the knowledge and skill obtained from a study
of mechanical drawing. _
demonstrations . are made, you · should thoroughly
study the information about the work you are to
do, and then plan carefully before actually begin-
ning a project . Through studying some or all of
these drafting areas, and practicing in them, you
should acquire a general knowledge of drafting,
sketching, and blueprint reading, an understanding
of the need for this knowledge as felt by various
workers, and some realization of your future needs
and possibilities in ·them.
All rights reserved. Printed in the ·u.S.A.
THE WRI'ITEN PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER

Contents
I. Blueprint Reading and Sketching, 5
Reading Blueprints .. , . . . . . . . 5 ·of Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The . Meaning of Blueprints 5 Drawing an Arc of Given Size
Symbols Used in Blu~prints . . 5 Tangent to Two Other Arcs
Blueprints for Models · . . . . . 8 Drawing an Arc of a Particular
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Freehand Drawing . . . . . . . . . . 13
Its Usefulness . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Materials fqr Sketching . . . . 14
Sketching Horizontal, Vertical,
and Inclined Lines . . . . . . "14
Sketching Arcs and Circles . . 15
Sketchin:g an Entire Object . . 16
Tones, Shades, and Shadows 17
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II. Basic Drafting Inf onnation, 25
Tools . . . .. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 25
Pencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Drafting Board . . . . . . . . . . 26
T-squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Erasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 .
Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.
Using the Pencil . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Horizontal Lines . . . . . . . . . . 27
Vertical Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Inclined Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Odd-angle Lines . . . . . . . . . . 29
Alphabet . of Lines · . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Arrowheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Laying Out Lines . . . . . . . . . . 30
Pro bl ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Title Blocks · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bill of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Drawing to Scale . . . . . . . . . 39
Reading a Scale . . . . . . . . . . 39
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 39
Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Additional Instruments . . . . . . . 46
Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Bow Instruments . . . . . . . . . . 51
Irregular Curves . . . . . . . . . . 51
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Geometric Construction . . . . . . 54
A Perpendicular to a Line
at a Given Point . . . . . . . . 54
Bisecting an Angle . . . . . . . . 54
Finding the Center of a
Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Dividing a Straight Line into
Any Number of Equal Parts 54
Drawing a Regular Pentagon
or a Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Constructing a Hexagon inside
a Given Circle . . . . . . . . . 55
Drawing a Figure or Polygon
of Any Number of Equal
Sides within a Given Circle 55
Drawing a Circle or Arc
through Three Given Points 56
..4i:\\ /
Drawing an Ellipse by the Auxiliary Views . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Trammel Method . . . . . . .
A Line Tangent to a Circle or
56 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
107
108
Arc at a Given Point . . . . . 56 Varieties of Fasteners . . . . . . 108
Connecting Two Non-parallel Screw Threads ......... -. . 108
Lines with a Certain Size -Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
56 Dr:iwing Threads and
Symbols ........... -. . . . 110
57 Methods of Drawing Screw
Threads .............. 110
Size Tangent to a Line and Using Fractions . . . . . . . . . . 111
Another Arc . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Semi-conventional Method of
Pro bl ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Drawing the Sharp- V
Thread ............... 111
Drawing the Square Thread .. 112
III. Pictorial Drawing, 60
Drawing the Acme Thread . . 112
Three Common Types of · Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Isometric Drawing . . . . . . . . . . 60
Axes and Straight Lines . . . . 60 VI. Sheet-metal Development .
Steps in Making a Simple and Layout, 121
Isometric Drawing . . . . . . . 61
Some Facts ·about Sheet Metal . . 121
Drawing Isometric Circles . . · 63
Types of Sheet Metal . . . . . . 121
Drawing a Partial Isometric
Uses of Sheet Metal . . . . . . . . 121
Circle, or Arc . . . . . . . . . . 63
Relation of Sheet-metal ·
Irregular Isometric Curves . . 64
Articles to Geometry . . . . 121
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Oblique Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Parallel-line Development . . . . 121
Two Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
General Definition . . . . . . . . 122
· Making a Cavalier and a
Rectangular, Cylindrical, and
Cabinet Drawing . . . . . . . 72
Octagonal Prisms . . . . . . . 122
Oblique Circles and Arcs . . . 73 Problems ... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Irregular Oblique Curves . . . 73
Radial-line Development . . . . . 126
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Conical Shapes . . . . . . . . . . 127
Perspective Drawing . . . . . . . . 77
Pyramid Shapes . . . . . . . . . . 129
Two Commonly Used Types 77 Hexagonal and Octagonal
Parallel, or One-point
Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Drawing a Simple Parallel Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Angular, or Two-point
Perspective . . . . . . - . . ,. . . 79 VII. Graphs, Diagrams, Maps, 131
Drawing a Two=point
Perspective, Part I . . . . . . 81 · Practical Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Drawing a Two-point Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Perspective, Part II . . . . . . 82 Graph Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . 82 Related Uses of Graph-making
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
IV. Multiview Projection, 84 Types of Graphs - . . • . . . . . . 135
Need for Multiview Drawing . . 84 Problems ..... -137, 138, 139, 141
Viewing an Object . . . . . . . . . 84
Choice of Views .. - . - . . . . 84
VIII. Architectural Drawing-
Using Hidden Lines on Views 86 Home Planning, 145
Spacing of Views . . . . . . . . . . 86
Spacing Two Views . . . . . . . . 86 Architectural Drawing In
Spacing Cylindrical Objects . . 86 Relation to Your Home 145
Spacing Three Views • . . . . . 87 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
General Procedure for Pencil A House or a Home? . . . . . . . . . 148
Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 ·
Inclined Surfaces ...... -. . . . 88 Financing a Home . . . . . . . . . . 149
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Prefabricated Houses . . . . . . . . 150
Planning a Home . . . . . . . . . . 150
V. Machine Drawing, I 02
Types of Home
General Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Architecture ........... 150
Sectioning . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Problems In Home Planning 150
The Cutting-plane Line . . . . 102 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Irregular Shapes . . . . . . . . . . 104 Various Areas of the Home .. 151
Half, Partial, and Revolved Planning the Kitchen . . . . . . 152
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Parts Not Sectioned . . . . . . . 105 Considering Utilities . . . . . . . 155
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
 Choosing the Correct IX. Furnishing 's and Decoration 18-i
Windows ............ . 158 Electrical Drawing and
Doors ................ . 159 Learning To Design ........ . 169 Design . . . . . . . . · . ; . . . . . . 135
The Fireplace . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Prepared Mode ls . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . 185
Problems .............. . 160 Making Aircraft Designs and The Buzzer Code-practice
Steps and Stairways ...... . 160 Models ............. .. _... 169 Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
. Garage or Carport . . . . . . . . 160 The Outdoor Glider . . . . , .. 171 A Simple Receiver . . . . . . . 18f
Problems .. . ........... . 161 The All-balsa R.O.G. . .... . 175 A Simple Transmitter . . . . . . 187
Putting Your Plans on Paper . . 161 The Outdoor R. 0. G. . ... . 179 Problems ............. . . l &E
Steps in Drawing Plans . . . . . 161 Problems .............. . 182 Marine Designing . . .. . . . . . . . ISE
Floor Plans . . . . . . . . . .· ; . . 161 Designing Model Cars ...... . 182 A Small Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . 18£
Elevations ............. . 164 Making Architectural Models .. 183 A Marine Fun-craft . . . . . . . 191
Construction Details . . . . . . 166 The Value of Models ..... . 183 Pro bl ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91_.
Problems .............. . 167 Model Contests ......... . 183 Miscellaneous Project Designs . . 191
Decorating 168 Materials for Model Homes 184 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

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Acknowledgments
The ;uthors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Mr. J. D. Moore of Monticello, Arkansas, for a num-
ber of the photographs.
The following companies were very cooperative in
their assistance with materials, illustrations, and
photographs: Aluminum Company of America, Amer-
ican Iron and Steel Institute, American Lead Pencil
Company, American · Society of Mechanical Engineers,
The American Radio Relay League (How To Be-
come a Radio Amateur), Acme Brick Company, Armco
Steel Corporation , Crane Company, Eugene Dietzgen
Company, Fisher Body Craftsman's Guild, Ford Motor
Company, Fort Smith Table Company, General Elec-
tric Company, Higgins Ink Company, Inc., Hillyard
Sales Company, International Business Machines Cor-
poration, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company, Louis
Melind Compan y ( Justrite Drawing Ink), Lowe &
Campbell, The Mengel Company, Mullins Manufac-
turing Corporation ( Youngstown Kitchens), National
Adequate Wiring Bureau, The National Research Bu-
reau, Inc. ~ National Homes Corporation, - Northrop
Aircraft, Inc., Northwest Airlines, Piper Aircraft Cor-
poration, Pittsburgh Coming Corporation, Pittsburgh
Plate Glass Company, Popular Mechanics Magazine,
Revell, Inc., The Sherwin-Williams Company, United
States Gypsum Company, Westinghouse Electric Cor-
poration, X-Acto , Inc.

Cover Illustrations
FRONT COVER: Die-cast Products Resulting from
Design and Drafting ( Aluminum Company of
America); On e Tower a Whole Town ( American
Iron and Steel Institute); A Classroom Housing
Developn1ent'; Drafting and Design in Industry
( Intern ational Busine ss Machines Corporation);
The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress ( Revell, Inc.);
Planning Arrangem ent and Color.
BACK COVER: The Sketch Precedes the Product
( International Business Machines Corporation);
A Small Modem Aircraft ( Piper Aircraft Corpora-
tio n ) ; A Modem Drafting Room ( Northrop Air-
craft, Inc.); Type Design in Industry ( Inter-
national Business Machines Corporation) ; A
Home Made from Prefabricated Parts (Nation al
· Hom es Corporation); A Model of the U . S.
Frigate Constitution ( Revell, Inc.); A Double
Dresser - Panel Bed Bedroom Set ( Ft. Smith
Table Company).

4.
 1. Bluepririt Reading and
Sketching
READING BLUEPRINTS
Drafting, a specialized kind of drawing, is a
graphic language understood in all parts of the
world. It is often called the universal language.
For example, the outline of an automobile as a
drawing (graphic language) gives about the
same idea to everyone. This idea appears very
different, however, and is more difficult to
grasp, when written in words.
THE MEANING OF BLUEPRINTS
A picture or drawing of a tree (Fig. 1) me�ns
the same thing to practically everybody, regard­
less of nationality. However, the same idea
when put into words becomes meaningless to
all except those who know the language in
which it is written (Fig.· 2). Therefore, it would
be impossible through language to describe and
explain an· work so that it is easily understood
by everyone.
[\[f?
\ r-�fa
Y'x---1 �i/f
k, "-../\( !J \11
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('-� iJ'1{( !ff
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,� l @� \�
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TREE SYM&OL$ ONTOPOGRAPHIC.
TREE 5YMBOLSIN U.£VATION,
FIGURE 1. A Tree as Seen by a Person
of Any Nationality
ARABIC
ENGLISH
SPANISH
FIGURE 2. "Tree" Written in Various Languages
Engineers, designers, technicians, and drafts­
men record their ideas on paper in this graphic
language of industry (Fig. 3) ..
These ''picture" records, expressing ideas in
lines and other graphic symbols rather than in
words, are called -='blueprints.''. Other workers
;
FIGURE 3. Industrial Draftsman Using
Parallel-ruling Straightedge
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
in industry produce the final product by "read:..
ing" the meaning of these drawings and then
following these plans as they are drawn.
In this industrial and mechanical age in which
we live, a reading knowledge of the graphic
language, or the ability to ''read blueprints," is
useful to practically everyone, and necessary
to many.
DECIDUOUS TREE SYMBOLS USED IN BLUEPRINTS
.
I� A mechanical drawing makes use of rriany ·
ORCHARD
�
�
OAK
lines, symbols, and other types of information.
The process of preparing such a diagram is
called drafting or mechanical drawing. The
TREE proper production of mechanical drawings re­
. MAPS
quires considerable training and skill. However,
it is not necessary for you to have this skill to
be able to read and. understand drawings and
blueprints. To lay out a baseball diamond, foot­
ball field, or basketball ,court, ot to build a
project in the shop or construct a building, you
must be able to read a drawing. The ability to
FRENCH read drawings is necessary in almost all voca­
tions.
The alphabet is the foundation for our mod­
em language, but pictures were used by the
GERMAN early Egyptians, and also by the American In­
dians, to tell the stories of their adventures· and
other experiences. A special type of picture
language is used in industrial drawing in the
preparation of blueprints.
The elements to be considered when you
read a blueprint are the lines, symbols, and
other descriptions on the drawing or blueprint.
The general shape of the objecf you are to m�e
5
 MlDOEMLUU.

must be indicated, also _dimensions or size;

---,
description is made basically through the draw-
ing, but certain notes and specifications explain
the kind of material, color, finish, and other
details.
When you understand these lines, signs, sym-
bols, notes, and abbreviations, you will be able
to read almost all kinds of blueprints.
Blue was once the color of practically all .
'$'
prints made from drawings and tracings. There-
fore, the term ''blueprint" is used here to mean
any form of reproduced drawing whether it is
a pattern of white lines on blue, blue on white,
or brown on white, photostatic copies, or any
other combination. Whatever the color and FIGURE 5. lliustration of Lines in
process of reproduction, the lines and symbols Drawing of an Object
remain the same in reading and interpreting.
Symbols are used in all types of drawing. AC, a.c . alternating current ( elecbicity)
Those generally seen on beginning drawings amp. amper e (e lectri city )
will be used in this division. Others for elec - ASA · American Standards Association
tricity, plumbing, and building may be found AWG American wire gauge
in Divisjon 8, "Architectural Drawing- Home -AWS American Welding Society
Planning"; mapping symbols are explained in bd board
Division 7, "Graphs, Diagrams, · and Maps." BTU, Btu British thermal units
Bab. Babbitt
Lines. One of the most important factors in
bd. ft. board foot or board feet (woo dwork)
reading and interpreting drawings and blue-
prints is a knowledge of the types of lines and
B. & S. Brown & Sharpe (gauges in wire or
metal ) -
their meanings.
Study Figures 4 and 5 until you are thor-
hrs.
C'br or
brass
counter bore -
oughly familiar with the lines shown. These C'bore
lines will have the same meanings on all draw- c.r.s
. cold rolled steel
ings where they are used. They may be grouped C.l. cast iron
as heavy, medium, and light, but the proper CL (ct.) center line
breaks and width tell you what each one means Csk countersink
and how it is used. Dor dia diameter
DC, d.c . direct current (electricity)
OBJECT
deg. degree
FAO finish all over
t CUTTING PLANE t FAS first and seconds (woodwo rk)
BREAK LINtS f.b.m. foot board measure (same as board
-'\,--- ---'\,---'y ....----
feet in woodwork )
fin., f finish
MIDDEN
ft. foot or feet
ALTERNATE POSITION, ADJACENT
GlS good one side (as plywood)
DITTO OR REPEAT
hd. head
SECTION hex hexagon
----
CENTER HP, h .p. horsep ower
!~~----5¼---
EXTENSION ~ DIMENSION
- --• 1 h.r.s.
i.d.
hot rolled steel
inside diameter ►-

FIGURE 4. The Alphabet of Lines KD kiln dried (woods)

kw kilowatt (electricity)
kw-hr., kilowatt hour (electricity)
Notes and Abbreviations. Besid es lines and
orKWH
numbers, which present most of the facts in a pound
lb,#
drawing, certain notes are added, many of which l.h. left hand
are abbreviated to save tim e and space. Com- mach. machine
mon abbreviations are listed as follows, with ms machine steel
indications for some as to the industry or ma- m .p.h. miles per hour
terial with which they are usually associated: NC National Coarse (thread)
6
 NEC National Electrical Code This list of materials includes the number of
NF National Fine (thread) the part as designated on the drawing, its name,
#, No. number quantity needed, name of material, and possibly
o.d. outside diameter other information. Bills of : materials are fre-
p pitch quently used .with plan sheets in shop work and
pc. piece
contain much of the same information, with
p.d. pitch diameter
qt. quart the addition of other item~, as that given in
R, r. radius Figure 7. ·
r.h. right hand INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
STUDENT PL~~ S~EtT
r.p.m. revolutions per minute NAME ______ __ _ COUASE _ _ _______ _
SIS, S2S, surf ace one, two, or four sides NAME OF PAOJE:CT ______
DATE COMPLETED
__
ESTIMATED
OATE. BEGUN _ _
TIME TO 00 JOB __
___
MOURS
_

S4S ACTUAL TIME REQUIRED

MAKING --- -- --
1-fOURS.
---
SOURCE OF' IDEA & REA50NS
-- ---,- -- --
F'OR
--
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers PLACE WORKING DRAWING ON BACK.
Sel. select (as in lumber grade) Bl LL OF MATERIALS
NO. dTv. MATERIAL PART NAME, SPECIFICATIONS AMT.REC ' D UN IT COST TctrAL
sq. ft. square foot or feet I
z
sq. 1n. square inch or inches !. .

std Standard . ".5

6
Thd. thread 7
"9
USS United States Standard (as for 10
II
threads) 12.
13
V finish (new symbol) 14
115 '
16
w.i. wrought iron 17
I TOTAL COST
yd. yard I AMOUNT
I
SUPPL IEO &Y STUDENT
At.llOUNTTO l!,E PAID
PROCEDURE WITH TOOLS 4tMACHINES TO BE USED. ____ _ __ _

Symbols and Names for Materials. Bill of

Materials. A bill of materials · may be a simple
list of items necessary to construct an object or
a long list in detail, as shown in Figure 6. STUDENT APPRAISAL REMARKS ,- -- -- -- -- -- -~-

It makes extensive use of abbreviations of APPROVED &Y_ __ ___ PAYMENT RECEIVED (DATE) _ ___ _
names and symbols for various supplies, and
it is placed on the drawing, usually above the FIGURE 7. Bill .of .·Materials on Plan Sheet
title block on the right side. Used -in Shop
6'-0 ' .
1'-z.• 1'-z.•
!"x6' TOP &OLTtO TO SUPPORTS
Sections and Breaks. When it is necessary to
show the inside of an object ·or part, . it is pic-
tured by use of a section or sectioned drawing.
Common symbols for a pipe , a tube, a solid
2.'x.2.• Ki\"
ANGL.E. 2." )(4 "
rod, a smooth break, or for wood are shown
in Figure 8.

0
..·- - SIDE.E.LE.VATION
-~· 6'
3'-0"
t'-0"
I
2.'• 0"
~
N
>(

1------~
!-1-- PIPE OR TUBE

.I
{CARR IAGE. &OLTS_.,....-.___:_.....,_
s' --,-t-+---;---t---..,.._+-1<-_,
:
0
I
._I -~~ A :50LIO
I

5• ".....

_JC WOOD
1•CARRIAGE

-,------.Vi_
&OL.T6

5MOO'TH &REAK AS ON RECTANGLES

END ELEVATION
-
'
1""-.
t>X~ Cllrl'T
•· x_,•
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Tl\~l.'£. TO-P :r.o"~
"°·''~
.. · v.~
" '~ C.L ~t.. "N.t..0\.16
~ l. ~2,.. ~L \.
Ma11:0-..1',t,I.

• FIGURE 8. Sections or Breaks

1· ~ .,~ - "-6." fl'EfllT
.. .. """"
,/j 1,..
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ao•'ll>& :I. C:~1',1',.\f\•t.

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lo.l""f..,
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T I.
·- Additional common section symbols are
;J... l( ... ~
'l.'-~Y• ~ \tlilt.Q, 0 "" ~
'"'"c.~ • shown in Figures 9 and 10. Many other build-
-
'
a l.'" 41\-'"X y _ut;..,• -PICNI C 1'R ll,1..E.
, :a.·
X.
.. l.. ,.. 'li1o,.. ~"
'°'0"\.11.0M'T«-~
~'4 0\.E.L
~1\,0C.'£. I
l. ~ 'I!

~ C.fll\. '- lti fll,-IIC 1..... -.

~
ing and miscellaneous section symbols are used.
FIGURE 6. Picnic Table with Parts List Some are shown here and others may be seen
above Title Block in other divisions of this book.
 WOOD END GRAIN WITH GRAIN -
CAST IRON
Flat material may be referred to as strips,
sheets, or plate.

STEEL

FIGURE 9.
BRASS, BRONZE, 4cOTHER
COPPER ALLOYS

Sections on Common Materials

-
&A&&ITT ZINC,&.
WHITE 'METAL.
OTHER
ALLOYS
Finish Symbols. Finish symbols ar e placed
on the line of a drawing representing the surface
to be .:finished. The old finish syTI1bo l "f'' is
harder to make than the ne~ver "V,, symbol.
They are made and used as sho"vn in F igure 12.
ARCHITECTURALSYMBOLSIN PLAN OR SECTION
Symbols merl<ed wit~ en Asterisk (*) ore A.S.A. end A.S.M.E. Stondords. All others are recommended symbols which
should be :ncorporoted in o Legend on each sheet when opplicobfe. Specific kinds of Metals, Stone, etc., r.hould not
be indicoTed os these ore the province of the specificolions. · .

NATURAL RUBBLE NATURAL ASHLAR

1.5607
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
•FACE BRICK *COMMON BRICK FIRE BRICK *FINISH WOOD FINISH WOOD ,------
-ico
·wnH GRAIN ENO GRAIN
PREFERRED FINISH MARK

•STONE CONCRETE CIN0ER CONCRETE CONCRETE BLOCK GYPSUM ROUGH WOO0

FIGURE 12. Using Finish Symbols

$ANO, PLASTER
OR
TILE AS ABOVE
Smell Scale
GLASS
Sm•II Sca le
TERRAZZO BLUEPRINTS FOR MODELS
CEMENT FINISH

You read blueprints and follo'\\' instructions

BIiiI!H!HI~ ~ illHlli
1mrumru1
INSULATION-LOOSE INSULATION-SOLID CORK *EARTH *ROCK when you construct the various types of models,
(LinofeumJ

such items as you will see in Division 9, ''De-

UNGLAZED
8eorin9 Qt Non-bear1n9
GLAZED FACE ARCHITECTURAL BRICK-COTTA CERAM IC, FAIENCE
c,
signing and Building of Models. " .A.pictur e of a
TERRA COTTA
ENCAUSTIC TllE
plastic model is shown in Figure 13. Other
ARCHITECTURALSYMBOLSIN ELEVATIONS
drawings and plans for different types of models
can be seen in the above-menti oned division.
E?i5ri 1: 1 : 1 :1 ~ I ~
RUBBLE ASHLAR
Cast or Nehm,r
MARBLE BRICK WOOD
Large Pieces ·----
METAL
1~~
GLASS
~\l l·'.,
':·-:(><.
·:.\:,
SAND. PLASTE~
:./1 1-,1
,....,.I-.,
TERRA COTTA
=========i
-r-11j::=I
_,__l
SHINGLES OR SI0ING
OR
CEMENT FINISH

METALSYMBOLSIN PLAN OR SECTION

ASBESTOS BABBITT
~ BRONZE COPPER

~ CAST IRON
~BPMW/¼3
MALLEABLE IRON STRUCTURAL IRON WROUGHT IRON LEAD '

FIGURE 10. Architectural Drawing Symbols

Courtesy Eugene 'Dietzgen Company FIGURE 13. Model of Chance Voug ht
F-7U-3 Cutlass
Sections are also commonly found on draw ~ Cou rtesy R evell> Inc .

ings and blueprints when it is desirable to. show

irregular shapes or parts of materials. A section
PROBLE MS
is frequently used to show shapes of steel or
other building materials, such as rods, square 1. Why do the foll owing profession al people
bars, hexagon (6-sided) pieces, octagon (8-sided) need a working knowl edge of drafting?
pieces, and the various shapes of beams and
building steel (Fig. 11). Engineers --------------- - - - ------- ---

/4 ~# ;-~ ,
,::?,/
ANGLE "1"6EAM

CHANNEL "z"6AR
E1GURE 11. Common Steel Shapes
8

' I
 Lawyers --------------------------------
---------------~-------------- 3. Study the baseball diamond (Fig. 14), and
fill in answers to the following questions:
----------- --------------------------------------------~---------------
a. What is the distance between bases? .,.---------
-------------------------~---- -----------
-----. -- ------------------------ b. What is the distance from home plate to
----- ------------------------------
.------------------------------------------ the pitcher 's box? ______
______
_____
______________________
.,__
c. What is the distance from first base to
- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Carpenters third base? ------

------------
-----------
-----________
____
____
__
-------------------------------
--------------------------- d. What are the dimensions of the batter's
box for either a right-handed or a left-
-- --------- -----------------------------.-----------------------

handed hatter? -----~------------

----------------------
------
---- ----------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------·
-- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Architects ------------------ e. How wide is home plate? --------~-------

------------
--------------------
-- £. What is the distance from the base line to
- ------ ------------
---------------------------- -------------------
th e player 's line? -------------------
----------------
-------
g. If we use a scale of ½" ==l'-0", how many
-- --------------------------------------------- - ------------ ----
inches long would you draw a 90-ft. base
---- -------- ----------------------------------------- ------ -------
line? ----------------------~-
-------------------
------------~-
2. Name three other professions or trades in h. If we have a grandstand or fence, how
which a knowledge of drafting is useful.
far is it from the bas e lines? _______
_______
_________
_
- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
i. What is th e radius of the pitcher's mound?

- --------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------

---- --------------------------------------------------------------------------- · j. What is the over-all size of the pitcher 's

---
CATCMEAS
--.__

AREA
<ALTERNATE
....__ GRANDSTAND
FENCE
LINE FOR
0~ toe plate? ----------
------------------
------------
--------------

"'

'-

•
&ASE LINE -i FI GURE 14. Baseball
ll'DIA .
PICTCHE RS -
Diamond
MOUNO
z.!..cf-

6RA&a LINE
INFIELD
'

GRASS LINE
OUTFIELD

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&A.&l<ET
RECOMW£N ·CIG> COURT SIU:S:
-Dlt R t nt aR00L.
$EMIQit MJ&f6CHOQt.
COu.DiE
4&°JC;
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$ch.&4'
50'X •94'

FIGURE 15. Badminton Court

- 4. Look at the badminton court (Fig. 15), and FIGURE 16. Basketball Court
fill in answers to the following questions:

a. How long is the court? ----------------~---------------

b. How wide is the court? --------------------------------

c. How many square feet are in the badmin-

ton court for doubles? ----------------------------------

d. How far is the short service line from the

net? ________
·---------------------------------
e. How far is the long ·service line from the FIGURE 17. Vollev.. Ball Court

net? ------------------------------------------ a. How long should the net be? _____ ______
b. How many square feet are in each half of ,..
5. Observe the basketball court (Fig. 16), and -
fill in the answers to the following questions: the court? ________________ _
a. What are the recommended measurements c. What is the difference in the height of
for a basketball court:
the net for men and women? __ _
1) Maximum length? ___
___
_________________
_

2) Maximum width? _________

______
_______
_ -------
-----------------------
----- ---- --------
d. What is the total length of the court?
3) Minimum width? ______________________
_ -------- ------
b. How far above the floor is the basketball
7. Circle the «T:,:,if the statement is true or
. ? _______
ring. _____
___________
_ "F" if the statement is false in reference to
c. How far is the free-throw line from the the quarter-mile track of Figure 18.
F T 1. There are 3271 feet in a mile.
end of the court? _______________________
_ F T 2. The inside of the tr ack is longer than
d. What are the diameters of the two center the outside.
F T 3. The distance between the arcs is
• c·1es.? __________
cir _______
_ 110 yards.
e. What is the over-all height (1) and width F T 4. The ¼ mile track is actually a quar-
(2) of the modified backboard? ter-mile long.
F T 5. The radius of the outside edge of
the lane is 144' - 0".
1) ------------------------2) __________ ________
____
F T 6. The radius for the inside lane is
f . What is the width of the new free-throw 120' - 0".
F T 7. All races finish at one place ..
lane? __
_____
____
_____________ F T 8. The 440-yard dash is finished on the
hurdle straightaway.
6 . .Answer the following questions after study- F T 9. The broad jump pit is 5' X 10'.
ing the volley ball court in Figure 17: F T 10. Each lane on the backside is 3' wide.

10
 FINISH a.aeoRUNS ff ART MEDUCY
~ SFRMGMTAWAY ALLOW& _______ I_
"6 'L,ANE.$ OF 4:t" HURDLES. Hl9H JU""-P Pl·t; lo'lC.14 1
BROAD JUMP PIT 5 11ll4'
i&' CU RVE:S l,6ACKSl0£
M.LCIW5 6LANES 01" ~ • PoU: VAULT PIT lit'Xl4 1
DISCUS CIRCLE 4'--lfRAD.
SMOT PUT CII\CL~
!'-6"RAO.

~ - ,

:START 100 YO. IM,SH

START 12.0 VD, HUROI..£. . FINISH FINl&H tOOYD.
880YD.&-1 MILER.UN LOW HURDLE&
STA.RT 220,440, &.880 YD. RUNS '.ffi;!tH°uAR&DHL£
200 YD. HURDLE$

FIGURE 18. Quarter-mile Track

8. Answer the following questions about the

electrical wind speed and direction indi-
cator in Figures 19 and 20.
a. Of what material are the letters N, S, E, FIGURE 20. Pictorial Details of Wind _Speed and
Direction Indicator
and W made? -----------------------------
----------
--------- Courtesy POPULAR MECHANICS

OVER-All
b. The anemometer has metal cups. What lfEIGHT 22"

size rods hold the cups? ~----------

------------------
-
c. What is the size of the main shaft of the
2

vane? - ---,
------
d . How much vo~tage is necessary for this
electrical indicator? _______
___________
______________
____
_
e. How are the copper segments attached

to the shaft?

f . Of what are the brush es made? ______________ 801.T AX LE TO SHIELD

WITH FLATHEAD SCREW$ CUTAWAY SECTION AT 't OF CAR

FIGURE 21. Soap-box Derby Racer

------- ---·---------------------- ----------- ------------------- --------- Court esy P OPULAR MECHANI CS

9. Study the soap-box derby racer in Figures

21 and 22, and answer th e qu estions (p. 12):

·- STEERING -
CABLE
DRUM

,-~? :·'. ~ -,
- ~OL T
-- -,,
1, j,rr-· .
• Jl~AT TACHMENT
OF STEERING
SOLDER ~- :: 1
WHEEL

6 II~

r
5 1/d'·

J
TWO-PIECE
AX LETREE

C r,;;i
/ ~ /
-;,✓~RDWOOD
BRAKE FACED W ITH THREADED FOR
OLD TIRE TREAD NUT AND COTTERPIN

FIGURE 19. · Pictorial View of Wind Speed and

D irection Indicator F IGU RE 22. Detail s of Soap-box Derby Racer
Courtesy POP U LAR M E C HAN I C S Courtesy P o PULAR M ECHAN I CS

11
 a. What is the over-all 1) length? _________________
_

2) width? ______________
and 3) height? _____
7
________

b. How many stabilizers are required for the

rear axle? --------------------------------------------------------

c. What is the wheel -base size? ___________________
_
d. The front wheels and axle are held in place

and together by what main part? ·----------------

FIGURE 23. Hand Press for
Linoleum Cnts
e. List ten different materials or kinds ofI Courtesy POPULAR ~~
hardware used in constructing the racer.

1) ------------------------------
6) ------------------------------

7)
2) ------------------------------ -------·-----------------------------------------

3) 8) ------------------------------ ----------------

4) -------- --------- 9) ------------------------------

------------- --------- ------
11. Write out (p. 13) some ques tions conc erning
5) ------------------------------
10) the peg-board toy in Figur e 24 and the oc-
casional table in Figure 25. Ask your teach-
10. Write on the blanks above (2nd col.) several er to let you ask these questions for the
questions to -ask your classmates about the - class to answer as they observe these draw-
linoleum block hand press in Figure 23. ings.

~ ! -J....:---,!
___ ,..

•A•
. JODOWELS ½ I¾
X
THIN SAW KERF'

DETAIL OF ro
ON EAC ~

DOWELS AT--~
&.MO

}x5 DOWEL

R -lt\l '
(\J

,..
e.

-{t ~3__..,~---,48 ____ . 5-!

_...,.J-- tj- -{:l-st 5_ ¾
......
.._1

tDRLLL FoR¾x8 tcHAMFER, ALL CORNERS

. DOWEL HANDLE

--1'¼~ DETAIL FOA. MAMMER

FIGURE 24. Dri-va-peg Board and Hammer

12
 / K

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V
/
V
/
'
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< ¾THICK

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ct I/
fD !X18X24-
"-
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)
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-t
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SUGGESTED
SHAPE
;\ FO.R POST
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'
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j:

I
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S\.IAPE. E.DGE. AS l>E.StREO

' '"N

'\ ~----------=/-~½CHAM~E~
( ~

Fi GURE 25. Occasional

j
I \ /
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~ 1 \
~

.....
r,- ·---14---......j~ .....
1
Table ~ .
~UP~ORi F"O'R
l'OP MOUNT ON
PO&T wrrH
14ANGE.R SOL TS -
0

I '
'

- - ------------- ----------------------------------
--------------------- FREEHAND DRAWING
ITS USEFULNESS
- - ---- -------------------------------------------------------------- Freehand drawing or sketching is used by
practically everyone . An engineer or designer
- -- -- -------------------------------------------------------------- makes use of sketches so that he may study
drawing problems before making an accurate
- - -------------------- ------------------------------------------- mechanical drawing. Through such study he
sees the proportion among the parts of the ob-
--------------------------------------------------------- ject and the outlines of its major and minor
features. Through sketching an object he gets
--------- --------------------------------------------------- an ul)derstanding of the relationships of its parts
in construction, and an opportunity to express
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- his ideas·.

IS
 The teacher, doctor, dentist, housewife,
farmer, or salesman may find freehand sketch-
ing useful in explaining an idea clearly to Some-
one where written words would not be under-
stood quickly.
You may use sketches in the shop to explain
to your teacher your ideas for projects. You
should also sketch objects in the drawing room
before you draw them mechanically. Although
geometric construction and sheet-metal layouts
must be made mechanically if they are to be
accurate, rough sketches drawn first are very
valuable. Freehand draWing teaches, with a
minimum of ~quipment, -practicaJly al.lthe prin:..
ciples of drawing and bluepri ,nt :reading; anil
makes p·ossible, also, the _-eli1;nJnation ·of many
errors before the finished drawing is m~de. _
Various other uses of freehand sketching can
-be made: · · .·. . _. _ ·
l: The draftsman records information he. ob-
tains outside the -·drafting room. -
- 2. The engineer . or mechanic makes . at his _
SKETCHING HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL,
AND INCLINED LINES
Study the procedure described below and
then practice in the space provided (pp. 23-24).
1. Sharpen the pencil to a long conical point, .
being sure it is rounded or blunted slightly.
2. Hold the pencil lightly about two inches
from the point and make light lines from left
to right (Fig. 26). Always locate the begin-
ning and ending points before making the
dashes. Make successive lines about an inch
or an inch and one-haH long (a comfortable
stroke before moving hand ). It is best to break
the _lines. Keep your eye on the point to which
the line is to be drawn.
' ,
..~ .

machine .a sketch -of _anobject or .piece needed; - '' !-· · .£,:~·.•.;, - , • ,._ •· -

3. A designer ·or -engineer prepares sketc;hes

to be used by a,-draftsman _-- 1:n making -'detail~d -
mechanical drawings. - -- , _ _ _- _.
4:.The architectural engineer, : or architect, -.
presents his _client with a sketch for approval
before drawing the final plans with instruments.
5. The draftsman in the drawing room makes
a sketch of the machine or part he is to draw FrcuRE 26. Sketching Horizontal and Vertical
mechanically so that he can check for mistakes Lines
before drawing the finished views.
- 6. A housewife makes a sketch of the book- 3. Rotate the pencil occasionally to keep an
cases and cabinets she wishes built as a guide even conical point.
for the architect's plans and the carpenter's con- 4-. Vertical lines are drawn from the top
struction. downward (Fig. 26). Inclined lines that slant
Sketching is not too difficult if a person prac- to the left are generally dra wn downw ard (Fig.
tices a few basic rules. The basic work includes 27), and lines that slant to the right are drawn
learning to draw straight horizontal, vertical, upward.
and inclined lines in making squares, rectangles,
and triangles. Arcs and circles, also basic, are
more difficult, but can be mastered with a little
practice. Combined with straight lines they can
express almost any of your ideas.

MATERIALS FOR SKETCHING

The tools and materials for sketching are few
and inexpensive. The basic tools and materials
are a soft and a medium soft pencil such as an
Hor F and HB, paper, and eraser. The eraser
should not be used except when absolutely nec-
essary. Lines should be made very light until
drawn in their proper and final places, then
darkened as necessary. Sketches are not usu-
ally scaled to any definite dimensions. I ~

FIGURE 27. Sketching Inclined Lines

14
 ,5.. Use the edges of the page as ~a guide and
me th e eraser as little as possible.

S.kETCIIlNG ARCS AND CIRCLES

Study the following procedure, and then prac-
tice in the space provided (pp. 23-24). I I
I. Locate the center of the arc or circle.
S~etch all lines very lightly.
2. Sketch the horizontal and vertical center
~ (Fig. 28).

FIGURE 30. Location of Approximate Radius

-----+-------

FIGURE 28. Sketching of Vertical and

Horizontal Center Lines

3.. Sketch lines at 45 degrees to the vertical --~--

and horizontal lines (Fig. 29}.

FIGURE 31. Order of Drawing Arcs for Circles .

FI GURE 29. Sketching of ~5-degree Lines

4.. Along these lines mark off distances from

the center equal to the radius of the desired
circle. These distances should be approximated
~ th e eye . Practice will help you learn to FIGURE 32. An Aid in Drawing Circles
make th ese accurate (Fig. 30).
Thes e points may be connected lightly as 6. After practicing, complete the circles
a guid e. shown in all the figures in "Sketching Arcs and
5. ~fake the upper left quarter of the circle Circles."
lightly, and then in order the lower left, upper 7. A scrap of paper used carefully as in Fig-
righ~ and lower right (Fig. 31). There is no ure 32 will assist you in making larger circles
required order for making these parts of the and is . not to be considered drawing mech~ni-
are or circle, but this order is suggested. cally. -

15
 '

I I)))))))
,
I... "; , --
_ -~ i ~-
jt ~
~~ I -

FIGURE 33. Sketching Irregular Lines

SKETCHING AN ENTIRE OBJECT

Study the section on views in Division 4,
"Multiview Projection,, (Orthographic). This
material will assist you later in drawing views
mechanically. A similar sketch of an object you
wish to draw may be required before you draw
it mechanically. In the space provided at the end
of this division practice sketching some of the
irregular lines and shapes shown in Figure 33.

The procedure indicated below will assist you

in drawing an entire object:
1. Study the object closely, and then sketch
any necessary center lines.
2. ''Block in» the object as shown in Figures
34, 35, and S6.
3. If using multiview projection, "block in,,
other necessary views.
4. Draw in the object lightly with arcs and
circles first.
5. Make corrections and darken lines.
6. Draw extension and dimension lines light-
ly if they are to be used, then correct and darken
them.
7. Add dimensions, arrowheads, and notes if FIGURE 34. Sketching a Home and Business
necessary. Article
16
..

11 111111/l(((f
({/(
U
slowly drown

quickly drown
~~

hooked lines
'
Ii.
~
!l}l1lllij\l1Hll
irregular lines ~~-
llllf i ~
11110
varied pressure
!rHm
1111m
1/4/(fffff
g : ~ .- ~
hooked strokes
r}l};fl;it ~~.a

-
-~-
·al
combined strokes
~ illla
FI GURE 35. Sketching and Shading Large Areas
cross hatch
■111111111-
FIGURE 37. Strokes and Tones with Pen and
Pencil
Courtesy Higgins Ink. Company, Inc.
D

I
<
FICCBE36. Sketching Round Objects from Squares

T0~ 1ES, SHADES, AND SHADOWS

I
Sketching may be done completely
cil Ho wever, if a rich, deep tone,
shado w is desired, ink may be used
with pen-
shade, or
with pen
·---
bro.sh. The object is first drawn in pencil.
'..,.arious pen and pencil strokes and tones are
pn:sen te d in Figure 37.

Circul ar objects are drawn more easily by

~mrnng with squares and converting these to
cireles. A vanishing point is also a help. This
~t is explained more completely in Division
~ =pj_ctorial Drawing," under the perspective
FIGURE 38. Sketching Circles from Squares and
t:q>e. A simple example of its use is shown in
Vanishing Points
B,gore 38. Courtesy Higgins Ink Company, Inc.

17
 Graded lines or tones and varied pressure on
the pencil or pen will produce different sketch-
ing effects. Straight and curved lines may be
. broken, accented, or graded to fit the need.
Straight lines are used for drawing the pyra-
mid in Figure 39. Broken lines are used to out- F IGURE 42. Strokes
line the books and produce shadows in Figure for Buil ding Tone
· 40. Curved, straight, broken, and graded lines Courtesy Justrile Drawing Ink
produce the objects, shades , and shadows in
Figures 41, 42, 43, and 44.
:

FIGURE 39. A Pyramid.

and Shadow with
Straight Lines
Courtesy Ju strite Drawing Ink

I
F I GURE 43. Straight-line Shading
--

FIGURE 40. Broken Lines Outlining Books

Court esy Justrit e Draw ing Ink

F IGURE 44. Curved -line Shading

..
Courtesy Justrite Drawing I n k

FIGURE 45. Hig h Lights

and Shadows
Courtesy Justrite Drawing Ink

FIGURE 41. Shades and Shadows on Objects

Courtesy Justrit e Drawi ng Ink

18
 The sketch of the binoculars in Figure 45
demons trates the effect of high lights on an ob-
jrect and the resulting shadows. Figure 46 shows
studies of textures where .t4e strokes follow YOUMUST
.stnface directions. HAVEA GOOD
PENCILOUTLINE

GO OVER
THEPENCIL
FIGURE 46. Studies in Textures OUTLINE
Courtesy Higgins Ink Company, Inc. WITHA
·BALLPOINT
The complete picture (Fig. 47) is more difficult PEN...
m dra,v. The subject was first sketched in pen-
cil Tracing paper was used over this pencil
:d:etch and a study was made with a brush.
Then the subject was inked. Sunlit ·areas were
left white and the shade .· and shadows were
dm½ened.

PUTIN SOLID
BLACKS WITH
A NO. 2 CROSS
CAMELHAIR HATCH
BRUSH-WORK VEST
ORINK.FROM AROUND
48. . THETOPOF

~,o
FIGURE
STARS
Cartoon THE:FIGURE
Sketching DOWN
Courtesy Justrite
Drawing Ink

FIG URE 47. Darkened Shade and Shadow, PR .OBLEMS

~eaving Sunl~t Areas · White
Courtesy Higgins Ink Company, Inc. 1. On the cross-sectioned sheet (p. 22) sketch
the views necessary for full presentation of
Thr ee steps are indicated in Figure 48 for a screwdriver, and then dimension your
pencil -and-ink sketching of a cartoon. The drawing.
sketc hin g of this cartoon requires .the use of 2. On one of the blank sheets (pp. 23-24), draw
se,-eral diff~rent kinds of lines, shading, and the necessary views of a putty knife or brick
tones . The use of pencils only requires four mason's trowel. Draw it about½ size.
steps, as pictured in Figure 50, before the final S. In the space below, sketch an object of your
details and shading are added (Fig. 51). choice, such as a hat, a vise, or other object.
:.\Iany of you have seen or are familiar with
an aircraft flight engineer's panel. Figure 49
show s one, and indicates how lines and shading
haY e been used in modern aircraft work.
Th e sketching shown has been on objects
di«e rent from those you will sketch or design
for bu ilding in the industrial arts shop. ·How-
eYer, the same principles apply to most objects.
Select various shop tools and projects for out-
line sketching, and practice on these. Your in-
struc tor will probably want you to add dimen-
sio ns to these sketches after you have learned
mo re about placing · them properly .
19
-----~- ·.,,..,,..
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49. Drawing, Sketching, and Shading an

FIGURE
l. _ : ....11u11n !!UL .t&.W.-. Aircraft Panel Assembly Flight Engineer:, s Console _.,. .. ._ ...... .__-,,:
Courtesy Northwest Airlines, Inc.

2 .0
 1I.---~

'f

a. Layout sketch - 2H Pencil

h. Darkest spots, Center of Interest -2B or 3B
Pencil
c. Area Surrounding Center of Interest:
Light tones - 2H; Dark tones - HB
d. Accents, Emphasizing Center of Interest

FIGURE 50. Steps in Pencil-sketching a

Complete Scene FIGURE 51. Final Details and Shading
Court esy V enus Pen and Pencil _Corporation Courtesy Venus Pen and Pencil Corporation

21
 -----

I·

22

1
2. Basic Drafting Information
TOOLS
U e know tools are necessary in any trade or
prof ession . Since you are just beginning this
study of drafting, you should become acquainted
,-.ilh.your working needs. The basic minimum
of th ese needs will be explained, and others will
he illustrated . Your instructor will discuss them
furth er as you progress in drafting.

FE:xCILS
Hardness of Pencils. Pencils are among the
most important tools. The proper hardness and
point mus t be selected to suit the work done and
the pa per used. On each mechanical drawing
pencil are certain letters which designate the
amoun t or degree of hardness. Figure 52 shows
2B . an d F pencils, those commonly used for
lines and lettering respectively. 'Beginning with
9H, the hardest, drafting pencils decrease con-
secu tively in hardness to H, F, HB, and B down
to the softest, 6B, or through about 17 different
degrees of hardness.
FIGURE 53. Special Draftsman's Pencil Sharpener
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
2. Shape the lead as needed (Fig. 54) by hold-
ing a piece of fine sandpaper (3/0) or fine file
in one hand, and with the other hand move the
pencil in rotary strokes with the lead in contact
with the sandpaper (Fig. 55) until the long
conical point is obtained. A small lead pointer
is also available for pointing the lead, and regu-
lar pencil pointers are shown · in .Figure 56.

FIGURE 54. Shaping the Point as Needed

FIGURE 52. Degrees of Hardness on Pencils

Commonly Used

Sharpening a Pencil. Selecting the proper

pencil and correctly sharpening the lead on
pencils are two of the most important opera-
tions in the use of drafting tools. Correctness in
type of lines, general appearance, and neatness
depend greatly on the pencil and how it is
sharpened. The procedure given below will
assist you in obtaining the right kind of point:
1. Remove the wood from the lead only on
the end opposite the number indicating the de-
gree of hardness. Use a knife or draftsman's
pencil sharpener ( Fig. 53) . Be very careful to
avoid injury when using the knife. The sharpen-
er removes the wood only. About ¼ to 3/s inch
lead should be showing with the wood tapered
back another l" to 1 ¼" approximately.
FIGURE 55. Shaping Pencil Point
on Fine Sandpaper by Moving
in Long Rotary Strokes
3. The shape desired should depend on the
use intended. A slightly blunted cone point is
recommended for lettering. A conical shape
with one flat side or wedge-shaped point is de-
sired by some draftsmen for lines, but a sharp
con ical ~point is usually best for beginners.

25
 ;;

FIGURE 56. Pencil Pointers

Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company

TRIANGLES These tools are used individually in drafting

Two triangles essential to drafting are the
45-degree (0 ) and 30-60-degree (0 ) (Fig. 57). The
45-degree triangle has two angles of 45 degrees
and one of 90 degrees. The 30-60-degree tri-
angle has one angle each of 30, 60, and 90 de-
grees.
as guides for lines at the angles given on them.
Also they can be used separately or together to
divide the 360 degrees of a circle into 24 even
parts. By combining the two, any angle of 15
degrees or its multiple (30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105,
etc.) can be made (Figs. 57 and 58). ·

DRAFTING BOARD
...
Many types and sizes of drafting tables and
boards are used. The most common size for
school use is approximately 18" by 24", and is
0 0
made from linn (bass,vood ) or " rhite pine ·. It
0 0 0
may be seen as a piece of basic equipment in
Figure 59.

FIGURE 57. Two Essential Triangles for Drafting

Courtesy Eugene Dietz gen Company

0 0
0
0 0

FIGURE 59. Basic Mechanical Drawing Equipment

Courtesy Eugene Dietzg en Compa-ny

FIGURE 58. Combination of , Triangles To Form

Many Angles
These boards usually do not have any finish.
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company However, one or two coats of a sealer common-
26
 FIGURE 63. Holding the Pencil Properly for
Drawing Lines FIGURE 66. Drawing Horizontal Lines

3. Place the pencil on the designated point.

4. Move the T-square blade edge against the
pencil point, and mak e the line from left to
right (Fig. 66).

VERTICAL LINES
·triangles above the blade Vtith one of the 90-
FIGURE 64. A Left-handed Student with T-square
1. Locate a desired point near the left side
of your paper, or in some other special location
as needed.
2. Place the T-square in position with the
head firmly against the left edge of the board
(Fig. 65).
Vertical lines,, after a little practi ce, are just
as easily drawn as other lines ..
1. Place the T-square in the same position
as for a horiz ontal line; then place either of the
degree edges resting agains t the upper edge
of the blade. The othe r 90-degree edge of the
triangle will be perpendic ula r to the T-square
blade.
2. With the left han d holding the T-squa re,
the finger tips pressing also on the tri angle, draw
the line from the bottom to the top (Fig . 67).
Be sure the hea d of the T -squru-e is furn against
the board and that the triangle is firm against
the T-square blade .

FIGURE oT. Equipment Placed for Drawing a

Vertical Line

INCLINED LINES
Inclined lines may be drawn in the same man-
ner as others. By combining the triangles, any
FIGURE 65. T-square in Proper Position for multiple of 15 degrees may be secured (Figs. 57
Horizontal Lines and 58).
28
~- used in woodwork will prevent this piece of
6±_~pment from becoming ea,sily soiled, and
~ not reduce its serviceability.
I-SQU ARES
The T-square is the guide commonly used
: IT all horizontal lines. It is also used with the
w_angles when vertical or inclined lines are
&a.~ ~ Some are made from solid plastic or
~, and some from wood with plastic edges
o::i the blade. This type (Fig. 60) proves quite
satisfa ctory. The blade is usually · attached to
the head with screws. Drafting machines and
horizo ntal ruling straightedges are also used.
FIG URE 60. A Wood T-square with .Plastic
Blade Edge
Tl\PE
Some type of transparent tape, called draft-
ing or masking tape, may be used to secure the
paper to the board. Thumb tacks have been
used but they are obstacles to sliding the T-
squar e and triangles over the board, and they
lea.Ye holes in the drawing board. Figure 61
sho,vs regular one-inch drafting tape used to
attach the paper to the board.
FIGURE 61. Paper Taped to the Board
ER..AS
ERS
You will need one or more erasers (Fig . 62)
depending on the type of drawing you do. They
should be special drawing erasers. One should
be soft to remove general lines, and the other
should be a harder one for removing .ink lines.
You should concentrate on accuracy and .neat-
ness and use the eraser sparingly. An art gum
eraser or eraser bag may be used to remove
dirt and soiled spots more easily.
33248
3328
- ER~l'tNClL ·
58
3339 ~ -- "
--:-- -·_·---------
.
FIGURE 62. Various Types of Erasers
Courtesy Eugene .,Dietzgen Company
PAPER
A good grade of paper improves the quality
of a student's work, because the better grades
take the lines better than poor grades of paper.
A beginner may use a basic size sheet,
8½" X 11"; various other sizes are available,
but the most common are 11;, X 17", 17" X 22",
22" X 34", and larger.
The following procedure will aid you in at-
taching the paper correctly, whatever the size
used:
1. Place the T-square on the board with the
head firm against the left edge of the board.
-2. Place the upper edge of the T-square along
the upper edge of the paper. After lining them
up so that the edges coincide, with the paper
near the top and left edge of the board, hold
the paper and slide the T-square down about
an inch or two .
3. Put some form of tape on the upper cor-
. ners of the paper. _ _
4. Check to see if the paper slipped, and then
tape the lower corners, if desired (Fig. 61).
USING THE PENCIL
The best method for drawing lines is to hold
the pencil as nearly perpendicular to the paper
as possible (Fig. 63), but inclined slightly in the
direction in which the line is being drawn, or
about 60 degrees with the board. When letter-
ing, the pencil may be he ld in the usuaJ manner.
HORIZONTAL LINES
To draw horizontal lines, follow the proce-
dure given (p. 28). Left-handed .,students should
check with their teacher. Som~ variations and
changes may be desirable and necessary, but
the equipment must be very accurate and the
change approved before the left-handed stu-
dents reverse the T-square as in Figure 64.
27
ODD-ANGLE LINES
To draw lines parallel at odd angles or parallel
to a given line without the aid -of a T-square
(Fig. 68), the edge of one triangle is placed at
the desired angle or upon the given line XX,
the other triangle being placed again~t the edge
of the first triangle on which it slides. The
guiding triangle should be held firmly with the
thumb, third, and fourth fingers, sliding the
other triangle with the first and second fingers.
-Ir
Thistriangle
held stationary
FIGURE 68. Drawing Line Parallel to Odd-angle
Line
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
ALPHABET OF LINES
If you are to read blueprints quickly and
easily, it is necessary to know the meanings of
various types of lines, just as you must know
the meanings of types of notes to read music.
On original pencil drawings, all lines should be
fairly dark and uniform in color. The width,
the way in which it is formed, and the place-
ment help determine the kind of line.
Study Figures 4 and 5 in Division 1, "Blue-
print Reading and Sketching," and then con-
sider the explanations of the various kinds of
lines below. Figure 69 also shows the use of
these lines. However, in this figure you will
discover another line, sometimes used, called
a ,"line of motion." It is made so as to res~m-
ble a hidden line, but of very short dashes which
appear almost as dots.
The border line is ·one of the heaviest or
widest lines on your paper. It is th_e line around
your sheet of paper that becomes a frame for
your drawing and name plate . .
The object line is a medium heavy line used
to show all the visible edges or surfaces of the
object being drawn. This line is slightly less in
width than the border or cutting plane line.
The center line is used to show the location
of centers of circles and arcs, or to designate the
center of a circular object ·or part. It is a nar-
row line of long and short dashes. The length
of the long dash varies with the space where
it must be placed, but it is usually about ¾" to
l" long. The short dash is about ¼" long with
approximately ½6" breaks between dashes.
-BA;;-CroasllafC'h
~ Lin Af'
SEcT 10N A-A. c==~===:::::=~::l
FIGURE 69. Use of Various Lines
Courtesy Armco Steel Corporation
Dimensions lines tell us what size an object
or part is. They are as narrow as · the center
line and broken in the middle to provide space
for the dimension figures to be ·placed. Arrow-
heads are placed on the extreme ends of . this
. line and should touch the extension line.
Extension ·lines are just what the name irn-
plies. They extend to show the exact limits of ·
a dimension. These lines should not touch the
object. They are also about the width of the
center and dimensions lines. ·
· Guide lines are very light lines drawn the
desired distance . apart to aid in keeping letters
and numbers uniform in size, and in blocking in
a .drawing. Always use guide lines when you
make letters and numbers. Make them so light
and narrow that they need not be ·erased.
Section lines are about the same width as
extension lines and are used to give a shaded
effect and designate the type of material as cut
by the cutting-plane line.
A ·cutting-plane line is made up of one long
and two short dashes alternately spaced. It is
an imaginary cutting line to show where -a part
is to be removed, to section, and to show the
inside of an object. The long dash is about ¾"
long and the short dashes about ½6" to ¾2"
long with about ½6,, space between.
Break lines may be made freehand or -me.-
chanically. They are used frequently when
· space does not permit repetition of a long part
of an object which is the same throughout.
Ditto lines are used to indicate a detail re-
peated in another place without actually draw-
ing the second part. They are short double .
dashes evenly spaced.
29
 ~
.....--, - - .... - - ,__... -
'I
-
I •

______ ___._j_ t
I

r ·1½7 ''

FILL IN '

ARROWHEADS I

Ii,
T
I
I

FIGURE 70. Arrowheads

Adjacent parts or alternate position lines are head is about 3 times as long as it is wide at
made of long even dashes to show that a handle the thick end. The point of the arrowhead
or other part moves to a position other than as touches the extension line but never crosses
shown on the drawing. or falls short of it (Fig . 70). Fill in with arrow-
All of these lines will be found on various heads the spaces left in this figure for your prac-
'
types of drawings, but not all are necessarily tice.
used on any one drawing, as you have observed
from the figures. LAYING O UT LI N ES
A suggested proce dur e is given on p. 31 for
ARROWHEADS practice in laying out lines and measuring on ·
Arrowheads are very important, and, as in sheets with the border line and title block simi-
· most work, the more you practice the better you lar to those shown in Figure 71. The sheet size
can ·make ~em. They should be about ¼" long, may vary as desired . The page following these
less than ½ 6" wide, and sharply pointed, each suggestions (p. 32) may be used for practicing
side of the head curving slightly, so that the these procedur es.
t
-IN

I ILINESI t
--/"' BOA.DER '

I l --
/~ I/ V --~~
vtDGE OF PAPER

y / / V V I~
f/
I
----- ----
4 I / / / I/ / / \
/ ✓ ~
I
__.,,
..

4' ~

/
/ / /
CHECKING ACCURACY
/ OS: SQUARES
" 4

/ / /7 /1/ 7
/ 6

tSQUARES
/
"' / / V w
:__/~ / /
~---

7foR.8½
I I
xii ~HEET
I
USE LIGHT GUIDE LINES FOR ALL LETTER.ING & NUMBERS
I I I I I
II II Do NoTPLACE0nAENs1ows ONliTLEBLOCK OR BoRt>ERS
I I .
I I I I ¼' I
41·1-, 1L-..
~
4
,.
1'4 I -1~ I I I I
4
I I I 1"!·1 I
I
12 I I ,., .. ,1 4

..- CLASS SCHOOL NAME TITLE OF OAAWl NG SEAT PROB.

;; SCALE YOUR NAME
I 19 APP. SY i GRADE SHEET
~ -1.-
FIGURE 71. Layout of
..
Border Lines and Title Block

30
 1.. On small sheets of paper, such as 4. Make a small sketch showing how the two
512'"" X 11", use a small border dimension. essential triangles may be combined to make
~ruu:pe n your pencil correctly, attach the paper a line sloping to the right at a 15-degree
prope rly to the drafting board, and measure angle with the horizontal. In the same space
½"' from the top and : ¼" from the other three make a sketch showing the arrangement of
sides (Fi g. 71). On larger sheets the border line the triangles for a line sloping to the right at
lilaY he ½" or more from all sides. Mark the a 15-degree angle with the vertical.
m.eamr e with only one dot for each line.
-2... Place the T-square properly against the
left edge of the board and draw light horizontal
lines from left to right, representing the top
and bottom border lines.
3.. Place the triangle against the T-square
and dr aw light vertical lines representing the
left and right border lines .
.,t Check your measurements and lines. If
they are correct, the lines may be darkened to
the proper width after all other work is done
and when you darken other lines on the sheet. ,
...
lli er this is done, lay out the title block to 5. What is the name of the eraser used for re-
the measurements as shown in Figure 71. Then
lay out the entire sheet according to the follow- moving dirt and pencil lead smudge? ___________
_
ing procedure for drawing ½" squares (Fig. 71 ).
This is good practice in beginning measuring ----------------------------------------
----------------
---------------
and the use of the triangles and the T-square. 6. Name the basic size drawing paper and two
1. Place a scale on the vertical border · line
at th e left side of the paper beginning at the other standard sizes. ---------------
--------------------------
top of the title block. Without moving the scale,
m ake a light mark at each ½" interval.
2. Place the scale along the border line above 7. Using the edge of a triangle, draw several
th e title block and mark each ½" interval from lines at odd angles in the space below . Use
left -lo right. both triangles and draw · two lines parallel
3. Fallow steps 2 and 3 in the preced ing pro- to each of these.
ced ur e. Be careful that all lines are spaced
properly and are uniform. 11:ake these lines light
4. To check the squares accu rately, place the
45-degree triangle against the blade of the
T-squ are. The edge of the triang le at an angle
45 degrees) should line up opposite corners of
all squares it crosses, as seen in the circle · in Fig-
Die 71. Check all squares, and when a corner is
miss ed , place a small light circle around it (Fig.
11). When you have completed the check,
corre ct the corners missed by redrawing the
lines as accuracy requires.
8. In the space below draw examples of four
PROBLEMS kinds of lines ·and letter under each its name.
1. \¥h at are the softest and ha rdest drawing
penc1·1s.? ________
___
_________
_____
.------
--------------------
.____
____
_
2. \Vhlch is harder, an F or an HB drawing

pencil? _·_______________
--------------------------
-------------------
-
3. \\!h at items are used for pointing the lead

·
proper ly on a d raw1ng
· penc1'l?.. ____
____
_____
______

----- - .---------------------·--· --·-----------------------------

31
--~-~----~ ·~--~- --- -- ·· -- -- - .. .............. '-ll- .... ~ ~-"""-"' - - ------- •• '- , - ---

LETTERING will not need to be erased. Notes and other

words should be uniform in size on each draw-
There are very few drawings that are com- ing.
plete without a few printed words. A drafts- 2. When we write, letters usually slant to the
man never writes longhand on a mechanical right naturally. This is the tendency when let-
drawing, but makes each letter freehand in a tering, but as beginners you should practice
neat, uniform style. This work, in drafting, is making the vertical letters until you can do them
called lettering instead of printing. An excep- well before beginning to use inclined letters.
tion to this may be the draftsman's signature or 3. Each letter is about five-sixths (¾) as wide
initials in the title block, which may be written as it is high. Almost all letters except the "1' 7

longhand. and the "W" should appear uniform in width.

The single-stroke Gothic letter is most widely 4. Each letter should have the appearance of
used in general drawing. The quality of the firmness or stableness.
lettering on a good line drawing either helps 5. Upper-case letters are capital letters. In
its over-all appearance or may even ruin its this book, the Gothic letter is used on drawings.
looks. Develop skill in this phase of drafting, . Either vertical or inclined letters may be used
because it is very important. after you have learned to make both types, if
Some good rules for beginners are given this practice meets your teacher's requirement.
below: 6. Lower-case letters are small letters of the
1. Always use guide lines, even though you style and type used for upper case. However,
are lettering no more than one word or one the general shape is different (Figs. 72, 73, 74).
number. The distance between the lines de- 7. The number of strokes and the direction
pends upon the size of letter or number needed. of each stroke in making a letter or numeral is
These guide lines should be so light that they indicated in Figure 73.

A B C O l~ lF-Q lr-tlll J lK
lb lMl lNl O lP O lij) ~ T U --'-----'- FIGURE 72. Strokes and

V W ~¥ Z
Proportions, Vertical Gothic
-- Courtesy Higgins Ink Company, Inc.

ll ~ l ~ 1S>~ 11~ (~ Q
(Qi lb CGcdlr~ fFr~ lhlnJ lk ll mmirnc@JP
cqiir $ t lUlw w1,K- LYJy t f&: ·
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STROKES

x~KU\::lJ\11-- l'\-1\7---,,v.~----=~-~ =1-- ~-.- ---~- --- - - -- -

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JZL~
---- --Ii-~
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·· -,4- timi-H 1 , ,-+-f, · ,~-t--
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33
 - s;;s .

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Tl 10-i\- 5t- T- at 4½ 5¼
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I½ -78
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-
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F1cuRE 73. Upper Case, or Capital, Gothic Letters and Gothic Numerals

34
r1

ZlI~_1l:JH£~Q 1U-1~QE
.Z€5l-1r-C:l/iG_1llEll
]CL-el .~
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Z~-·_ltl,l!LM-llllfl_;Q1(!J
7·7T7!'- .-l~Cft::l-~~~~- I r I 177-/ JT/-
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--
---

FIGURE 74. Strokes and Proportions, Inclined Gothic

Courtesy Higgins Ink Compa ·ny, Inc.

8. A lettering sheet should be made often TITLE BLOCKS

enough that the strokes and direction of each
letter and number are well remembered. This
takes practice.
9. Notice the difference in the shape of num-
bers as you make them on a drawing and as
many people make them in other work.
Study Figure 74 as a guide for your practice
in inclined lettering. The pages following this
figure contain vertical capital and lower-case
letters as guides for your practice.
A title block is .usually placed in the lower
right-hand corner qf a drawing and inside the
border line, but it may be placed on other parts
of the sheet inside the border line if circum-
stances make other positions desirable. This
lower corner position makes reference to the
drawing easier after filing. The complete title
block should include the following information,
neatly lettered (Fig_.75):
35
CAPiTAL LETTERS- HORIZONTAL a VERTICAL- ILHTEF LEFT TELL

OBLIQUE--VX W Cl RCULAR---OQ CGS COMBINATION OF THE

'VERTICAL, OBLIQUE, HORIZONTAL--AMNYZK COMBINATION

J

VERTICAL a CIRCULAR---PBUDJR. PRACTICE

, -

0123456789 1234567890 2345678901 3456789123 4567891234567

0123456789 1234567890 ·0123456789 1234567890 23456789015

LETTERS ARE FORMED OF STEMS, LOOPS, a BARS.

THE ROMAN ALPHABET ORIGINATED

. FROM THE PICTORIALALPHA-

BET-0123456 7898

36
lower case letters -- ascenders ·bd hK tf dece nders .
.

pgqyyj ·.:-- others with neither-- aceimnorsuvwxz

printing is press work or use of t1.:1pe.lettering is

put down by penci I or similar means. practice.

cuneiform refers to a wedge- shaped character

or a tool of ancient Assyria, Babylonia, Persia,

etc., for pictorial writit')g in stone . Practice
'

- CAPITALS OR lower case BELOW 1 vertical OR INCLINED.

37
 ~------ - -------- .St PAPER --------------- ----a..a
· - BORDER \

~,-11
✓

I
T I .!.
4 - - 2.L2. • I• 1..!..
4 ..I• 1l.
4 4
- -2.I
CLASS NAME 19 SCALE SHEET

4½-
I

ST ANDARD SIZE

8 j_2
PAPER
XI)
.
_,.
__..,

t
Tr
3
a __.. I -2.. ,:
I I x 17
~

I
-1•
2-
I
,._
,_
--
,_
r
.

· No . PART NAME A.sq'D. MAT. i;::

I7 X 2.2
-

1T
~
-
SCHOOL NAME i-....
~
CITY & STATE . f-1-,

~~ .-t-- I

-,
~
t
-· ....,~ DRAWING TITLE c">f~
1
~

_....
..,
•
co
T
.......,
dl DRAWN BY CLASS OR SEC .__.
BORDERLINE~
, Cf'I~
•
SCALE 19 SMEET .....
..a,.J

.......
• •

PAPER EDGE

FIGURE 75. Title Blocks

l. Nam e and address of manufacturer or The bill of materials, if one is necessa ry, is
name and address of school usually directly above the title block.
2 . Name or part of the object being drawn There are some bills of materials wh ich fur-
3. Scale to which the object is drawn nish more information,· such .as size, wei ght,
4. Date pattern number , heat treatment, etc. Wher e
5. Initials. of draftsman, tracer , and checker standard ·bolts, cap screws, and · other standard
6. Number of the drawing parts are used, it is not always necessary to
show them in detail; but an assembly drawing ,
BILL OF MATERIALS which you will study later, should show them
Many working drawings should contain a bill in position.
PROBLEMS
of materials (Fig. 76; see also Figs. 6 & 7).
Each item should be carefully lettered . The 1. Refer to the preceding procedure for "Lay-
following information should be given for each ing Out Lines', and draw the border and
part of the objec~: title block lines on a piece of paper which is
1. Mark, number of part, or other identifying approximately 8½" X 11" . A piece of com-
sign mon typing paper can be used.
2. Name of the part 2. Make a bill of materials similar to th at in
3. Number of pieces required Figure 76 for this same sheet. Draw some
4. Name or kind of material guide lines for the title block and the bill of
materials.
ITEM PART NAME SIZE MATERIALREQ,D. 3. Practice lettering as directed by your teacher.
I TOP IXl2Xl8 OAK I The guide lines should be spaced evenly on
2 LE.GS 2 X 2 X 12. OAK 4 your paper. Follow the correct order and
3 RAILS l XI¼ le.8 OAK 2. directions for making each stroke.
V'--~ C

- ~ 4. Ask your teacher about lettering these pages

before you begin; then do the lettering and
FIGURE 76. Bill of ~faterials numbers on the pages as shown in this book.
38
 LETTERING
There are very few drawings that are com-
plete without a few printed words. A drafts-
, man never writes longhand on a mechanical
drawing, but makes each letter freehand in a
I ·~.
ii \jj;
neat, .uniform style. This work, in drafting, is
called lettering instead of printing. An excep-
tion to this may be the draftsman's signature or
' initials in the title block, which may be written
longhand.
The single-stroke Gothic letter is most widely
used in general drawing. The quality of the
lettering on a . good line drawing either helps
its over-all appearance or may even ruin its
looks. Develop skill in this phase of drafting,
because it is very important .
Some good rules for beginners are given
below: · 6. Lower-case letters are small letters of the
1. Always use guide lines, even though you
are lettering no more than one word or one
number. The distance between the lines de-
pends upon the size of letter or number needed.
These guide lines should be so light that they
A B C O l~ JFO lt-:illl J lK
lb lMl lNl O lP O l~ S T U
V W ~ Y -Z
---
ll ~ l ~ ~ 71 (8) (~ Q
j~
lbCGccll
<Gu r~ f r~ lhlnJ lk ll mmirnc@lfQ>
ir ~ t~lUlw w1~ LYJy ~ t&;
COi[
will not need to be erased. · Notes and other
words should be uniform in size on each draw-
ing.
2. When we write, letters usually slant to the
right naturally. This is the tendency when let-
tering, but as beginners you should practice
making the vertical letters until you can do them
well before beginning to use inclined letters.
3. Each letter is about five-sixths (¾) as wide
a~ it is high. Almost all letters except the "I''
and the ''W" should appear uniform in width.
4. Each letter should have the appearance of
firmness or stableness.
5. Upper-case letters are capital letters. In
this book, the Gothic letter is used on drawings.
Either vertical or inclined letters may be used
after you have learned to make both types, if
this practice meets your teacher's requirement.
style and type used for upper case.· However,
the general shape is different (Figs. 72, 73, 74).
7. The number of strokes and the direction
of each stroke in making a letter or numeral is
indicated in Figure 73.
-'-- FIGURE. 72. Strokes and
Proportions, Vertical Gothic
Courtesy Higgins Ink Company, Inc.
. STROKES
33
 MEASURING
A common ruler is divided into spaces of 1
inch, ½ inch, ¼ inch, ¼ inch, and ½ 6 inch.
Other special rules or scales as used by some
engineers for accurate work are shown in ·Fig-
ure 77. ·
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' SCALES
Fraction, of an Inch to the Inch
CIVIL ENGINEERS'-CHAIN SCALES
Decimals of an Inch
.FIGURE 77. Special Rules
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
DRAWING TO SCALE
The common ruler may be used if others are
not available, but a regular architects' triangu-
lar scale (Fig. 78) should be used as soon as
possible. They are usually made of boxwood,
but hardwood is often used. In addition to the
12-inch full-size scale or rule, this triangular
scale provides several other scales whereby a
large object may be reduced in size or scaled
and put on a small drawing sheet correctly.
Regular Relieved Facet
Full Sized Section
FIGURE 78. Triangular Scale
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
Another type is the engineers' scale. It has
the inch divisions further divided into decimals
of an inch, such as l0ths, 20ths, etc.
I ""
I
READING A SCALE
Drawings which are made either larger or
smaller than the actual size ·of the object but
which keep the same proportion, are called
scaled drawings. Those proportions, or scales,
most commonly used on standard architects'
scales. (Fig. 79) are full-size, ½, ¼, ¼, ½2 , ½ 6 ,
½4, and ¼s size.
Fractions of an lnch to the Foot
FIGURE 79. Architects' Scales
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
Full -size: 12" on the drawing equals 12" on
the object and is written 12" · 1 ft .
½6 size: ¾" on the drawing equa ls 12" or I
foot on the object and is written ¾" ==1 ft.
½4 size: ½" on the drawing equals 12" or 1
-
i t ·.
,\
foot on the object and is written ½" ==1 ft.
The other scales are: ½2 size, meaning %"
on the drawing equals 12" on the object; ¼ 8
size, meaning ¼" o~ the drawing equals 12"
on the object; ¾4 size, meaning 3/i6" on the
drawing equals 12" on the object; ½6 size,
meaning ¼" on the drawing equals 12" on the
object; ½2s size, meaning %2" on the drawing
equals 12" on the object; ¼ size, meaning 1 ½"
on the drawing equals 12" on the object; ¼
size, meaning 3" on the drawing equals 12" on
the object, and½ size, meaning 6" on the draw-
ing equals 12" on the objec t. Each scale is
written in the designated spot of the title block
in a way similar to ''Full Size."
For examp le, in Figure 80 the 3 at the left
end of the rule denotes the scale. An object
measured with this scale would be draw:o
quarter -size, with 3 inches equal to 1 foot. The
distance of 1 foot 7½ inches is shown measured
on this scale. Look at your scale and note these
figures as well as others at the end on the vari-
ous faces. When you ma ke measurements, have
your eye looking directly down on the point
where the measu rement is being made.
~elt"/~/.lt:11',55cc>k / 4 7//bs<:"a34';./'(r
/eel 7f.cn1 zero onol/Jer , /10""/'
:sa:,k, 11·•/b ..·
FIGURE 80. Measurements as Seen on One of
the Scales
I
PROBLEMS I·
1. In the space below, draw a 3-inch section
of a rule and divide it into ½" and ¼" spaces,
designating each inch mark with its proper
number .
39
2. , Draw another section 1½" long and divide 3. Draw a third section l" long and divide it
· it into 8th s. · into 16ths.

4. Spaces on a co1nmon steel rule as used in metalwork would look similar to those in Figure 81 ..
·Read the measurements indicated in the columns below. · Place your answer for ·each ·one in
.the space provided.

A 8
, C D E. F G 1-1

1·6ths
I 2 3
stha

,.

I J K L N 0 p Q R s
FIGURE 81. Common Divisions of a Rule

Example : A to B == ¾ o inch, and I to J == 7$ inch .

.)

A to H -------------- C to F -------------- I to L K to Q
-------------- --------------
A to G -------------- C to E ---- --------- - I to M ---------·--- -- K to s --------------
A to F ------ ·--- ·---- C to D -------------- I to N -------------- -M to N --------------
A to E -------------- D , to ·H -------------- I to 0 --------------- M to 0 --------------
A to D ---- ..._____
_____ D to G -------------- I to p -------------- M to p --------------
A to C --------------
J
D to F -------------- I to Q -------------- M .to Q --------------
B to H ------ -·------- D to E ---------. --- I to R -------------- M to R --------- ....-----

B to G -------------- E to H --·------------- I to s --------------- ·M to s -------- -------

B to F -------------- E to G --------------- J to L -----·--------- N to 0 --------------
B to E --------------- E to F --------------· J to .N -------------- N to p --------------
B to D --------- · ---- F to H -------------- J to p -------------- N to Q --------------
B to C -------------- F to G -------------- J to R ---- -------·--- N to R --------------
'
C to H ------ --------- G to H --------------- K to ~1 -- ---------- -- N to s --------------
C to G -------------- I to K -------------- K to 0 0 to S

5. Using the scales as given here, make lines ¾" ==1 ft. - measure 54 ¼"
· on a, plain sheet of ·paper to the lengths in- ½" ==1 ft . - measure 12'- 3 ½"
dicated below: ¾" · I ft . · - measure 11'-8"
¼" ==1 ft. - measure 10'-7''
6" ==1 ft . -:· measure 11" ¾.6 " ==1 ft. - measure 32' -9"
3" ==1, ft. - measure 25' - ~~" ½" ==1 ft. - measure 40'- 4"
1 ½" ==1 ft. - measure 3' --4½" ¾2 " ==1 ft. - measure 57'- 2"
40
I .
I. ,

6. Measure each line shown in Figure 82 and 7. Measure the lines in Figure 83, to the nearest
place the number in ·the space provided. foot · and inch according to the scale given

G------ in the chart below and put the proper meas-

urement in the space provided: · ,

Scale ¼" ==I ft.

l r
~
~,~. J AB ==____________CD ~ ____ _ EF ==__
_______ ___
_______
t C Scale 3/i6 " ==1 ft.
AB ==___ EF ==
_ CD ==____________
______
__ __________
__
I ~
.M I Scale ¾" ==I ft.
AB ==__________
__CD ==___ _______
__EF ==_______
_____
E Scale 1½" ==1 ft.
AB ==____ ________
CD ==____________
EF ==________
..:
___
H · Scale 3" ==1 ft.
....
GH ==__________ __ LM ==
__ JK - __________ ~~-
---------
Scale ¼" ==1 ft.
G H ==--~ JK ==__
--------- ____
___
___LM ==___________
_
Scale %2 " ==I ft.
GH ==___ _________
JK ==___
__
_______L M ==
__
_________
_
DIMENSIONING
It would be very difficult to make an accurate
drawing if we did not have dimensions. Since
it is often impossible to give all measur ·ements
on a pictorial (picture) drawing, it is better to
use instead a working drawing with the neces-
sary views (multiview or orthographic). From
these you make exact dimensions for construc-
tion detail.
N There are basically three principal types of
K-_;__ __ ___,;.
_____ _ dimensions: 1) the detail, 2) the position, and
3) the over-all. These are shown in Figure 84.
FIGURE 82. Measurement to the Nearest 16th of
There are various rules for indicating dimen-
an Inch
sions on a drawing, but the experienced drafts-
A -------------- F K -------
------- man learns to use his own judgment in placing
'

B G L the dimensions so as to make them both clear

--------------
and correct. Standard practices have resulted
C --------------- H M -------------- in some general rules which should not be vio-
D -------------- I --,----------- N -----
--------- lated. Some of these with respect to dimension-
E ing straight surfaces in views are:
--------·----- J
8

C 0

E F

G l------------------------------- --- --------1 H

J K
FIGURE 83. Lines To Be Measured by Assigned
· Scales
L'---------------1 M
41
 •

rt I Ii\ 1tt-
'.

D D
I
Q.
.-..-.7 0
1 ~1t1~ 1½l~r-
J_~--..__~-- FIGURE 86. Dimensioning in Small Places .

t.........
.-p:::==~-p--o~-=--=-':_~~-=--=-p-----1~
...
.- t tft~

0: DETAIL
P: POSITION
.....,___ ___,_l
r-07 0: OV£.R,;_AL.L

Il!.
-------------r- ,-- 16
l f
.

io
I. I
11
FIGURE 84. Types of Dimensions
FIGURE 87. Over-all Dimensions

6. Do not repeat dimensi ons on diHerent

views, except when it is absolutely necessary
for visible clarity.
7. Always place a longer dimension outside
a shorter one (Fig. 88)..

I
,1

j I I I
l I I
I I
I
1I I
FIGURE 85. Di:r;nensionsOutside of Views

1. Keep the dimensions outside the views and FIGURE 88. Longer Dimensi ons outside
between the views as much as possible (Fig. 85) Shorter Ones
unless the dimension is far from the part or
unless it would be clearer placed on the object. 8. When it is necessary to place a dimension
~ 2. When the space in which a dimension in a sectioned area, do not run section lines
should be placed is too small, one of the methods across the dimension (Fig . 89).
illustrated in Figure 86 may be used.
3. Avoid the extension of dimension lines
from hidden lines.
_4. Dimensions shou ld read from the right and
fr'om the bottom of a drawing in most drafting.
5. Give over -all dimensions for l~ngth, width,
and height (Fig. 87). FIGURE 89. Dimensions Cleared of Section Lines

42
 Some rules · with respect to the dimensioning
of circles and arcs, notes, leaders, tapers, angles,
and the designating of finished surfaces are: ·
L Wh ere there are several dimensions about
a center- line, it is best to stagger the dimension
rmmerals on alternate sides of the center line
CF~-90).
3. The <;limension line used for a radius .has
only one arrowhead; that used for a diameter
should have two arrowheads. The length of the
diameter and other information are usually
given when space permits.
4. When several holes are equally spaced
around a center, it is necessary to draw a cir-
cular line through the centers of the holes and
to show the diameter of. this center-line circle
(Fig. 93). If the holes are not equally spaced,
the angles between the holes should be dimen- ·
sioned in degrees (Fig. 94).

.....---1-I'-_. .. -l DRILL
¼---- 8MOLES
EQUALLY
I.LI SPACED

F10CHE 90. Numerals Staggered for Easy Reading

~. It is • better to dimension the diameter of

a hole where it appears as a circle. The letter
.....
D " should follow the dimension number. A FIGURE 93. Locating the Center of a Series of
large circular piece may be dimensioned on the Holes
line liiew or the hole view (Fig . 91) . Circular
parts and round holes should be dimensioned
from th eir centers (Fig. 92).

l L

4t
- +
t~ l¼_J
l
~

FI GURE 91. Dimensioning · Circles

1-tBOAE liDRILL
¾DRILL,3 MOLES
_ tREAM
~----,----+-----,,------ii---.
FIGURE 94. Dimensioning Holes Unequally
Spaced

5. Precision measurements must be ex-

pressed in decimals. Figure 95 shows the use ·
of these dimensions on countersunk and coun-:
terbored holes.
6. A finished surface may be indicated by an
Fn;1.""BE 92. Dimensioning Circular Parts "f', although a "V" is the preferred symbol. The
43
 . ~31600RILL .8250 DRILL .2570 DRILL
0 . 5
.!.
16
C'BORE
. 80 Csl<.to 8 D~
3
16DEEP

ROUGM SORE l.240DIA.

_.,__ 2 0 CORE -------i-.
l¾DROUGM&ORE----t.-t
1.354 l=I NI SH 0u 0RE 335
1..
GRIND ,.~56 I. 345

FIGURE 95. Precision Measurements

. . . \, .

- "V'·, shoii}d touch the line representing

the sur- 7. Place dimensions between two finished
face to b.e finished (Fig. 96). See Figure 12, surfaces (Fig. 97A); between the center lines
- also, for "the proper way to make the finish (Fig. 97B); or between a finished surface and
. symbol. the center line (Fig ~ 97C).

.-

' '

I
I I I I I I
I
I tI

........
--8-------' ....
FIGURE 96. Finished Surf aces FIGURE 97. Dimensioning Finished Surfaces

44
 8. Two dimensions are often necessary for
locatin g the center of a hole. The center of
all hol es should be located on the view where
the hol e shows as a circle (Figs. 88 and 93).
!t Wh en dimensioning angles, draw an arc
cuttin g the two sides of the angle. This arc
should be described from the angle vertex or
the inte rsection of the sides of the angle. Place
th,e num eral so as to be read horizontally unless
the an gle is greater than 90 degrees and space
permi ts its being placed along the dimension
line {Fig. 98).
10. ·Use guide lines for lettering and number-
ing. Notes should be read horizontally or from
the bottom of the drawing. Most of these notes
should also be in line with the horizontal part
of the leader. Leaders are made · of one inclined
I
line and one straight line with an arrowhead
on the inclined line which ·touches the hole
or part (Fig. 99). You will notice that the hori-
zontal part is turned in either direction when
space or location does not permit notes, as
shown in the two single examples. The angles
should remain as .shown. · The preferred angles

~
for the leaders are 45 and 60 degrees on the .
inclined part with .the arrowhead pointing to
~---~
'~o~ --~
the center. The -line should not extend to the
center. Many other examples may be found on
·_} z r , }
__~____ 6
the other drawings and pictures.

FIGURE 98. Dimensioning Angles

64 DRILL , 1.
Al. 2. REAM
'
·-z:DRILL 2 MOLES

FIGURE 99. Leaders and . Notes

11. Ta pered parts are usually explained by IR

n otes an d regular dimensions ( Fig. 100). t
-~--a2so--~7
IR
INCORRECT CORRECT CORRECT 4
FIGURE 101. Dimensioning Circular Edges

TAPER. 2."PE~ FT.

l
~ ~¼R K¼R~¼R
L '.
< SLOPE SPECIFIED FIGURE 102. Suggestions for Dimensioning Arcs
0
8-------
~
I

' F1 GURE 100. Dimensioning Tapers

+ + + + +
FILLET.$ 'ROUNDS1R.
12. Cir cular edges of an object should not be
F IGURE 103. Fillets and Rounds
used when showing the location of hole cen-
tel'S~ sizes of arcs, and other position dimen-
, sions . Some exam ples are shown in Figure 101. 14. Fillets and rounds are the small inside
and outside arcs on a drawing. If the drawing
13. Sugg~tions for dimensioning arcs are has several fillets and rounds, all of one size,
gi,-en in Figure 102. then they can be notated as in Figure 103.
45
 PROBLEMS
1. After studying "Freehand Drawing, " in Divi-
sion 1, sketch several small circles and arcs
freehand in the space below. Put in •the cen-
ter lines . and then dimension th em properly
with the necessary leaders and any notes
you may desire to add.
2. Use a straight edge · and draw 4 different-
sized angl es in the space provided . Guess
at the numb er of degrees to be approximate-
ly 10, 30, 70, and 115. Then dimension them
properly.
3. Draw two lines about ½" apart and app roxi-
mat ely %" long . Dim ension th e space ·be-
tween th ese lin es properly. Draw oth er lines
about ¼, %, and l" apart and dim ension
these.
46
4. Sketch a small rectangle and dimension it
properly.
5. Aft er you have rece ived all ne cessar y instruc-
tions , ask your teacher about dimensioning
the objects shown on page 47 .
6. Select a suitable scale and draw on page 49
on e of the athletic courts or fields as shown
on pa ge 48.
AD DI T IONAL INST R UM EN TS
Mech anical dra\,ing involves the principles
of geometry, and many geome tri cal problems
can be solved readil ~ - by the aid of ordinar y
draftin g instruments. Ho,vever, there are man y
oth er ways of constructing and solving geomet-
rical problems which differ from the methods
used in drafting. Such problems are not in-
cluded here. The problems to be considered
here will give you a good backgroun d for the
work you will do on the drawings. To perforn.1
this wor k accurately you must study th e instru-
ments us ed and carefully follo,v the instructions_
given.
COMPASSES
Th e comp asses, types of ,vhich are sh own in
Figur e 104, are used for dra,,ing circ les. There
are severa l de t achable parts, such as the pencil
leg, pen leg, and length ening bar . W ith some
set s an extra point is included so tha t dividers
may also be made. The needle point should be
adjusted so that it extends about ¼4" or ½2"
_ fu rth er than the pen or pencil point . It should
be ke pt in this pos ition so tha t it will be the
req uire d length for the pen, and the pe ncil point
shoul d be adjusted to it.
Th e pencil part should contain a hard lead,
2H or h arder, or as required and ap prove d by
your teach er. It should be beveled on one side
for about ¾6 11 • Care should be taken to see
that th e flat surface of the lead faces out from
th e cent er of th e circle being drawn . This is
nec essar y to get a shar p clea r lin e and to mak e
sh arp ening eas ier whe n it is nec essary.
l

.I

0
o.

47
 -- _.; - .

HOMEPLATEDETAIL

t .. TABLE TENNIS TABL .E

PITCHER'S
PLATE
:.0--··l41N.····"";

i r~!~-
.•
•

~. son '·:-
.,:
~

LJ ..
.,.
0
HOME -.. BALL
PLATE ~ I

DETAIL .L •
~•1•4 FIELD -·¾···&FT.SIN;-·-
: PADDLE TENNIS
(BAT TENNIS}

TETHER
BALL
.-
Court is circle 20' in di-
ameter , with 10' pole in
cente r. Locate two points
17 ' 4" apart on circle and
draw s trai ght lines from
each point through center
of circl e to opposite side of
circl e. P layin g areas are
tr.angles formed by the
post an d two points on
circle .

NEUTRALZONE

FOOTBALL
(11-MAN)

·I
Minimum
150'
Dimensions
X 270' I {PLAYING ZONE)
I
l CJRCLE
fE-Z0 DIAMETER ~
1

FIELD HOCKEY

l" x 3' STAKES EXTEND 10"

ABOVE TOP OF BOX ANO
INCLINE 2" -TOWARD EACH
OTHER. STAKES 3~ APART
FOR WOMEN AND BOYS
HO·RSE SHOES
UNDE~ 16 YEARS.

Courtesy Lowe and Campb ell

48
 .,

I
l1
l
I
}
- l

00
..

47
 :;;

~
fr'ifiii~·

ff( • ,";~,
~'½:-
i~-,cce, ..·;-:!£
.c1:,
. . ·--~ · •, ,om•~- """"' ' 'c; w.;~cn
Iii ,
.
-~-__z>
...,,;; . ..•? ·'"C;•
:r ~

-C■'~'il!',
~ ,.·~•-t " ,, . . =;:;;>
1~; ~;" • !
· ...~~~
• ;---tJ$ O C O
-- ; :<>
..._r)q:::;:f;,i

FIGURE 104. Compasses and Detachable Parts FlGURE 106. Using the Ruling Pen
Courtesy .Eugene Dietzgen Company Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company

The pen leg is used when inking circles and arcs or circles using the inking compass as the
arcs. Drawings are inked when it is desirable to pencil compass, in the clockwise direction. Arcs
keep a record over a long period of time, when and circles should be made first on drawings.
an especially .good blueprint is necessary, or The small bow compass is used when small cir-
when it is desirable to prevent pencil-line cles are inked.
smudge or dirtiness from use. Often original
drawings are done directly in ink on a good
grade of drafting paper, tracing paper, · or cloth.
Since inking requires extreme care in order to
prevent ruining a drawing or tracing, you should
follow directions for inking very carefully, and ·
practice them faithfully. '
To fill the pen on the compass or ruling pen,
transfer a drop or two of ink from the bottle
to the pen, using the quill on the bottle stopper
(Fig. 105). Never dip the pen into the bottle, - _r'

but place · the ink in the space between the

blades or legs called ''nibs." See that none is FIGURE 107. Inking Large Arcs and Circles
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
put on the outside of these nibs. Do not over-
load the pen but fill it while in a vertical posi-
The lengthening bar is a device used · for
tion about ¾6" high.
lengthening one leg of the compass so that
large circles may be drawn. The shank of the
bar is fastened in the socket of the compass leg
and . the pen or pencil part is fastened in the
. socket of the bar. Figure 108 illustrates the
method of using the lengthening bar.
·When the legs are adjusted to the proper
radius raise your hand to the handle and draw
the circle with a sweeping motion of the com- '
pass, rolling the handle between the thumb and
FIGURE 105. Filling the Ruling Pen forefinger, and inclining it slightly in the direc-
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company

Do not allow the ink to dry in the pen, and

· when the flow is slow or broken, wash .the pen,
dry thoroughly, and refill. It should always be
put away clean with the nibs spread well apart.
The ruling pen is used with the T-square FIGURE 108. Lengthening Bar
(Fig. 106) or triangles for making lines in the Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
same manner as the pencil is used, except that
greater care must be used to prevent smearing. tion in which the line is drawn (Fig. 109). Circles
You will note that both legs of the . compass larger than three inches in diameter should be
are bent so that both - blades or nibs are in con-
, drawn with the lower part of the legs nearly
tact with the paper or cloth (Fig. 107). Draw perpendicular to the paper.
50
 PROBLEMS
READ CAREFULLY. The following prob-
lems may be done in the 2" spaces provided.
Some extra squares are given for your use if
you would like to do some of _them twice or if
you should 1nake a mistake . You can do these
exercises in the book by using the equipment
properly. If you would like to make your draw-
ings larger, double the measurements and draw
them with the mechanical drawing equipment
on plain sheets of paper or regular drawing
paper. Do not double anything but actual
measurements. If reference is made to "parts,"
use these as given.
These problems are planned as progressive
steps for your practice in the use of instruments.
Make your drawings lightly in pencil first, and
then darken them with sharp clear lines.
1. Conventional horizontal lines used in draw-
ing:
a. Use Figure 113 in developing this first
design.
b. With the dividers divide the left side of
one of the 2-inch squares into 10 equal
parts .
c. Ask your teacher to show you how to use
the two triangles to draw horizontal lines
through these points.
2. <;onventional yertical lines used in drawing:
a. Divide the bottom line of another 2-inch
square into . 10 equal parts with the di-
viders (Adaptation of Fig. 113).
b. Use the triangles and dra·w vertical lines
through these points.
FIGURE 113. Conventional Horizontal Lines
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
FIGURE 114. Basket Weave
Courtesy Eugene Di etzg en Company
FIGURE 115. Cross
Courtesy Eugene Diet z gen Company
3. Basket Weave (Fig. 114):
a. With the dividers divide the left and low-
er sides of another 2-inch square into five
equal parts.
b. Draw dotted horizontal and vertical lines
through these points.
c. Then draw lines at 45-degree a:ugles--·
through the intersecting points, and erase
the parts not needed for the~basket-we~ve
pattern.
52
d. Retrace the outline of the basket weave
with heavy lines to make the weave show
up , as in the figure .
4. Cross (Fig. 115):
a. Divide each of the four sides of another
2-inch square in half. .
b. With a radius equal to half the lei:igth of
one side, . draw circles as indicated, with
the compass, using the four corners and
midpoints on the side as centers .-
c. Erase parts of the curve not needed in
the pattern , and retrace the figure as
shown.
d. With the triang les cross-hatch the cross as
indicated with 45-de gree lines.
5. Tangents to Arcs (Fig. 116):
·a. Draw a one-inch squ are.
b . With the dividers, divide AW and AZ into
¼" spaces, or scale.
c. With bow pencil, using W, X, Y, and Z
as cen ters, draw four arcs with a ¼" ra-
. dius, etc ..
d. Comp lete the drawin g as ind icated , in-
. creasin g the radii as needed.
6. Spiral Cun res (Fig. 117):
a. In another square draw a line one inch
long and, ,vith the divider s, divide it into
sixteen equal parts.
b. Dr aw semi-circles from these points in the
following order: RS, yz, RT, XZ, etc.
c. See that the curves run smoothly into each ·
other.
d . Increase the radii ~eed e~ _,Jef ~omplete
--~ th~~ .-----~ --- --- -
v
FIG lJRE 116. Tangents--«> Arcs---- --- ..___ .__
.,.,.,.
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company .---- ---
F IGURE 117. Spiral Curves
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Compa ny
FIGURE 118. Tangent Arcs
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
FI GURE 119. Inscribed Circles
Courtesy Eugene Dietz.gen Company
7. Tangen t Arcs (Fig. 118):
a . Dra w in one of the squ ar es a circle 2
inch es in diameter.
b-. With th e dividers divide the circumf er-
ence into five equal parts .
c. Thro ugh these points dra w rad ial lines
and divide each line int o four equal parts
with bow dividers.
d. With th ese points as cente rs, draw the
semi-circ les as shown.
 FIGURE 109. Using the Compass
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company

FIGURE 111. Bow Instruments

Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company

Ir
I,

DIVIDERS
The dividers are instruments similar in design
to the compasses, except that both legs are
pointed and without joints. They are used in
transferring dimensions from the scale to the
drawing and also for dividing a_line into parts
(Fig. 110).

the pen or pencil, only part of the curve being

,✓,_,A•-;• --.........
,..,-•~--....
6
~......__
:,
.... ...,'
FIGURE 110. Dividers Used To Divide a Line
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
BOW INSTRUMENTS
Bow instruments are used in the same mall:i;ter
as that for compasses and dividers, except that
their use is confined to small dimensions. They
· are somewhat similar in design except that the
legs have a spring head or joint and are adjusted
by means of an adjusting screw on the side, or
in the center (Fig . 111). The legs of these in-
struments are moved only by the center wheel
or nut. The pressure should be released on the
nut when making large changes in the setting
·of side adjustment instruments, by pressing the
-....
.., I
used at one time. The part of the irregular curve
,... ...
.._.....~--
......... ,,, I{
which is found to be of the correct curvature is
adjusted to fit the curve to be drawn. Usually
the curve is indicated by points and the irregular
curve is adjusted to these points, permitting a
smooth line to be drawn to connect them in one
continuous curved line, as shown in Figure 112.
It is not advisable to connect more than three
such points at one setting of the irregular curve,
for if more are connected there is a possibility
of causing a ''break" or a sharp corner in the
curve. Draw the curve so that the different sec-
tions blend into one another without a notice-
able change of direction or thickness of line.
Other types of irregular curves may be pur-
chased which are adjustable to the entire length
of a curved line.
0
0 • • •
•
0

points together, and then turning the ~ut. The

needle point should be slightly longer than the
. ,------
/'... "'
pencil or ink point. .I
,• ---,...'\
I
,., ... \
- ----,
'\
-----J ,,,, -" ----', ....
IRREGULAR CURVES I
I
\
L,
'1
I
\
I
1

\
, ________
....... .,,,, I~
,,,~ /

The irregular curve is used for drawing curves ,,,"''

which cannot ·be drawn with the compasses. _.,..,

The irregular curves are usually made of plastic ,

------------
-...~-------------
and are made in a ·variety of shapes covering a FIGURE 112. Irregular Curves
wide range of curves. They serve as a guide for Courte sy Eug ene Di etzgen Company

51
 -~

\ 0.

· 1, •

\·

r-

-~

1:
f '

ic.

,{: 1:

.• :,
..,11
. .,

•..
 '
8. Inscribed Circles (Fig. 119): 2. With any convenient radius, draw the arc
a. Construct within one of the squares an · LM.
equilateral triangle using the 60-degree 3. With intersection points L and M ·as the
triangle with the lower side of the 2-inch centers and with · any radius greater than half
square as the base. the arc LM, draw the arcs cutting each ot4er
b. Bisect the angles, with the SO-degree angle at I. '
bisecting line extending to the opposite
4. Draw a line from O through the intersec-
side.
tions of the arcs at I. The line OJ divides the
c. ·With these points on the side as centers
angle into two equal parts. A
and with a radius equal to half the length
L
of the side, draw arcs, cutting the bisect-
ing lines. FIGURE 121. To J
d. The points at which these arcs intersect Bisect an Angle
Courtesy Eugene
the lines bisecting the angles will be the Dietzgen Company
center for the inscribed circle.
· e. When inking, ink the circles first.
o~-------t---B M
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
NDING THE CENTER
A number of basic problems in geometric OF A TRIANGLE
construction are explained in the following
pages. These will assist you in many of your 1. In the triangle ABC (Fig. 122), bisect the
mechanical drawing problems. Study the pro- three angles by the lines AD, BE, and CF.
cedures and the figures which go with each. 2. The three bisecting lines should intersect
They are in the order which should be followed at a common point 0, which is the center of the
closely for best results. triangle. C
FIGURE 122. To Find
... 1}-
~{PERPEND I CULAR TO A LINE · the Center of
a Triangle
AT A GIVEN_ POINT Courtesy Eugene
D-ietzgen Company
1. To draw a perpendicular to a line at a .
given point (Fig. 120), let P be the point at which
the perpendicular is to be drawn on the line AB.
2. With the given point P as the center, and
any convenient radius R, draw the arc cutting
the line AB at points Land M.
3. With any radius greater than h_alf the D: VIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO ANY
length of the line LM and with the point L as N MBER OF EQUAL PARTS
the center, draw the arc DD.
1. In Figure 123, let AB be the line to be
4~ With an equal radius S and the point M<_. divided, for example , into seven equal parts.
as the center, draw the arc CC, which cuts DD 2. Draw a line AC at any angle from A.
at the point Z. 3. Point off on this line, ,vith the dividers,
5. Through the points P and Z draw the line seven equal parts, such as AD', D.-'E', etc.
· XY which is the required perpendicular. 4. Join the point at the end of the last space
' )(
on line AC to the point B on the line AB.
D -zC 5. Now by means of triangles, as shown in
Figure 68, draw lines parallel to the line BB',
through the points I', H', G', etc.
A~f-=:;;,___-+-,;:~-+-----f--l"'J
6. This will divide the line AB into the re- ::.

I C y D
quired number of equal parts .
FIGURE / 120. To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line
at a Given Point FIGURE 123. To Divide a
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
Straight Line into Any
Number of Equal Parts
r./)1 SECTING AN ANGLE Courtesy Eugen e Dietzgen Company

. . 1. 'To bisect a given angle (Fig. 121), use 0,

the intersection of the two _legs of the angle
BOA, as the •·center.

54
 Q .
\ D!JAWING. A REGULAR PENTAGO~
. 3. Draw GH, HI, IJ, JK, KL, and LG to form
\...0R A STAR the hexagon.
l . Draw a circle two inches in diameter and 4. The radius of the circle is equal to the side
dra w in the vertical and horizontal center lines of the hexagon; therefore, the points H, I, etc.,
{diam eters). Then refer to Figure 124. may be found also by stepping the radius six;·
2. Bisect the radius CA at the midway times around the circle. ·
point E. _ 5. The 30-60-degree triangle may be used
3. Using point E as a center and EB as the also to locate the points H, I, K, and L, since
ra dius, draw the arc BD. · the points J and G are located by the center line.
4. Using B as a center and BD as the radius,
draw the arc DF.
5. Draw the line BF.
6. This is one of the equal sides of the penta-
gon, which can be completed by setting off this FIGURE 125.
length around the circle from F to G, G to H, 0 To Construct a
Hexagon in a
H to I, and I to B. Connect these points and
Given Circle
yowh ave the regular pentagon. Courtesy Eugene
7. A star can be drawn after you locate the Dietz gen Company

poin ts on the circle by connecting these points

as shown in Figure 124, lower right.

~ -····\
( ( -J?~WING:--A FIGURE OR POLYGON
\--O F ANY NUMBER OF EQUAL SIDES
WITHIN A GIVEN CIRCLE
1. To draw, for example (Fig. 126), a -seven-
sided figure •in a given circle, draw the diam-
eter AK.
2. Through the center O draw the perpen- ·
dicular LP cutting the circle at M. ·
3. Make the - distance MP equal to three-
fourths the radius of the circ le.
4. Divide the line AK into seven equal parts
(Fig. 123).
5. From P draw a line through the second .
division point on th e diamete r, cutting the cir-
cle at G.
6. Then AG is equa l to one side of the figure,
and the requi red figure may be completed by
stepping this distance off around the circle and
connecting the points.
L F

FIGURE 126.
To Draw a
A-4::::;;._~~-~~4--~-4---~ - K Figure of Any
'--? 124. The Regular Pentagon
IGUBE aqd a Star Number of
Equal Sides
7'CON STRUCTING A HEXAGON within a Given
/ INSIDE A GIVEN CIRCLE Circ le
Courtesy Eugene
1. Thr ough a given circle (Fig. 125), draw the Diet;z:;genCompany

diameter JOG .
.2. Usin g points J and G as centers and with
a :radius S equal to the circle radius R, cut the
circle circumference at H, L, I, and K.

55
1-
(
. DRAWING A CIRCLE OR ~ARC THROUGH 2. Set on your compass the radius length PC,
~

THREE GIVEN POINTS '-· , the radius of your circle. . ,.

I -

1. Let A, B, and C be the thfee given points 3. Using Pas a center, draw the arc CWX. ·
through which the circle or arc i~ to be drawn 4. With the point W as a center, use the
(Fig. 127). . ,-5> same size radius and draw the arc · YZ.
2. Draw the lines AB and BC. 5. With the point Z as a center and the same
3. Divide these lines in half by perpendicular size radius, draw the arc WY.
lines LO and MO. c
6. Place a straightedge connecting points
4. These · perpendiculars will intersect at the Y and P. Draw a line through these points and
point 0, which is the center of the required it will be tangent to the circle or arc at the par-
circle. ticular point P.
5. With O as a center and a radius of OB, 7. A line drawn from C to P will be per-
OA, or OC, draw the circle _or arc which passes pendicular to this line.
X
through the three points.
M

· FIGURE 127. To Draw a Circle through Three FIGURE 129. Tangent Line and Circle or Arc
Given Points
Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
CONNECTING TWO NON-PARALLEL LINES
DRAWING AN ELLIPSE BY THE_ WITH A CERTAIN SIZE OF ARC
TRAMMEL METHOD 1. Draw lines AB and CD non-parallel,
1. Let AA and BB be the major and minor about as you see them in Figure 130.
axes of the given ellipse drawn perpendicular to 2. Line EF as shown is the length of the
one another at their mid-points (Fig. 128). radius of the arc we shall use to connect ·these
2. On the straight edge of the strip of paper lines properly.
RS mark the distance AO equal to half the 3. Choose the points L and i\1 and draw per-
major axis and the distance BO equal to half pendiculars to the lines at these points.
the minor axis. 4. Set the radiu s EF on the compass.
3. If the strip of paper is moved, keeping A 5. Using L and M as centers draw the arcs
on the minor axis and Bon the major axis, 0 will GH and JK.
give points on the ellipse. 6. Draw lines QR and ST parallel to lines AB
4. When the ellipse is outlined by these and CD tangent to the arcs jus t drawn.
, points, a smooth curve can be drawn through 7. QR and ST will intersect at 0, which is
these points by means of the irregular curve, the center for the arc necessary to connect the
shown in Figure 112. lines. ·
8. Again set the radius EF on your compass.
B 128. .
FIGURE
An Ellipse by the
9. Using O as a center, draw the arc· con-
Trammel Method necting the lines properly.
Courtesy Eugene 10. The point of tangenc y between this arc
Dietzgeri Company
and the two lines drawn in Step 1 can be found
by drawing the perpendic ular lines ON and OP.
D
::

.s
A LINE TANGENT TO A CIRCLE
OR ARC AT A GIVEN POINT A Q

1. Observe Figure 129. Draw a circle or large

arc and label the center C. Select any point P £1-I -....l1F 6
on this circle as the point where you want a FIGURE 130. Connecting Non-parallel Lines with
line tangent to the circle. an Arc

56
 DRAWING AN ARC OF GIVEN SIZE
TANGENT TO TWO OTHER ARCS
1. Select centers O and C as in Figure 131.
2. Choose a radius, and, using these centers,
draw the two arcs DE and FG. These arcs are
not necessarily of the same size.
3. Line AB is the radius of the given arc for
connecting .the other two arcs.
4. Add the length of the radius line AB to
the length of the radius chosen in Step 2. If
arcs DE and FG are of different sizes, add the
length AB to each one and perform Step 5.
5. Using the radii determined above, with -
0 and C as centers, draw arcs intersecting at P.
6. This point Pis the center for the arc con-
necting the two arcs drawn in Step 2.
7. Set the radius AB on your compass.
8. Use point Pas a center and connect pr.op-
, erly the two arcs as drawn in Step 2.
9. Draw lines PO and PC.
10. The points of tangency between the arcs
will then be located at points T and H.
p parts.
E 5. Draw a regular pentagon in the circle given
G D
Al ~8
FIGURE 131.\ Connecting Two Arcs with a
.
~
6. Line JH and arc KL will intersect at 0
and will be the center for the arc connecting
arc DE and line FG as drawn in Steps 1 and 2.
7. Set the radius AB on your compass.
8. Using point Oas a center, connect the arc
and line properly .
9. Draw a perpendicular from point O to T
on line FG.
. 10. Draw a line connecting center C and
point 0.
11. The points T and M will be the points of
tangency between the arcs and line.
PROBLEMS .
Work the following problems on the next two
pages. Ask your teacher to make some assign-
ments for the extra space. Practice on plain
paper before you begin work in each square.
1. Bisect the given line in space No. 1.
2. Bisect the given angle in space No. 2.
3. Find the center of the triangle shown 1n
space No. 3 .
4. Divide the line in space No. 4 into 9 _equal
in space No. 5. A circle of the same size is
in space No. 6. Draw a star in this space.
6.- In space No. 7, draw a hexagon in the circle.
7. If you do not know how, ask your teacher
to show you how to use only your 30-60-
.degree triangle to draw a hexagon in the
circle of space No. 8.

, Third Arc
FIGURE 132.
Connecting a Line
and an Arc with
Another Arc
Al
DRAWING AN ARC OF A PARTICULAR
SIZE TANGENT TO A LINE
AND ANOTHER ARC
1. With C as a selected center, choose a
radius and draw the arc DE (Fig . 132}.
2. Draw the line FG.
3. Line AB is the length of the radius for
the particular size of arc to connect arc DE
.properly with line FG.
4. Using center ·C, draw th e arc KL. This
arc should be the same distance from arc DE
as the length of the radius line AB.
5. Draw the line JH parallel to line FG .
This line should be the same distance from line
FG as the length of the radius line AB.
.
8. In space No. 9 draw a 9-sided figure in the
0
circle. The indicated procedure was for a 7-
. .sided figure; so you must divide the diameter
line in this problem into 9 equal parts. ·
9. In space No. 10 draw an arc which will go
through the three given points.
H 10. On a sheet of paper draw an ellipse, using
the Trammel ~1ethod. If you cannot decide
on the length of the axes, ask your teacher
to assign these lengths.
IB
11. A circle is drawn in space No. 11. Draw
a line tangent to this circle at the point P.
12. In space No. 12 use the 45-degree triangle
and draw an octagon in the circle. The pro-
ced ure is not given. If you cannot do this,
ask your teacher to show you how.
13. The necessary lines are shown in space
No. 13. Follow the procedure closely and
connect the two lines properly with an arc.
14. The centers have been selected and the two
arcs drawn in space No. 14. With the given
!nformation, draw an arc tangent to these
given arcs .
15. With the information as given in space No.
15, draw an arc tangent to the line and
the arc.
j 51
 I 2.

-4 5 6
A

---___;_-+ -----i--
---+---

. e,

7 ·8 9

---+--- -+-----+ ......---+- --+----+----+-

r

10 II 12.
..

8
+
-+-----+-__..,_
C+
. -+

58
~ -- J ' " ~ ,
--
DRAWING AN ARC OF GIVEN SIZE
TANGENT TO TWO OTHER ARCS
1. Select centers O and C as in Figure 131.
2. Choose a radius, and, using these centers,
draw the two arcs DE and FG. These arcs are
not necessarily of the same size.
3. Line AB is the radius of the given arc for
connecting .the other two arcs.
4. Add the length of the radius line AB to
the length of the radius chosen in Step 2. If
arcs DE and FG are of different sizes, add the
length AB to each one and perform Step 5.
5. Using the radii determined above, with
0 and C as centers, draw arcs intersecting at P.
6. This point P is the center for the arc con-
necting the two arcs drawn in Step 2.
7. Set the radius AB on your compass.
8. Use point P as a center and connect pr.op-
erly the two arcs as drawn in Step 2.
9. Draw lines PO and PC.
10. The points of tangency between the arcs
will then be located at points T and H.
p parts.
E 5. Draw a regular pentagon in the circle given
G D
I --
A .... .....
~8
FIGURE 131. - Connecting Two Arcs with a
Third Arc . 8 . In space No. 9 draw a 9-sided figure in the
FIGURE 132.
Connecting a Line
and an Arc with
Another Arc
Al 18
DRAWING AN ARC OF A PARTICULAR
SIZE TANGENT TO A LINE
AND ANOTHER ARC
1. With C as a selected center, choose a
radius anq. draw the arc DE (Fig. 132).
2. Draw the line FG.
3. Line AB is the length of the radius · for
the particular size of arc to connect arc DE
properly with line FG.
4. Using center C, draw the arc KL. This
arc should be the same distance from arc DE
as the len:gth of the radius line AB.
5. Draw the line JH parallel to line FG.
This line should be the same distance from line
FG as the length of the radius line AB.
6. Line JH and arc . KL will intersect at 0
and will be the center for the arc connecting
arc DE and line FG as drawn in Steps 1 and 2.
7. Set the radius AB on your compass.
8. Using point O as a center, connect the arc
and line properly.
9. Draw a perpendicular from point Oto T
on line FG.
10. Draw a line connecting center C and
point 0.
11. The points T and M will be the points of
tangency between the arcs and line.
PROBLEMS .
Work the following problems on the next two
pages. Ask your teacher to make some assign-
ments for the extra space. Practice on plain
paper before you begin work in each square.
1. Bisect the given line in space No. 1.
2. Bisect the given angle in space No. 2.
3. Find the center of the triangle shown in
space No. 3.
4. Divide the line in space No. 4 into 9 equal
.
in space No. 5. A circle of the same size is
in space No. 6. Draw a star in this space. ·
6. In space No. 7, draw a hexagon in the circle.
7. If you do not know how, ask your teacher
to show you how to use only your 30-60-
degree triangle to draw a hexagon in the
circle of space No. 8.
circle. The indicated procedure was for a 7-
sided figure; so you must divide the diameter
line in this problem into 9 equal parts. ·
9. In space No. 10 draw an arc which will go
through the three given points.
10. On a sheet of paper draw an ellipse, using
the Trammel Method. If you cannot decide
on the length of the axes, ask your teacher
to assign these lengths .
11. A circle is drawn in space No·. 11. Draw
a line tangent to this circle at the point P.
12. In space No. 12 use the 45-d egree triangle
and draw an octagon in the circle. The pro-
cedure is not given. If you cannot do this,
ask your teacher to show you how.
13. The necessary lines are shown in space
No. 13. Follow th e procedure closely and
connect the two lines properly with an arc.
14. The centers have been selected and the two
arcs drawn in space No. 14. With the given
\
information, draw an arc tangent to these
given arcs .
15. With the information as given in space No.
15, draw an arc tangent to the line and
the arc.
5 7.
 13
''
+u
0

cO .

.u
. LL .
0
+

15 16

LL

0 u+

<(

·"
5 .9
 3. Pictorial
THREE . COMMON ·TYPES
· The common types of pictorial drawing are
isometric, oblique, and perspective. Many con-
sider pictorial as the easiest form of drawing
_because it is more like a picture, photograph, or -
the. impression you receive as. you look at an
object. Perspective presents an object more as
the eye sees it, because the lines recede and
gradually converge. These are more compli-
cated dr~wings to make than the commonly
used isometric and oblique drawings. All three
types will be explained, and throughout the
book you will find examples of them. The three
_types are _compared to multi-view drawing in
Figure 133.
Q
MULTIVIEW
□ []
FIGURE 133. Common Types of Pictoria~ Drawing
in .Relation to Multiview Drawing
· Pictorial drawings are used especially to
show numerous surfaces and parts of machines,
furniture, equipment, and other items. This type
of drawing is especially useful in freehand
sketching. Hidden lines are us~ally not shown.
FIGURE · 134 . · Take-down
.Ping-pong ~able
· . Courtesy
The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company
flO
Drawing
The pictorial drawing of the ping-pong table
·in Figure 134 helps show the general assembly,
but the details of the . joints and construction
~re more clearly shown by the detail drawing~
1n Figure · 135.
There are also some disadvantages of pic-
torial drawings. They do not permit intricate
details to be shown accurately; they make di-
mensioning more difficult; and they are hard
to space properly . Detailed objects usually re-
quire considerably more time when drawn by
this method than when presented by multiview
drawing.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
AXES .AND STRAIGHT LINES
The principal axes used when making isomet-
ric drawings are shown in Figure 136. These
represent th e principal edges of an object and
may be turned in seve ral positions, as shown,
with «A" being the most common. This places
all major surfa ces at the same angle with the
plane of pro jection (Fig . 137). However, if all
major surfac es are at this angle with the sheet
or plane you draw on, the measure ments will be
foreshorten ed and a special ccshrink" rule must
· be used. This is avoided by making full-size
measurements along the major axes as shown.
If a line is not parallel to one of these . axes, we
find its end point, or where it would intersect.
with a major axis:, and locate the line from this
point . .
©
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@) ONE REQUIRED 7 PARTS 1,2,ANO 4 SYMMETRICAL. ABOUT Cl
FIGURE 135. Details for Take-down Ping-pong
Table ,
CC>UrtesyThe Joseph Dixon Crucible Company

X = 12.0°
□-
_......, __
I --,(

I- I_

FIGURE 136. Positions of Major Isometric Axes

,J I& G H

& M-□8
CD FE- C

FIGURE 138. Multiview Drawings with the Same

Object in Isometric

The axes for isometric drawing may be drawn

with a 30-60-degree triangle and T-square,
which makes them 120 degr ees ap art . All lines
parallel to those axes may be drawn likewis e.
FIGURE 137. An Object in Relation to Its Plane in Some objects in mult iview with the isometric
Isometric Drawing drawings are shown in Figure 138.
61
STEPS IN MAKING A SIMPLE
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
1. Lay out lightly the major axes 120 degrees
apart with the 30-60-degree triangle as shown .1 l
in Figure 136. Make them as long as the long- 11.:. ,
est lines shown on Figure 139. Make all lines ~
light until you have completed the object and _,~ I

checked it for errors . . _j_

2. Make measurements along the axes for the
total width, height, and depth (thickness, width,
FRONT -
and length) (Fig. 140). Also notice in the several
views how dimensions are placed on isometric
FIGURE 140. Measurements
drawings.
3. Draw lines parallel to the axes from these
points and block in the rectangle, as in Fig-
ure 141.
4. From the corners of the rectangle in Figure
142, measur~ to locate the ends of other lines
not on the major axes and also for those not
parallel to the axes and other surf aces, if there
are some.
5. Connect these points and darken the lines
(Fig. 143). Complete all lines in the incomplete
figures, and then work out Step 6.
6. Choose a similar object and make a small
sketch of it in the space provided. Make it half .
size if necessary. FIGURE 141. Blocking in Lines

FIGURE 142. Locating Points for Other Lines

I
t

.FR.ONT END

/I'--..
FIGURE 139. Multiview and Isometric Drawing FIGURE 143. Finishing the Isometric View

62
DRAWING ISOMETRIC CIRCLES
Circles in isometric drawing appear as ellipses.
They are constructed by several methods, but
the four-center ellipse and coordinate methods
are shown here. The following procedure will
assist you:
1. Locate the center of the circle on the sur-
face of the isometric object where the "circle"
will appear. Refer to Figure 144 and Figure 145
to see how circles appear on each surface. Two
center lines parallel to the major axes may be
used to assist you in measuring for Step 2.
FIGURE 144. Four-center Ellipse
FIGURE 145. Two ~1ethods of Drawing Isometric
Circles on Surfaces
2. Construct a square (isometric square or
parallelogram) whose side is equal to the di-
ameter of the desired circle. Note that two
sides of this isometric square will form two
angles which are larger than the other two.
_3. From the vertex of these larger angles
draw lines to the center points of the sides op-
posite these ·corners. The points at which these
lines cross are the center points for the end
arcs of the isometric circle . The center point
of each side arc of the circle is the vertex of
-this angle fro~ which the lines were drawn.
_4. Similar construction may be used to make
a fourth or half of an isometric circle.
ORAWING A PARTIAL ISOM·ETRIC
CIRCLE, OR ARC
, 1. Measure the radius of the desired arc along
the two intersecting isometric lines which form
the vertex of an angle.
2. Erect perpendicular lines to these points.
3. The center for the required arc is the point
at which these perpendiculars intersect, and its
radius is shown as in Figure 146. A different
application of this principle is given in Division
2, "Basic Drafting Information," where two
non-parallel lines are connected by an arc of
given size.
63
 1
5 l'J

B'-2; C-3 to C'-3; D-4 to D'-4; E-5 to E'-5. Other

points can be located in a similar way.
3. If the object has depth or thickness, extend
a line from each point on the isometric view,
parallel to the major axis toward which . the
object extends, and measure the required dis-
tance, as point "X." All of these points, when
connected, will form a similar curve. The hid-
den surfaces may be eliminated as needed to
show the object.
Problems involving much of the above infor-
mation are given on other pages. These pro-
gress from the simple to the complex. There are
other pages containing isometric lines on which
FIGURE 146. Drawing Partial Circles, or Arcs, in you can sketch objects.
Isometric
PROBLEMS
IRREGULAR ISOMETRIC CURVES .
1. What are the three most common 'types of
Irregular objects can be drawn in isometric pictorial drawing?
by the coordinate method, as shown by the hole
or circle in Figure 145. A part of a saw handle
is used in Figure 147 to illustrate how such an
object can be drawn. A handle made in this -----------·-----------------------------------------------------
shape can be attached to a bottom board and . 2. Which type of pictorial drawing makes an
made into a safe jointer or table saw pusher object appear more like what you see when
handle. It must be drawn in a regular view on actually viewing the object? ·
coordinates or crosshatched lines to a scale as
desired for the isometric view. ----------------------------------------
Use the following procedure: 3. What are three main disad vantages of pie-
1. Draw the regular view of the object on . torial drawing?
coordinates and an isometric square in relation
to it, as shown in Figure 147.
2. Point OA on the regular view corresponds
to point OA' on the isometric view, B-2 to

/"-..
/
/
. ~..............
. ~,
/,
/ I
/ L
~II

I A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U
-
...

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5ECTION A-A.'

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p 147. Coordinate Method of Irregular
,
I
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FIGURE
Curves in Isometric

64
 • -✓ a•·--•
•~~-------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Sketch two of the positions for the major
axes of isometric drawing. Show the angle
between axes on one sketch.
5. Select some simple object which has a hole
in it and sketch an isornetric view of it below.
You might design a wooden holder for an
electric clock on one of the pages containing
isometric lines.
6. The pages following (pp. 66-69) show ob-
jects drawn in multiview. Make the isometric
·drawings of these · objects in the space pro-
vided. You will notice that the various views
are 'drawn on crosshatched lines. Each one
of these squares represents ¼ ", or one square .
on the isometric lines shown. One group has
the axes located for you to complete. Space
the other group for a good arrangement ..
7. Ask your teacher to assign some problems
from other divisions of the book for you to
sketch on the isometric pages (pp. 70-71).
..-.-----~
OBLIQUE DRAWING
TWO TYPES
Oblique drawing is divided into two types,
cavalier and cabinet. Three axes are used, as
in isometric drawing, but two of them are at a
right angle with each other. This means that
one surface of the object is parallel with the
plane of p~ojection (Fig . 148), and is drawn in
the same way as is one view in multiview pro-
jection, making use of two axes. This has a
decided advantage over isometric, because cir-
cles, arcs, and other irregular curves can be
shown in their true shapes if placed with this
surf ace toward the front. The third axis is com-
monly drawn to recede at 30-, 45-, or 60-degree
angles (Fig. 149), and may be turned in several
directions. However, the third axis may recede
at any angle.
FIGURE 148. An Oblique Drawing, with One Sur-
f ace of the Object Parallel to the. Plane of
Projection
When the receding lines are measured full
length, the drawing is called a cavalier drawing.
We call it a cabinet drawing if the lines recede
at 45 degrees and are measured one-half their
true length (Fig. 150). This type of oblique
drawing is sometimes used to make drawings
in cabinet work. Whether the lines recede full
length or half length depends upon the objecr ·
and the purpose in drawing it. These facts will
also probably determine the angle of the reced:- '-
ing axis. If we wanted to show something on
top of an object, we would probably recede at
45 or 60 degrees, but at 30 or less degrees if
something on the side was to be shown more
clearly.
Other angles for receding lines and a scale
different from half-size are sometimes used, but
not commonly.
65
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66
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68
 ;

,
70
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30° . 45° 60°

L----~-- __,. ___ J_ ----.,1 ___ J_ .

FIGURE 149. The Third Axis Receding at 30, 45,

and 60 Degrees in Oblique Drawing

CAVALIER CABINET

-lt\J
·-
_,.,
- I1--- t.lI _ __,,

FIGURE 150. Cavalier and Cabinet Drawings

·MAKING A CAVALIER AND A

CABINET DRAWING
1. Two front views of an object are shown in
Figure 151. A receding third axis has been CAVALl~R CA61NET
started on each view. Complete these drawings,
making one a cabinet and the other a cavalier.
2. Draw the receding lines at the approximate
'
FIGURE 151. Incomplete Cavalier and Cabinet
angle indicated on each. Drawings

72
 3. The objects are ¾" thick. Measure this IRREGULAR OBLIQUE CURVES
distance along the line on the · one marked ·
Irregular curved surfaces in oblique drawing
''cavalier" and one-half this distance along the
may be constructed in the same way as in iso-
lines on the one marked ''cabinet.,, ·
metric, by using the offset method.
4. Draw the necessary vertical and horizontal
The front and side views of a small wall box
lines to complete these oblique drawings.
for screws, small nails, or other small objects
5. Choose another similar object and in the are shown in Figure 153. Draw it full size on
space provided draw an . oblique drawing by a
a sheet after you have practiced some of the
method assigned by your teacher. oblique drawing.
¼DRILL
\ I

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·'

INkRT GLASS I
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DESIRED.
,

1
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ALL 1
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FIGURE 153. Small Parts Box

PROBLEMS
1. What are the two types of oblique drawing?
OBLIQUE CIRCLES AND ARCS
If circles and arcs appear on other than the ----------------------------------------------------- r

front surface of an oblique drawing, they may

be constructed by the following method: ,
1. Construct a parallelogram as in isometric 2. The third axis for oblique drawing usually re-
drawing, so that the size of circle needed will be
indicated.
2. Erect lines perpendicular to the sides of cedes at what angles? ------------
---------
--------------
---
the parallelogram at the center point of each.
The center of each required arc is one of the 3. Briefly explain the difference between
four points at which these perpendiculars in- oblique and i~ometric drawing.
tersect.
-------------------------------------------------------------- -
3. The centers ·may fall within or without the
parallelogram (Fig. 152).
-------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------- .

---------------------------------------------------------- --

----------------------------------------------------------
--
4. What is the name of the type of oblique ·
drawing where measurements on the reced-
ing axis are only one-half size?

FIGURE 152. Constructing an Oblique Circle
4. Arcs can be made by using only as much
of the above procedure as needed. This pro-
cedure is illustrated also in Figure · 146.
-----------------------------------------------------·--- --
5. In the space at the top of page 77 sketch a
small rectangular block which has a rectangu-
lar hole in the top of it; Select for the reced-
ing axis the angle which will show this hole
best.

73
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76
 -
MORIZO LINE

.. -

_ _:C:::E.!.!N..:..T:;::ER..:.....=.O.:....~
~V..:..:1
S:..:..l
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____ H
PICTURE
PLANE

FIGURE 154. Parallel or One-point Perspective

FROMTViEW

PLAN
OR
TOP VIEW

p P PICTURE PLANE

'

FIGURE 155. More Nearly

Accurate One-point
Perspective

,.
'

SIDE VIEW OR .
ELEVATION .

78
..fa:_ _,_.,., CV -•--._,; ,. - - •-• ~ C . • - • • , ,,__~ .• • •- - --· ~ - - - - ~ •

; kitchen or other room of a home. When two of
6. Sketch the side of an oblique object and show
how to draw an oblique circle.
7. Other problems are given on page 74 with
the necessary orthographic (multiview) views
and with crosshatched spaces in which to
solve them . Select the angle for the reced-
ing ·axis and work these as assigned by your
teacher. Forty-five degrees is suggested as
the angle of recession. Space is also provided
on pages 75-76 for other problems to be se.:.
lected from other divisions of this book.
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
TWO COMMONLY USED TYPES
Perspective . drawing is the type of pictorial
drawing which presents objects most nearly as
the eye sees them, or as they should be seen in
a photograph. The general principles of per-
spective are all that are needed by the ordinary
draftsman. H;owever, perspective becomes very
important for the architect or architectural en-
gineer. You should be able to make neat sketch-
es or accurate simp le drawings in perspective.
The two kinds of perspective most used, paral-
lel, or one-point, and angular, or two-point, are
explained so that you can perform the basic
operations .
PARALLEL, OR ONE-POINT
PERSPECTIVE
Parallel or one-point perspectiye is commonly
used to show the interior of rooms, such as a
the principal edges of an object are parallel to
the picture plane, the other edge is perpendicu-
lar to it and the lines will converge at one point.
It is best illustrated by looking down a straight
highway, railroad track, or street. You will
notice that the sides of the street or highway
and the rails seem to draw closer together as
the distance becomes greater, until these lines
converge at one point on a line called the ho-
rizon line . This ~ype of perspective is illustrated
in Figure 154. If a picture plane were placed
between you and a line of telephone poles or
other items of like size, you would see that in
perspective · on the picture plane they seem to
grow smaller in size as the distance increases.
A more complete and more nearly accurate one-
point perspective is shown in Figures 155 and
156.
DRAWING A SIMPLE PARALLEL
PERSPECTIVE
1. Draw a light line representing the horizon
or level of the eye as shown in the parallel per-
spective figure. The position of this line deter-
mines to a great extent what your object will
look like. A little practice in sketching a simple
block will show you where to place it.· Make
all lines light . Ref er to Figures 155 and 156.
2. Below the horizon line ( HL) draw lightly
the front face, or view, of the object.
3. Locate the center of vision (CV) along the
horizon line behind the front view.
4. From all corners of the front face, or view,
of the object, draw light lines converging to
this center of vision. This means that all lines
in the ground, or horizontal, plane which are
perpendicular to the , horizon will converge to
this point on the horizon.
5. Locate the back of the object along these
converging lines. For simple work, this distance
may be either estimated or measured.
6. Lines of the object in the picture, or ver-
tical, plane which are perpendicular to the ho-
rizon line ( vertical in the object) will be vertical
on the drawing: Draw these in lightly.
· 7. Lines in either the ground or the picture
plane which are parallel to the horizon line
( horizontal in the object) will be drawn parallel
to the horizon line, or horizontal on -the draw-
ing. Draw these lightly.
8. Darken all lines to form the drawing. L-N
'
77
 FIGURE 157. . A Small Object Seen in Two-point
Perspective

VPR
HORIZON

FIGURE 158. A Two-point Perspective as Drawn

the .figure in this example as you would on a
drawing. Use this example when following the .
procedure given later for making a two-point
perspective of a simple object.
2. The viewing point or station point (SP)
is the point from which you are viewing the
object.
3. Top View, or plan, and Side View, or
elevation, are the true top and side views of
an object as in multiview projection.
80
l
I
4. Horizon ( HH) is actually the level of the
eye as you view an object in most perspective
or where your lines of sight converge on the
horizon. If the horizon line is above the object,
it means you are above the object, and see the
top parts and sides; if it is below the object, you
see the lower part and sides . The horizon line
( or level of sight) may be placed above, through
the top, middle, or bottom edge, or below an
object. This is sometimes referred to as· bird's-

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FIGURE 159. The Position of the Horizon

as Indication of the Elevation
of the Object

y p
·- --- ~--•••"•w. ••• • .. \· ••..-'• - -,, ~ <..- ., •~;J•M

M MORlZO~ VPR H

SID£ ELEVATION

5 8

eye view, ground- or eye-level view, and worm's- draw the side view, or elevation, of the object.
eye view. A horizon line for an architecf s idea 3. _Determine the position of your picture
·or sketch may be drawn from a view above the .- plane (PP) and draw the line lightly. The
object or from an eye-level view. Refer to Fig- position of PP determines the distance of the
ure 159 to see an _example of such an architec- . picture plane from the object. Label all lines
tural _drawing. and points lightly as you see and draw them.
5. Vanishing points (VP) are the points to 4. Determine where you wish to vie~ the
your right (VPR) and left (VPL) on the horizon object and label the point SP for the viewing ·
line where your lines of sight would eventually or station point.
converge if -they were extended. 5. Draw the horizon line (HH) above the
side view as shown~ This will give you a view
down on the top part of the object. The horizon
DRAWING A TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE, ·line drawn through this view or below it would
PART I give you a ground leve l view or a view from
Use a regular sheet of plain paper and follow underneath the object. The position of the
closely the procedure indicated below to repro- horizon line thus actually determines· the eleva-
duce the drawing shown in Figure 159. Other tion from which you are viewing the object. -
objects ·for one: and two-point perspective are 6. You will notice that the object -in the _
given for you to draw also. Be sure to make plan is at an angle to the picture plane. From
lines light until the final drawing is complete. the station point ( SP) draw lines to points X
1. Near the top of the sheet and slightly / to and Y on the picture p lane (PP) . These lines
the left of the center, draw the top view, or plan, are parallel to the sides of the object. In this
of the object. illustration the a:µgle chosen is 30 degrees.
2. _At the _lower right or left of the sheet, 7. Drop perpendiculars from X and Y oh
81
 PP to the horizon (HH) line. This locates the
vanishing points on the right and left.
8. Draw lines from SP to the corners in the
top view, numbered 1, 2,_3, and 4. Where these
lines cross the picture plane (PP), letter the
points . A, J, K, and L as shown . These four
numbers on the outside of this view represent
those corners of the object which can be seen
on top. The numbers 5, 6, 7, and 8 on the
inside of the view represent the corners on the
bottom which cannot be seen. These same num-
bers are shown in the same way on the side view.
9. Extend lines 1-4 and 2-3 to the left until
they hit the picture plane at C and M. Extend
lines 1-2 -and 3-4 to the right to hit at F and N.
10. From the side view extend lines 1-4 and
5-8 to the left.
DRAWING A TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE,
PART 2
These prelimiiiaries are necessary before be-
ginning the location of points on the perspective
view. Check all steps up to this point, because
they must be accurate before the drawin ·g can
be completed correctly. Then proceed to locate
points and to check them closely as in the fol-
lowing procedure.
1. Drop a perpendicular from F on PP to
points T and G on the side-vi~w horizonta l lines
1-4 and 5-8.
2. Draw light lines from T and ~ to VPL .
3. Drop a perpendicular from C on PP to
points E and D, which are on the same lines
( extensions of 1-4 and 5-8) drawn in Step 10
above.
4. Make light lines connecting E and D to
VPR.
5. The point at which lines E-VPR and
T-VPL intersect is the location of point lB or
the top corner corresponding to No. 1 on the
plan and on the side elevation.
6. The point at which lines D-VPR and
G-VPL intersect is the location of point 5, or
the lower corner corresponding to No. 5 on the
plan and on the side elevation .
7. Notice particularly that A is the point
where the line of sight from the station point
(SP) cuts the picture plane (PP). If a per-
pendicular line is drawn from point A down-
. ward, it will also intersect the vanishing point
lines from E and D at the sa~e points, lB and
5, and the same corners of the object.
8. Connect points lB and 5. This line will
be the corner of the object in perspective which
is closest to 'the picture plane (PP) and to the
station point (SP), which is the observer's
location.
82
l.
9. Draw the perpendicular MRS.
10. Connect R and S to VPR . The point at
which lines R-VPR and T-VPL intersect will
be the location of point 2, or the comer cor-
responding to No . 2 on the plan and on the side
elevation. R-VPR intersects T-VPL. Likewise,
point 6 will be located where S-VPR intersects
G-VPL, corresponding to the corner numbered
6 on the plan and on the side elevation. .
11. A perpendicu lar downward from point J
on PP will also go through points 2 and 6. Lines
joining points lB to 2, 2 to 6, 6 to 5, and 5 to
IB will indicate the left end of the object.
12. You will notice that points 3, 4, and 8 lie
on vanishing points already drawn from R, E,
and D to VPR. Their exact locations on these
lines are determined by drawing three more
lines.
13. Draw line NOQ and then connect O and
Q with VPL. The points at which line O-VPL
intersects lines R-VPR and E-VPR are corners
3 and 4; the point at which line Q-VPL inter-
sects line D-VPR is the location of comer 8.
Check points 3, 4, and 8 so located by drawing
perpendiculars down ward from vision points
Kand L.
14. Notice th at point 7 represents the bottom
back corner and is invisible to the observer. It
would be directly under point 3 where lines
S-VPR and Q-VPL intersect.
PROBLEMS
1. In Figure 160 are shown two objects which
are dimensioned isometric and oblique views.
Draw them by one-point and two-point per-
spective .
2. Briefly tell the difference between perspec-
tive drawing and other forms of pictorial
drawing.
--------------------------------------------- - ------------------------------
---------- -------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the names of the two . common
types of perspecti ve drawing?
4. What do the following letters refer to on
perspective drawings as show~?
 >
. •
~ ,, • ~

VPL or VPR __________

----------
--------------------------
_____
_.. SP ------- · ---- -- ----- ··~----. ------------- ·--- - .- · ·-- ..__.......,___- ----·------
'

HH CV -~-------------------------------------------------------------------

-
--1~

------~--■..-----.1,J
I~
◄ -a --------..t• I
FrcuRE 160. Problems To Be Drawn in
Perspective

83
 rI
I
!
4. Multi view Projection
Before beginning this division, review Divi-
sion 1, "Blueprint Reading and Sketching,"
studying the symbols and different types of
lines, and any other material assigned by your .
teacher. . '.
NEED FOR MULTIVIEW DRAWING
In pictorial drawing the object is shown some-
what ·as it appears to the eye, but without indi-
cation of the exact sizes and shapes of its parts.
Because of this fact, additional views, correctly
proportioned and properly arranged, must be
used to describe and show the object. These
views or sides refer to the six sides of an object-
the front and back, right and left sides, top and
bottom. This is properly called orthographic
or multiview drawing.
VIEWING AN OBJECT ·
Imagine · an object inside a glass or clear
plastic box, as in Figure 161. If the object is
viewed from each of the six sides, and t~e sides
of the box are hinged and spread out, each with
the view which it presents, the proper position
of these views and what you see will appear as
shown in Figure 162.
FIGURE 161. Object in Transparent Box
Consider the following when you view an
object:
1. -Get your teacher to make a large plastic
tt or screen wire box with 3 or more sides.
J
2. Place various objects inside the box on
1
84
l
I
a pedestal or some other support on the floor
of the box.
3. Look at each of the six sides of the object
and draw what you see just on each particular
side.
4. Remove the object and spread out the box .
5. What you have drawn is approximately
what would be included on a multiview draw-
ing. The box unfolds as you would revolve
an object you draw in order to see or visualize
it if it was not placed in the box.
FIGURE 162. Six Views, Properly Located
CHOICE OF VIEWS
Usually, three or, four of the views can be
eliminated. A simple block is shown with com-
pleteness in Figure 163. You will notice that
the front view shows the height and width. The
height is also the same in the side or end and
back views and the width is the same in the top,
front, and bottom views . The top , bottom, and
both side views show the thickness .
It ·is obvious that it is not necessary to use all
the views for this, or most othe r, objects. There-
£ore, if two views are chosen , it is usually the
front and right-side or front and top views. If
either the top or right-en d view of the · object
in Figure 163 were eliminated , the object could
still be clearly shown with only two of the three
.
views.
Three views will usually show the size and
shape of most objects. Those which are selected
should be the front, right-side and top views.
When you make a multi view drawing, choose
only enough views to fully describe the object.
The face of an object chosen for the front
view should be the one which clearly tells the
. most about the object. We think of the front
 thus allowing the right-side view to be chosen
(Fig. 165). The left-side view may be used
on more complicated objects if it shows parts
of the object better than another view, and if
the front view cannot be turned to advantage.

FI GURE 165. Hidden Lines in Some Views

FIGURE 163. Essential and Non-essential Views
of an au t omobile as the side where the wind-
shield or headlights are located, but you can
give a be tt er understanding of size and shape if
you ar e m aking a drawing of an automobile by
choo sing as the front view the side containing
the doors .
In addi tion to the principles explained above,
some othe r facts should be considered in the
6. If the object is long and thin, probably ,
th e b est views to choose for best arrangement
on your paper are the front and top views ( Fig.
166 ) . Spacing on your sheet will help also in
det ermining which view to choose.
I I I I PO Oll

choice of views :
I. The front view is the most important. Tum r
6000

1 C 1 EJ
the obje ct so that the most important parts are
sho,,rn in this view .
9. Tum it so that the other views will be
FIGURE 166. Best Choice for Long Thin Objects
arrange d well on the drawing so as to offer a
balanced, p leasing appearance . 7. If the object is square or almost square,
3. If two views, such as the two side views, the front and right-side views may be the best
are exactly alike or very similar, choose the choice ( Fig. 167) .
right -side view ( Fig. 164).

[D
DB POOR

---
____
.._.
GOOD

D
FIGURE 167. Best Choice for Square or Nearly
Square Objects
F1ccm: 164. Choosing the Right-end View
8. If the top and bottom views are very simi-
4. ll two side views are similar but the left- lar , the top view should be chosen.
side ,iew h as more hidden (dash) lines, choose 9. Notice particularly that the side views and
the right -side view. back view are directly to the right and left of
5. In the situation described in Item 4, the the front view, and that the top and bottom
front ,iew, if possible , should be turned so that views are directly above and below the front
the hidden lin es will be in the left-side view, .
VIew.
85
~·

.. .

USING'.lUDOEN LINES ON VIEWS

I.
Not all vi(}WS
i ·,• ;_.
t .
i -
·with hidden lines can be elim -
.. inated iwhert the obj ect has irregular outer sur-
faces, or hidden internal surfaces. You could
!
not show the simple object in Figure 168 prop -
erly without presenting views with some hidden :J: FRONT RlGNT

lines. A- w ~
i--A
SI DE

T---'
A

I I

co SORO£"
LIN~
TITl.E 6LOCI<

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I FIGURE 170. Spacing a Two-view Drawing

by 3. The "A" distances should be approximate -

FIGURE 168. Hidden Lines in Principal Views
Since these hidden lines and hidden arcs must
be used on many drawings, you should learn,
by studying Figure 169, how to make them
properly intersect or cross solid or other hidden
lines.
.. border and top of the title block . Then divide
I + I. I
I+
7C~ ~--
~ j_
--- -I ~--
----,
7 --- I ---~ 1I
I
FIGURE 169. Drawing Hidden Lines and Arcs
SP ACING OF VIEWS
The choice of views, the complexity of the
object, the amount of necessary dimensions and .
notes, the shape and size of the object, and
numerous other factors influence how you will
space views of an object for a drawing.
The suggestions below make use of simple
objects as examples. Practice and experience
will help you in spacing drawings for shop and
other more complicated drawing you may wish
to do.
SPACING TWO VIEWS
1. Attach the paper to the drawing board
properly. Refer to Division 2, "Basic Drafting
Information," for instructions.
2. Lay out the border lines and title block
lightly.
3. Determine how wide, high, and thick your
object is to be . Use Figure 170 as a reference.
4. Add the width ''W" and thickness "T" of
the object and subtract from the total distance
between the vertical border lines . Then divide
86
ly equal. If the object is small then reduce the
center ·"A" distance and make the outside "A"
distances approximately equal. ,
5. The top and bottom areas ( B) should be
approximately equal. Subtract the height ( H)
from the total distance between the top and
bottom borders or the total between the top
by 2. The bottom space may be slightly larger.
6. The views should be drawn at the same
time. All lines should be made light until you
complete the views properly .
7. When dimensions and notes are to be in-
cluded, you must allow space for these, since on
two-view drawings the dimension lines, par -
ticularly, are drawn outside, abov~, and between
the views when possible. They may · also be
properly placed below two views. They should
be ¼" distance outside the view and about the
same distance apart if two or more are on the
same side of an object.
SPACING CYLINDRICAL OBJECTS
Many circular objects can be shown with two
views. If the object is a long cylinder, the long
part is usually shown in the front view and the
end view is a circle. If the object is a pulley,
bearing, gear, or similar object, the circular
view usually tells more about it, and it is chosen
as the front view . These views require a little
more care for proper spacing on your drawing
sheet because one of the views is circular.
The following procedure will assist you:
1. Follow the same procedure as outlined in
Steps 1, 2, and 3 of the instructions above for a
plain two-view drawing, and instructions for the
other steps as needed.
2. Draw a horizontal center line dividing th e
page into equal upper and lower halves.
 3. Refer to Figure 171. The A, B, and C
_spaces should be approximately equal. If neces-
sary, to secure proper balance, the B spaces may
be decreased, but the A and C spaces should
be about equal.
B-
A
- - - "' C
I side lines blocked in lightly. Make all lines
1- - light. Extend the top (#1) and bottoin (#2)
___
_,,,II
A C
B (# 5) of the top view and extend it to the ·right.
FIGURE 171. Centering Views of a Cylinder
4 . Since the spaces at the top and the bottom
should b e equal, and since the front view is a
circle, the center of the circle will automatically
lie on the center line you drew in Step 2. This
circle shou ld be drawn first .
5. Vsing your T-square, triangle for vertical
lines, and pencil, project lines ,from th e circles
to th e righ t for drawing the right-side view.
6. ~Iake all lines light until the drawing is
complete, and then darken them .
7. Dimens ions may be placed above or be-
tvreen , ie ws. When these are to be used, space
must b e allowed for them, if the other spaces
ai-e t o b e b alanced.
SF_\.QXG THREE VIEWS
.
Tmee , ie"\vs or more are necessary on more
dFf21}ed objec ts . Use the following method to
center th em properly.
1. F ollo,v Steps 1 through 3 for spacing two
. Refe r to Figure 172. The space ·A at the
.:...
tnp and. bott om should be approximately equa l.
T?::el o,~er space may be slightly larger than at
the top. The B spaces at the left and right
sho".lld be app roximately equal. Space C -be- -
tv.-een the top and front views may be less than
those a.i.._,\. _ Space D between the front and
ri~t -side ,i e1.-v s may be less than that at B.
The spa .l-es C an d D shou ld be considered sepa-
ra:e spaces and may or may not be equal.
5. Di;mensions are usually placed bet ween
v:.ev-.~ v;hen poss ible. When both dimensions
an ...:::::;resare use d, extra space must be allo we d
so as to cente r th e views in the over- all spac e.
/ -
4. On some objects of special shape the
front, right-side, and bottom views can be used
clearly and can be more easily spaced properly.
This is true particularly when all the title block
and parts list or bill of materials are in the lower
right corner of a drawing. The object must
lend itself to the use of these views. Do not
sacrifice accuracy and general good practices
for proper spacing.
5. Lay out the front view first with the out-
lines to the right. Extend _the right (#3) and
left (# 4) lines upward . ·
6. Measure and lay out the extreme top line '
7. La y out the extreme right line (#6) of
the right-side view and extend it upward . Ex-
tend the lines in these two steps until they in-
tersect at E in the top right. Where they inter-
sect , draw a 45-degree line down toward the left.
8. La y out the extreme left line (#7) of the '
right -side view. Extend it upward until it
touches the 45-degree line at F. From this point
ext end to the left . The line extending to the left
. b e the extreme lower line (#8) of the top
will
view.
9. Th e lines 3 and 4 projecting up from the
front view and lines 1 and 2 to the right will
form the other extreme lines of the side and
top view .
5
TOP
8
u+
8
FRONT D B
SIDE
2
FrcuRE 172. Spacing Three Views
10. The front view will furnish details of the
objec t for all views, especially the more impor-
tan t top and right-side views_. Also details from
the en d view ma y be projected to the top view
or from th e top to the end by the method shown
in the above figure . However, this and one
oth er common method of projection ~a y be
seen in Figure 173.
87

-------'--
FIGURE 173. Methods of Projecting from the Top
to the End View and Vice Versa
G'ENERAL PROCEDURE FOR
PENCIL DRAWING
After you have learned the major principles
of making the various drawings in multiview
projection~ the following complete procedure
will be helpful.
1. All lines should be laid out lightly with a
2H or harder pencil. Draw all major center
lines if any are to be on the drawing.
2. Draw the major circles and arcs.
3. Along with Step 2, block in the extreme
outside lines and major lines· inside all views.
4. Draw the smaller arcs and minor details
on the views, making them complete.
5. Draw the extension and dimension lines
and guide lines for notes and numbers.
6. Check the drawing for spacing and ac-
curacy .
7. Darken all lines ,vith a 2H or H pencil.
:t\1ake the lines to the proper width and a uni-
form dark color, using the same procedure as
above. Darken border and title block lines last.
8. Add all notes, numerals, and arrowheads.
9. Construction lines need not be erased if
drawn properl y . Erasing other parts of the
dra,ving shee t should be kept to a minimum.
This can be done if you work accurately and
clean } our equipment occasionally with a small
to,vel or other cloth .
l~CLINED SURFACES
Slanted surf aces on objec ts do not usually
appear in their correct size and shape in multi-
view drawing. Certain lines will give the meas-
uren1ents of the inclin ed surface, but its true
shape is not shown.
To show the proper shape, another view
called an auxiliary drawing is sometimes used.
It is more fully expla ined in Division 5, "Ma-
chine Drawing," but an example is shown in
Figure 174.
PROBLEMS
1. Some basic problems are shown on the fol-
lowing pages. On the first page (89) three
multi-views are shown for each of a series of
objects, . with the front view completed. An
88
AUXILIARY
VIEW
TRUE SIU .
TOP AND SHA .PE
OJ: INCL .IN .ED
SURJ:'"'CE
FRONT
SID~
· FIGURE 174. An Auxiliary View
oblique or isometric view is given also. Com-
plet~ the views by filling in the missing lines
in their proper locations. After completing
the views, place an "Xn on any views not
necessary to show the object clearly.
2. Page 90 shows problems with two multiviews
complete and with an iso1,11etricor oblique
view. Draw the complete _ third multiview,
and place an "X" on views not necessary.
3. Only two views of an object are shown on
page 91. Draw the third view and mark
an "Xn on unnecessary views. Sketch the
isometric or oblique views of the objects on
cross-sectioned or isometric lined sheets.
4. Oblique and isometric views of objects are
given on page 92 with each surface num-
bered. Two complete views are drawn. Draw
the third view, and place each number on the
corresponding surf ace of this third view . If
any surfaces are hidden from view in the
regular
. views, put their numbers between
views.
5. Ask your teacher to assign some objects from
the section of this W orktext on pictorial
drawings (pages 95-100) or from qther sec-
tions. Sketch three multiviews freehand on
scrap paper. Have your teacher to check
them. Then draw the necessary views to the
proper size and spacing on one of the blank
pages (93-94),
6. Eight items of a plastic desk set are show n
on page 101. Look at these pictorial sketches ,
and then design a set to your own dimensions
and construction . Draw the necessary dimen-
sioned vie,vs of each on separate sheets of
paper.
 3. Refer to Figure 171. The A, B, and C 4. On some objects of special shape the
.spaces should be approximately equal. If neces- front, right-side, and bottom views can be used
sary, to secure proper balance, the B spaces may clearly and can be more easily spaced properly.
be decreased, but the A and C spaces should This is true particularly when all the title block
be about equal. and parts list or bill of materials are in the lower
right corner of a drawing. The object must
lend itself to the use of these views. Do not
sacrifice accuracy and general good practices
B- for proper spacing.
A ,__.,..._, C '
- 5. Lay out the front view first with the out-
I side lines blocked in lightly. Make all lines
- - light. Extend the top (#1) and bottom (#2)
lines to the right. Extend . the right (#3) and

A
,.... __' .,,
I
C
left (#4) lines upward. ·
6. Measu re and lay out the extreme top line
B (# 5) of the top view and extend it to the ·right.
7. Lay out the extreme right line (#6) of
the right-side view and extend it upward. Ex-
tend the lines in these two steps until they in -
tersect at E in the top right. Where they inter-
F1GmIB 171. Centering Views of a Cylinder sect, draw a 45-degree line down toward the left.
8. La y out the extreme left line (#7) of the '
4 . Since the spaces at the top and the bottom right-side view. Extend it upward until it
shoul d be equal, and since the front view is a touches the 45-degree line at F. From this point
circ1e, th e center of the circle will automatically extend to the left. The line extending to the left
lie on the cen ter line you drew in Step 2. This will be the extreme lower line (#8) of the top
circle shoul d be drawn first. view.
5. Lsmg ) our T-square, triangle for vertical 9. The lines 3 and 4 projecting up from the
lines; and pencil, project lines ,from the circles front view and lines 1 and 2 to the right will
t o the righ t for drawing the right-side view. form the other extreme lines of the side ·and
6. ~fake all lines light until the drawing is top view.
complet e, an d then darken them.
- . Dimensi ons may be placed above or be-
tr.l-een i.ie,Ys. , v hen these are to be used, space 5 1
mcst be allo,Yed for them, if the other spaces
TOP
are to !le balan ced.
8 '

5P_-\.CI'\ G TIIBEE VIEWS

. 1
•
u

T:·.ec ,ie"'- s or more are necessary on more

"'It
dc:-2nro objec ts . Use the following method to 8 D B
FRONT SIDE
eert..Er ::bem properly .
l . :?allow Steps 1 through 3 for spacing two 2

~ Refer to F igure 172. The space A at the

:pa:::::. ~nttom should be approximately equal.
T"'re ~ .....
"TcT space m ay be slightly larger than at
tt.£: ID?- The B spaces at the left and right FIGURE 172. Spacing Three Views
s___-2'1 '" e app roximately equal. Space C be-
m-r:"...'n tl:f' top an d front views may be less than
ti: -e- 2..: _\_,_Spac e D between the front and 10. The front view will furnish details of the
rig::::-s:2-e ..,-:_e~ m ay be less than that at B. object for all views, especially the more impor -
T-~e 5_?2.r:£5 C and D should be considered sepa- tant top and right-side views_. Also details from
r.a.::.c~ '.26 and may or n1ay not be equal. the end view may be projected to the top view
-; . -9:::Ecns:ons are usually placed between or from the top to the end by the method shown
••.~ ~~en possible . "\
1---:_e: ¥ hen both dimensions in the above figure . However, this and one
"":::::;...eS fu e use<L extra space must be allowed
a:r:.. other common method of · projection may be
so ;iS c=~ter the views in the over-all space. seen in Fig ure 173.

87

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______ ______
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OPP. END

HOUSED BRACE - DE,A\LS

MA,ERlAL: WHl,E ~lNE
DRAW EACH PIECE INDIVIDUALLY

Courtesy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company

98
r

1----------2¼
-

DOVETAIL Jo1NT
MATERIAL: WHITE. 'P\NE

DRAW EACH P.IECE \NDlVIDUALL'<

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r===::::
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----
---- --

DRAW EACH PIECE

LAP MlTER fNOl\/lOUALL.Y

M ATERfAL ~ WHlTE PINE.

Courtesy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company

99
 LETTER
MOLDER

LETTER
OPENER

BILL
PILE

PEN
'HOLDER

PAPER
WEIGHT

PIP£
RACK

Court esy Th e Josep h Dixon Crucible Company 101

 .Z DRILL
,z 1
101A x4,°C SINX
l~dORE- 2
BREAK CORNER . I
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Jx45°CHAMt: ..

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01A x oc£P k .FIN.
3}DIA

INK 80TTLE HOLDER BASE

· CAST IRON - ONE REQ~D

_Court esy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company

100
•
 5. Machine Drawing
GE~ ERAL PURPOSES shown clearly by this method, but their interi-
,-ari ons types of machine drawings are needed ors can be shown better by use of a full sec-
in . om modern industries. The pattern maker tioned drawing, a drawing of the object as it
needs a dra"\ving with only the information re- would appear - if cut through to show a "cross
quir ed in makin g a pattern for casting an object section." Common line symbols used on draw-
in the foundry. ings to show that certain materials have been
Drawings use d in the forge shop may have "cut" or sectioned, can be found in the division
dimensions only approximate to those actually on blueprint reading. Hidden lines should not
present in th e finished product . The shape may be used on sectioned views of objects. ·
be sho~-n for only the part as it is to be forged. CAP~ IS'
Lsually the machine drawing shows the di- .
SCREW --._.
mensions and other information necessary to
machine the part shown. These drawings could
also be called working drawings when the size,
shap e, and all other specifications are given.
This division is concerned primarily with the
drawin g of parts for machines, and for some
othe r objects, and with some explanation of
NUT -------------a 20'

sectioning, auxiliary drawing, fasteners, and

oth er items valuable in making a machine draw-
G
R
OMMET-----0 __.-:...- 25°

ing of an object clear to those who must use it.

Various parts of a machine or other produc~
may be drawn separately with the various views
of each . Such drawings are called detail draw-
ings . These parts may be made of wood, metal,
plastics, and numerous other materials. How-
ever, an object may be drawn also in its entirety
as a machine assembly drawing (Fig. 175). A
simple pictorial, exploded assembly of a com-
mon product a~d some machine parts are shown
in Figures 175 and 176. Other examples of de-
tail or assembly drawings may be found in
other sections of the W orktext.

"S°'2.x45
° CHAM FE.

2¼0lA

FIGURE 176. Exploded Assembly of a Faucet

Court esy Hig gins Ink Company, Inc .

·6 - - THE CUTTING-PLANE LINE

For the best understanding of sectioning,
imagine an object which has been sawed in
half with the part nearest you removed. The
surfaces which the saw cuts will be the same
FLANGES D ISC
as those to be lined on a drawing of the object.
MAC H. !:iTEEL LEATHER A few exceptions to this general principle will
FIGURE 175. Flexible Coup ling Exploded be indicated later. The proper lines to show
Assembly Drawing a section on a drawing will be determined by
Courtesy 1'he Joseph Dixon Crucible Company the kind of material from which the object is
made. On a drawing, instead of indicating the
SECTIONING sawing of the object, a cutting -plane line is
In other divisions you learned that surfaces used to show where the objec t is cut (Fig. 177),
which cannot be seen on an object . are repre- and the arrows on each end show the directio n
sented by hidden lines . 11any objects can be of your line of sight.

I 0 .2
t • .,. - .,

Full-section drawings of typical aluminum

die-casting machines and a die are shown in
Figures 178, 179, and 180.

F:1:GURE 177. Using the Cutting..plane Line

COVER EJECTOR
GOOSENECK HALF HALF OF
(DEPRESSED) OF DIE DIE

GOOSENECK FIXED M OVA.BLE FRAME HYDRAULIC

LOCK PLATEN PLATEN CYLINDER
/

MOLTEN
METAL BATH

EJECTOR .
HOLDING
MECHANI SM
FURNACE

FIGURE 178. Gooseneck Die-casting Machine

Ready for a Shot
Courtesy Aluminum Company of America

AIR INLET GA TE

GOOSENECK NOZZLE DIE

LOCK IN NOZZLE CAVITY
SEAT

CHARGE OF
QLTfN METAL
11,.

FIGURE 179. Center-gated Gooseneck Die-casting Machine

Courtesy Aluminum Company of America

1 03
 PARTING
LINE

COVER EJECTOR
HALF HALF OF
OF DIE DIE

SECTION A-A
DIE HOLES
CAVITY FOR
WATER-
COOLING
FIGURE 182. Irregular Cutting Plane and
Auxiliary Section

2. If two different . parts are adjacent (placed

FIGURE 180. Die Cross Section
C o-urtesy Alum in-um Company of America
This cutting -plane line may be drawn irregu -
larly through an object, making an offset sec-
tion to show various inside parts. The plane
gauge base (Fig. 181) could be sectioned as in
the partial view (Fig. 182), to show the parts
as cut by the line . This would also be an aux-
iliary section. Section lines on a drawing are
used to show the kind of material of which the
object is constructed and to clearly show which
cc ,,
sur f aces are cut.
together) the section lines on the two parts
should run in different directions.
3. In general, the lines should be about ½6
inch apart and uniformly spaced. ·
4. When three or more parts are together and
· are to be sectioned, the lines on the third p art
should be drawn at a 30- or 60-degree angle .
5. Very thin material is made solid when sec- ·
tioned. If two thin sections are adjacent, a small
amount of space may be left between . to show
where the parts meet.
FIGURE 183.
Directions for
Section Lines

HALF, PARTIAL, AND REVOLVED

I I fJ
SECTIONS
;kR_/ y z.165YMM ETR ICAL
"- ,, I .3 P L ACE.5
~ OF T- 5LO T
Half, partial, and revolved sections are shown
~
ABOUT
by pictorial drawings in Figures 184, 185, and
FIGURE 181. Plane Gauge Base 186. These sections are used when only a por -
Court esy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company tion of an object should -be shown. · Other types
of sections can be used but these will explain
IRREGULAR SHAPES
most work you will do . In the half -section . ¼
Sectioning is also useful when some irregular- of the object is removed, but actually ½ of the
ly shaped part of an object must be shown on a full cross section of the inside is shown for the
view without making a separate drawing of cylinder cap (Fig. 184). A partial or broken
this part or portion of an object. section on the eccentric drive pin is shown in
Study the following suggestions when draw- Figure 185. Revolved sections .on the rim and
ing in section lines. spoke of the release cam are represented in
1. All lines on one part should be drawn in Figure 186. Removed and revolved sections
th e same direction at a 45-degree angle . are shown in Figure 69.
104
 45° CHAMF'ER ! AM. 51'0 . PIPE TAP
5
HEXAGON 16R
4 ACROSS FLAT5

26
l.lcS BORE
1.1

4lx e
.L KEYWAY

/
I
;·
45°
FINISH ALL OVER
I
I
FIGURE 184. Hali Section on a Cylinder Cap
Courtesy Th e Joseph Dixon Crucible Company I "
..,._--e 83 DIA I
-k,x45° FINISH
l _ I CHAMFER
4-e
KEYWAY5
RELEA5E CAM
FOR FISHNET LIFTING MACHINE
MALLEABLE IRON -ONE RE.Q'D
_j(O
-- FIGURE 186. Revolved Sections on Release Cam
Courtesy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company

CoNV£Nr10NA1- R1vErs AND BaLrs

, Shop Rivets rield R ivefs

lI& X 46°
CHAMFER
'
lN LINE WITH
KEVWAYS Figure I
FIGURE 185~ Partial or Broken Section on
l l l l.
Eccentric Drive Pin
Courtesy The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company i .f ~ i
PARTS NOT SECTIONED
There are some parts on a drawing which are
not sectioned evefl: though they are crossed by
the cutting -plane. These exceptions help make
the drawing clearer to those reading it. Shafts,
spokes, rivets, bolts, keys, screws, and special
pins (Fig. 187) are examples of such parts. Other
sections and symbols are represented in Figure
188.
FrcURE 187. Sectioning Rivets and Bolts
Courtesy Armco Steel Corporation
PROBLEMS
1. A patternmaker does not usually need on -------- -------------------------------------------------------------------
a drawing indication of the drilled sizes of
small holes. Why?

---- ·-- -------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

105
 6. Name five items on machine drawings which
Cast Iron-Red Brick IC are not sectioned. ·
""'"'""'~Wrought I ran-Forged Sfee/ Brea.k-Syuare Bar
~~~

Cas-t..Sleel --:3-E-
iiili Aluminum

BaiJ/;i#-A1a9nesile Brick
Break-Round Bar

- ---~:_~~},'i.~.:~-
f!fi1¥Jftl
Cnn~r-
-r-r ·
/..', z ...,,,,'✓-''~ ~
Silica Brick B,~al<-Pipeo,liJbino1 , ------------------------------------------------------------
--------------
7. What is the correct way to section thin
::~::<:~~,
-. Brass-/~QuolilyfireBrick ~ ValVE' washers or other thin parts?
~ ,~,', ,: ..',
,:,,//,,;-_ Bronze-Z!!tlQ1.1alityFire8,ick --- ·
l-.::~.=:::::.:.~:i:
·:;~:J~£-?;f~
:·
"i Cement- Sand- Ganister
--f-13FE!Jr
· ·
Bearin9
.........•.•-...
......
Concrete -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
Chain

Earth lllllllllltttltlll RopeorCa6/e 8. Why is a half-section so named when only

¼ of the object appears as being removed?
Rubber-Flhre § Motor or Generator
Wood _L_ -M•l•I ...Battery, 4Ce//$
~ Ground
Glass
-./VV\/V'- Resistance
Water ~ Coil
=l- Condenser
§§ § I ncandescenf Lamps -- ---------------------------------------------
____ l?:olledShapes ..t.P/ates -x-«-x- Arc Lamps 9. Besides the full and half-sections, what are ·
two other kinds of sections commonly used?
FIGURE 188. Conventional Sections and Symbols
Courtesy Arm.co St eel Corporation

2. What is a detail drawing?

10. Select a simple object not already drawn and

make a small sketch below of the views.
Section the view which should be sectioned.
Put in all lines neatly.

-----
----- -·--- --
--------------------
---------
3. What type of line is used on a drawing to
show tha t the object is cut or sectioned?

-- ---------- -----------------------
4. What are two main uses of section lines?

5. At what angle should the first section lines

be drawn? At what angle or direction when
two adjacent parts are sectioned? At what
angle when three parts touch each other?

-,------------------- ---- - ------ - .

106
 AUXILIARY VIEWS
Explanation of how to draw the six views
representing the six sides of objects, as well as
how to select only the necessary ones, was made
in the division on multiview drawing. When
one of these sides is not parallel to the plane of
projection the surface becomes distorted and is
not shown in the views in its true shape. When
one or more surfaces of an object are so inclined,
we may have another special view called an
auxiliary view. The necessary regular views
will be drawn, but in these views a slanted sur-
face will not show up in its true size and shape.
Therefore, we draw this additional view set off ·
perpendicular to the slanted surface in the regu-
lar view. Such an auxiliary view is shown in
Figure 189. The regular views are necessary
also as sources for the true measurements of FIGURE 190. Special Auxiliary Aid
necessary parts in making the drawing.

.I I , '

F1GCRE 189. Three Regular Views and the

Auxiliary View
_-\.11xiliaryviews may be classified under sev-
eral differen t types, but the symmetrical type
only is explained here. Figure 190 shows an
object in a special box that will assist you in
\ie,,ing an object with a slant su1Jace .
The follo,ving procedure will assist you in
dra~g mos t types of simple auxiliary views,
such as in F:igure 191.
1. Draw the regular views as needed accord-
ing to procedures outlined in other divisions.
:,. £rtend perpe ndicular lines from the lines
repr esenting the inclined surf ace.
.3. Locate the "line of centers." This auxiliary
,iew wJl be cente red half on each side of this
1±:e or 5\mmetrical.
4. ~Ieasure line s of the slanted surface on the
other regular ,ie\\ -s '\vbich show up in their true
si-2e. Remember that true holes or circular
FIGURE 191. The Auxiliary View
shapes on slant surfaces of regular views show
up as ellipses, but in auxiliary views the same
hole or circular surface shows up in its true
shape.
5. Lay out on the line of centers lightly.
6. Draw in darker the lines for the com-
pleted symmetrical auxiliary view.
PROBLEMS
1. Which view is used to show slanted or in-
clined surfaces in their true size and shape?
2. Why are regular vie,vs necessary in auxiliary
drawing?
----------------- ------------- ---
107
 -----------------------
----------- --·----
3. Choose an object not already completed,and
make a small neat sketch of the necessary
and the auxiliary views.
FASTENERS
Bridges, frames of buildings, machines of all
kinds, various industrial arts p1;ojects, and nu-
merous other it ems are held together by fasten-
ers.
VARIETIES OF FASTENERS
The most common fasteners are screws, rivets,
and bolts, as seen in Figure 187. Various types
of each one of these classes of fasteners are
used. For instance, a screw may be a cap screw,
a set screw, a machine screw, a self-tapping
screw, a lag screw, or a wood screw. Other
special types of fasteners are hanger bolts, screw
eyes and hooks, carriage and machine bolts, and
numerous forms of rivets.
Other fasteners are used to lock bolts and
other fastening assemblies in place. These -may
be such items as cotter pins, straight and taper
pins, lock washers, and various shaped keys as
found when pulleys and other parts are locked
to shafts (Fig. 192). Many others are used for
diHerent kinds of work.
108
COTTER PIN KEY TAPER PIN
MACHINE SCREW HEADS
FLAT
i
ROUND OVAL FILLISTER
FIGURE 192. Some Commonly Used Fasteners
Of the numerous kinds of fasteners, you are
probably most familiar with nails and wood
screws. Wood screws are commonly seen with
flat, oval, or round heads and with either a
slotted or crosspoint recessed head. The latter
type, considered more decorative, will ·not allow
the screwdriver to slip from its head so easily.
They are used extensively in automobiles, sheet
metal work, and woodwork.
SCREW THREADS
The numerous kinds of bolts and sctews allow
machines and parts to be put together and
taken apart quickly and easily. External threads
are cut on the outside of rods by machines or
dies . Internal threads are cut inside of holes
on parts and may be made with a machine or
by using taps. A nut is threaded internally to
flt the bolt or screw.
You should become familiar with certain
terms concerning screws before you attempt to
draw them . Many of these terms are placed on
drawings to inform others of what is needed,
such as type of thread, its size, and other
information.
Major Diameter - the largest diameter of a
thread
Minor Diameter - the root diameter of a
screw; the smallest diameter of a screw; the
inside diameter of a threaded nut or hole
Pitch - the distance from a point on ·one
thread to the same point on the next thread.
This is measured parallel to the axis and is
figur ed as follows:
. h
Pitch=N um b er ofthl rea d. s per inc
As an example: If a screw has 8 threads per
inch, the pitch is ¼ inch .
Thread Series - a group of threads in rela-
tion to diameter and pitches . The most common
series used in the United States is the American
Standard or American National Series. The
 kinds of threads in this group are the National
Coarse ·(NC), National Fine (NF) and National
(N); the first two are the most common.
The NC, the most widely used, is a general
purpose thread . The NF has more threads per
inch, or is finer, and is used where more vibra-
tion occurs, as in automobiles, trucks, airplanes,
and machinery.
The American Standard thread is similar to
the Sharp-V. The main difference is that the
«y" is flattened slightly to remove the sharpness
but drawn in the same manner as shown for
the Sharp-V. .
Class Fit - des ignation of degree of tightness
of fit, which is indicated on drawings by a num-
ber: 1, 2, 3, or 4. ·Class 1 is the very loose fit,
class 4 is a very close fit, used where very
exacting work is necessary. Class-2 fit is com-
mon on screw ·threads for general purpose
work. These four may be called loose (Class
1), free (Class 2), medium (Class 3), and close
(Class 4).
Figure 193 furnishes an example of a notation
placed on drawings where threads are used.
Study the meaning of the numbers as given in
the notes .
I
16
PITCH
-----+-t-+-++++-t-1-t
-H-Hf-H--
« .
.,_
O<
10
-
C -------------------------------------------------------------·-----
t - 13NC-2
SIZEOR DIA.-TM DS. Piil lN.- T YPE THD.-FIT
---------
D 5. Explain what is meant by the minor diameter
____
.,_, ___ ._,.
E
,,
II I
E · 6. Define ''pitch" in relation to threads and tell
FIGURE 193. Notes on a Drawing of a Threaded
Rod, with Convention al and Simplified Methods
Threads may be either left-hand or right-
hand threads. If it is necessary to designate the
symbol on the drawing as a left-hand thread,
then the letters "LH" .are added after the class-
fit number. Right -hand threads are common
and need no notation.
Left-hand threads are commonly found on
the arbors of table saws in the wood shop, the
left side of grinder arbors, and some left-wheel
lugs and bolts on automobiles.
PROBLEMS
1. Name four fasteners with which you are most
familiar.
-------------------------------------------------------- -----------------
-------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------
2. What a~e five other fasteners which you know
· are used?
--------------------------------
----------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------ -
----------------
------------------------------------------------
3. Check in your home or home workshop to
learn what fasteners are available. Name
them.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Ask your teacher to assign to various mem-
bers of the class different types of fasteners
to be brought in as samples for observation.
of a screw or bolt.
1
-------------------------------.----------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------- ------
how it is determ ined.
109
 -------------------------------------------------- -----
---------------------.---------------------------------
· 7. What is ·the pitch of a screw or bolt which
has 16 threads per inch?
8. In general what does a class-3 fit mean on
threads?
------------------------ ------·------------------------ ,-
9. One standard size bolt is a 1-8, NC, 2. With
a straightedge and scale, sketch the conven..;
tional threads below, place the proper leader
and notes on the sketch, and then tell what
each part of the note means.
METHODS OF DRAWING
SCREW THREADS
In Figure 193, A, B, and C illustrate a con-
ventional method of dra,ving threads. The ,c:D"
part of this figure shows the simplified method
of drawing thread symbols. The ,c:E"part shows
other ways of using thread symbols. You should
use the type assigned by your teacher.
Shapes, . types, sizes, and fits have been
changed and standardized in recent years by
---
the American, British, and Canadian Standards
Associations. The information provided here
is to give you a general idea of common threads.
Exact and detailed information on all standards
may be purchased in various booklets from the
American Standards Association.
Design forms of Unified and American inter-
nal and external screw threads (Figs. 194 and
195) have slight differences from the old Ameri-
can National Form (originally called the ''Sellers'
Profile"), .which was the same for both threads.
Commercial screws and nuts have not been
made to the same profile for many years, if in-
deed they ever were. The . new design forms
establish dimensions that more nearly approach
practice. A separate showing of the difference
between the internal and external threads (Figs.
194 and 195) emphasizes the difference between
them.

INTERNAL.
THREAD

\ I
,
\ I
\ I
\ I
\ I

"

90<7
L._j___ _A _xi.s
__of_Ii_n~~_r_nc,_/_T._h
_re_otc!__ .. __

Rour1<:ledor Fltd
DRAWING .THREADS AND ,. Cresf
I \
EXTERNAL ,I \
'
SYMBOLS THREAD
p
Threads must be drawn . or otherwise repre- ----2---
Pifchli'ne --~-
sented on a drawing, in addition to being de- -+-----,~ -- ~-- --""'""¼- ~-

scribed in notes. The common shapes of threads

are shown in Figure 187. The square and acme
threads are frequently found on pieces which
, Max Minor Oit:rmefer af ltfino: /J1"a'!'eferS~cit'ii,d
transmit power. Screw-type jacks are good ex- Intersection of' Roof
Confovr and Flank
m O,mens,ontKI Tab~e.s.
Used ror Calculaf1011 oF
amples of places where square threads may be 90
' of' Thre&Yd Stress Arecrs

L
Rovnded Hoof Optional or
used. Acm~ threads may be found ·on cross-feed
and lead screws of machine lathes in the ma-
__l_
..
. Resulting from Tool Wear
Thre_a_d_ ..__
.. ---'A_x{s"--"o-'--r .;;;;.;..Ex---"fe:nal __

chine shop. Numerous tables are available to - FIGURE 194. Unified and American Internal and
assist you in drawing specific sizes of screws, -External Screw Thread Design Forms
Extra .cted from ASME Screw Tp.read Manual with th e Permission of
threads, bolts, or other fasteners . the Publisher, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

110
 kinds of threads in this group are the National
Coarse '(NC), National Fine (NF) and National
(N); the first two are the most common.
The NC, the most widely used, is a general
purpose thread. The NF has more threads per
inch, or is finer, and is used where more vibra-
tion occurs, as in automobiles, trucks, airplanes,
and machinery.
The American Standard thread is similar to
the Sharp-V. The main difference is that the
''V" is flattened slightly to remove the sharpness
but drawn in the same manner as shown for
the Sharp-V.
Class Fit - designation of degree of tightness
of fit, which 'is indicated on drawings by a num-
ber: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Class I is the very loose fit,
class 4 is a very close fit, used where very
exacting work is necessary. Class-2 fit is com-
mon on screw ·threads for general purpose
work. These four may be called loose (Class
I), free (Class 2), medium (Class 3), and close
(Class 4).
Figuxe 193 furnishes an example of a notation
placed on drawings where threads are used.
Study the meaning of the numbers as given in
the notes.
I
ii
PITCH
\ ----+-++-t-t ......._._....__
. A
THREAD
LENGTH
I. a
i ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
C ----------------
t - 13NC-2
SIZE ORDIA.-TNDI. Pllt IN. -TYPE THD.-FIT
i....- -·------
0 5. Explain what is meant by the minor diameter
~--------
FIGURE 193. Notes on a Drawing of a Threaded
Rod, with Conventional and Simplified Methods
Threads may be either left-hand or right-
hand threads. If it is necessary to designate the
symbol on the drawing as a left-hand thread,
then the letters (CLH".are added after the class-
fit number. Right-hand threads are common
and need no notation.
Left-hand threads are commonly found on
the arbors of table saws in the wood shop, the
left side of grinder arbors, and some left-wheel
lugs and bolts on automobiles.
_
PROBLEMS
1. Name four fasteners with which you are most
familiar.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. What ai.:efive other fasteners which you know
· are used? ,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------
3. Check in your home or home workshop to
learn what fasteners are available. Name
them .
------.----------------------- .----------------------
------------------- -
------------------------------------
------·---- -----------
-------- ·-
-------------------------------------- ----------------------
4. Ask your teacher to assign to various mem-
bers of the class different types of fasteners
to be brought in as samples for observation.
of a screw ,,or bolt.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
-------------
-------------------------------
· 6. Define "pitch" in relation to threads and tell
how it is determined.
---------- ------- ·----------------------------------------
--------------
109
 ~
W4RNAL T~READ~
NO. FRACTION DECIMAL · NO. DECIMAL FRACTION

lle . I ½6 .062 11 .406

2 ½ 12 .875

3 %2 13 .172
INTERNAL THREAD

4 ¾ 14 .578

5 % 15 .688
'

6 ¼ 16 .938

7 %2 17 .546

P
1
l
W--....,
"\
\

I
8 '¼ 18 .812

9 3¾4 19 .968

10 1½2 20 .312

FIGURE 195. Terminology and Symbols

SEMI-CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF
Extracted from ASME Screw Thread Manual with the Permission of
DRAWING THE SHARP-V THREAD
the Publisher, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
For your basic understanding of how to draw
USING FRACTIONS the Sharp-V thread, a general procedure is
given below. References are to Figure 196.
Fractions are used for many purposes in draw-
ing, especially in measurements placed on the
drawing and in laying out. They are also very
important in figuring sizes, pitches, and other C
©
layout for threads. Study the material which
follows and perform the operations as needed
to change fractions to decimals and decimals to
fractions.
1
To change a commori fraction to a decimal,
divide the numerator by the denominator.
Example: D
.250
¼ ==4 ) 1.000 .,
.875
.½ ==8 ) 7 .000
FIGURE 196. Drawing Sharp-V Threads
To change a decimal to a common fraction,
replace the decimal point by a denominator
having the numeral ONE before as many zeros 1. Locate the center line · 1.
as there are decimal places in the original deci- 2. Draw a line perpendicular to center ·line,
mal, and reduce to lowest terms. as at 2. · ·
Example: .375 == 37 3/iooo==1 ¾o ==% . 3. Measure on each side of the center line
a distance equal to one-half the diameter.
In the table below fill in-the correct decimal 4. Draw light lines through these points
equivalents of the common fractions given; fill parallel to the · center line, as at 3.
in also the correct common fractions for the 5. On the top line lay off distances equal
decimals given. Carry to three places or thou- to the pitch (P).
sandths, as shown in the first example. If the 6. On the bottom . line measure one distance
fractions do· ·not come out exactly even, round equal to half P, then continue laying off dis-
off to the nearest 64th, 32nd, etc. tances equal to the pitch (P).
111
,,_--c...
- ~:c,..-,,,-~~~ - --c'_
t

7. Draw a line through the first point on the
top line and the point marked on the bottom
line, as at 4.
8. Draw lines parallel to this line through
the other points on the top line, as at 5.
9. Draw a 60-degree line through the points
at each end of the lines just drawn, as at 6.
10. Draw the 60-degree line sloping in the op-
posite direction through the same point, as at 7.
11. Connect the points of the V's thus formed.
DRAWING THE ACME THREAD
Acme screw threads (Figs. 198 and 199) were
intended to replace square threads and a variety
of threads of other forms used chiefly on those
parts of machines and tools which produce tra-
versing motions. Acme screw threads are now
extensively used for a variety of purposes.

DRAWING THE SQUARE THREAD

In the procedure below for drawing the
square screw thread, figure references are to
Figure 197.
1. Locate the center line, the perpendicular,
and the diameter of the thread, as at 1.

±
D
FIGURE 198. General-purpose Acme Form of
Thread
Extract ed from Am eric an Standard Acm e Scr ew Thr eads (ASA
Bl . 5-1952) with the p ermission of th e publish er, Th e Am erican
Soci ety of ¥ echanical Engin eers

FIGURE 197. Drawing Square Threads

2. Step off distances on the top and bottom

lines equal to half of P(P /2), as at 2.
3. Connect the first point of the top line with
the second point on the bottom line to get the
slope, as at 3.
4. Connect the second point on the top line
with the first point of the bottom line to get the
slope line of the back of the thread, as at 4.
5. Measure down from the top line and up
from the bottom line distances equal to ½ pitch . FIGURE 199. Centralizing Acme Forni of Thread
Extract ed from Americ an St andard Acme Screw Threads (ASA ·
(P/2) and then draw light lines parallel to the BJ . 5-1952) wi th the permission of th e publish er, Th e Am erican
center line, as at 5. . Soci ety of M echanical Engin eers
6. Draw lines for the roots of the thread from
the edge of one thread to a point ·directly under The following general procedure will assist
the crest of the next thread in each case, as at 6. you in drawing the Acme thread. Figure refer-
7. Draw lines from the ends of the lines just ences are to Figure 200.
drawn to intersect at the center line, as at 7. 1. Locate th e center line. Draw two lines
This is the visible part of the thread. repres enting the outside of the thread, as at A.
112
·==-·.,_-.--~-~~~-----~-:---~--:------
r
- -----------.-- ...........
-----------......-- .................
--

2. Reduce .875 to the smallest fraction.

3. Add the following numbers and fractions:

1/s,~~2, ¼, 1¾6-
1/s
%2
½
1¾6

4. In the space provided, use a straightedge

and scale to draw the semi-conventional
representation of Sharp-V and Acme threads
one inch long, I" major diameter, with 8
threads · per inch.

FIGURE 200. Drawing Acme Threads

2. Draw the pitch lines, as at B, by measuring

from the top line down and the bottom line up,
equal to ¼ P and along the lines equal to ½ P.
3. Draw the root lines, as at C, in the same
·. manner at distances equal to ½ P from the out-
side line at A.
4. Draw the 15-degree lines for the sides of
the thread through every second point on the
•pitch line, as at D ;
5. Draw the 15-degree lines for the other side
of the thread · through the remaining points, as
at E.
6. Draw the crest and root of each thread,
(top and bottom) .
. 7. Connect the points at the crest of each
thread, as at F.
8., Connect the points at the root of the
thread, as at G.

- PROBLEMS
I. What is the decimal equivalent of ¾6, %6, 5. Sketch the simplified method of drawing
and ¾ expressed in thousandths? threads on a shaft in drawing.

. %6=

113
 ~ ..
...,...._._· .

6. What thread series is most common in the
United States and what kinds of threads are
in this group?
7. Study the pictorial machine drawings shown
below and on pages 115-118. Ask your
teacher to assign some of these drawings to
you. From them sketch other complete work-
ing drawings on pages 119-120.
8. Select a drill press, grinder, jointer, or other
machine in the shop. As a class, secure from
a company or local dealer catalog sizes, as-
sembly drawings, instructions, parts list,
specifications, and other information. Ask
your teacher to assist you. Then make detail
drawings and an assembly drawing of this
machine.

~------z~-----11• .. 4
t.OO=?>BORE
'2..000

--
--st

◄ SLOT5-5PACEEQUALLY
... ------------a.~ ----------
4
5LO"TTED BUSH\MG
MACH. STE.EL - ONE REQ'D

114
 4}
DOVETAIL SLIDE
MACH. STEEL - ONE REQ'D.

SYMMETRICAL
ABOU, <l:_

~\3

1
HARDEN AND TEMPER. {
ou,s,oE SLOPlliG s10Es AND vEcs BEVELED · GR\P
ARE TO BE GROUtiO TOOL STEE.L -T'AIO REQ'D.
DRAW ONE PIECE ON.LY

115
 1£

0Ff--5E.T J1G PLATE

MACH. ·sTEEL-OtlE REQ'D.

i~
a.
A PORTION
ILLUSTRA,E
Of THE PLA1'E HAS &EEN
tT5 C0tiSTRUCT\ON
REMOVE~
MORE CLEARLY.
,o· I~ .

IN IHE WORKfriG t>RAWIN(i THIS IS ~OT HEC.ESSAR.V.

' BA5E PLATE

:CAST STEEL - 0 .riE REQ'D.

116
 1¼,DRILL
2. COUNTERBORE
!DEEP
. .16
~RADIUS

,I

S'<MMETRlCAL A6OUT 50TH CEl'fTE.R LINES

HEAD STOCK CLAMP

CAST IRON - TWO REG'o.

--------------52---------~ a .
I
4re;-.
------------- . 5
1 01-A
___,__
____ 2.l..-~ 8
4 4SLOTS
~WIDE
s

- ----- Cfjl. t$ r

-(\J
I I

!REAM G HOLES SPACED EQJJAL.L."(

TWO OF iHE HOLES TO LINE UP WITH SPLINES

SPLINE PLATE
1
CARBON S-rEEL - ONE REQ 0.

117
 ...___
____ _____;_
_______ 6. ,e -----------...-.
4.876
4.67.3
.SOI REAM
.soo 2.HOLE"S

. I I
1.0 :S~
1.ozs
6
· :~ REAM 12 HOLE 5 SPACE.O EQUALLY
.6 WITH\N ,003 EXCEPT /1\S NOTED
PUNCH HOLDER PLA,E
MACH . STEEL - ONE REQ'D.

I
CROWN 32.

ll>(CO
(\J tt)
-t--t--.....,______ ~..._ _____________ ....___ Ln\cO
<O
C\I

\.1815 REAM
~XAKEYWAY
~ \ollla----\§.
e,
_ ____.~-- ,~-----
g
Fl ti lSH ALL OVER ''°
T~o SPEED PULLEY
CAS1 IR.Oti ·- ONE RE~' D.

118
 6. Sheet-metal Development
and Layout
SOME FACTS ABOUT SHEET METAL RELATION OF SHEET-METAL
This division is concerned with the develop - ARTICLES TO GEOMETRY
ment and layout of patterns for all kinds of ma- The fundamentals of sheet-metal drafting
terials, but especially for sheet metal. are based upon the principles of geometry . that
Division 7, "Graphs, Diagrams, and Maps," relate to the surfaces of solids. Since sheet-
discusses irregular shapes and maps and pre - metal articles are hollow they are considered th e ·
sents some layouts of these items . With the covering of something solid, and the develop-
exception of these more complicated forms, lay - ment of the patterns for them may be described
outs for sheet metal would be considered sim- as the development of surfaces. You must learn
ple layouts. to visualize and imagine in order to make prog-
ress in this work.
TYPES OF SHEET METAL
Some of the most common types of sheet PROBLEMS
metal are galvanized iron, which is an iron sheet
1. Give a simple definition of an alloy.
with a zinc coating to help prevent rust; tin
plate, the material used in most cans, which is
steel with a thin coating of tin; copper; alumi-
num; "black" iron; nickel steel, or "german" sil-
ver, as for art metal; and numerous alloys.
An alloy may be defined .simply as two or
more metals combined in the correct propor- 2. Name the four kinds of sheet metal with
tion to form the metal desired. which you are most familiar.
Sheet metal is usually classified by thickness,
and is identified in this respect by the gauge
number. These various gauges can be found in
the tables. Some examples are: 16-gauge (Brown
and Sharpe), which is approximately ½6" or
.0625" thick;· Number 22, a commonly used
gauge, which is about ½2" thick; Number 28,
which is about ¼4" thick; Number 36, a com-
mon thickness for metal -foil tooling, which is 3. Is 18-gauge or 26-gauge metal thicker?
about ¾2so" or .007" thick. Numbers 18 to
24 are .common in school shops.
4. Name 5 ways in which sheet ·metal is used
USES OF SHEET METAL in industrial products.
Besides in regular shop projects, sheet metal is
used variously in numerous commercial jobs,
such as stamping of automobile body parts, ven -
tilating systems, pipes, gutters, roofs, furniture,
and in making many items which must be fitted
to special metal jobs.
Through visits to your school shop or a com-
mercial sheet-metal shop, you should become
familiar with sheet-metal tools, materials, and
operations. This knowledge · will make your
drawing more meaningful, will probably help
you to understand better sheet-metal develop-
PARALLEL-LINE DEVELOPMENT
ment and layout, and will give you more in-
formation about the "tin shop" and the sheet- Parallel-line development is one of the sim-
metal worker. You will find that good work plest types of pattern development. This is
must be very accurate. commonly used to obtain patterns for elbows,
121
 tees, y-joints and other types of joints. Patterns
are usually drawn out on paper, and then trans- .
£erred to metal. This type of development is
also commonly used with projects in the school
shop. ·
Other types of development, or sheet-metal
layout, are the radial line and triangulation
methods.
GENERAL DEFINITION
Parallel-line development is based on a front
view or elevation which shows parallel lines
in their true length and shape. A top or bottom
view is needed also to show the size and shape.
A stretchout, or projection of base lines, is drawn
from the elevation or plan views perpendicular
to them. This procedure as applied to various
shapes is clearly shown in the figures which
follow.
In Division 9, "Designing and Building of
Models,';, will be found other layout problems
and examples that closely resemble some of the
la you ts in this di vision but which are on actual
objects of a different nature.
Remember that an extra allowance of material
1nust be added on metal objects for seams of
r·
va~ious kinds, lap joints, wired edges, and other
places where joining by some method is neces-
sary.
RECTANGULAR, CYLINDRICAL,
AND OCTAGONAL PRISMS
The fishing tackle box (Fig. 201) and the elec-
tric hot plate (Fig. 202) present problems in
simple layout of rectangular shapes.
In learning how · to lay out objects of this
shape, refer to Figure 203, which gives the lay-
out for a regular rectangular prism, and follow
the procedure outlined · below:
1. Lay out to the necessary sizes the eleva-
tion (front) and plan (top) views as shown.
2. Draw lines parallel to the top and bottom
of the elevation as l'-1' and 5'-5'.
3. Begin at the point l' on · the stretchout
line and lay off distances l'-2', 2'-3', 3'-4', and
4'-1' as taken from the true lengths on the ele-
vation and plan.
4. From each of these lines, draw vertical
lines upward to hit the 5'-5' line.
5. The lines from 2'-6', 3'-7', and 4'-8'
represent the lines where the metal is folded.
6. If one or more ends are to be put on, they
must be laid out in a similar manner as shown.
122
7. Extra metal must be added, usually on the
ends, to allow for overlapping when the cor-
ners are to be bolted, riveted, soldered, welded
or put together in some other way.
A truncated prism is one of which a part has
been cut off, as by a cutting plane, such as that
shown in the truncated rectangular prism .in
Figure 204.
The development of this prism is very simi-
lar to that for the one above. One difference is
that the auxiliary drawing may assist you in
making a part to close this opening or in making
the development clearer. In this case, the true
length of the lines can be obtained from the
elevation and plan just as in the auxiliary draw-
ing.
The other difference occurs in Step 4. Project
the vertical lines upward as in Figure 203, but
you must step off the distances l'-A', 2'-B',
3'-C', etc. on the lines drawn. Then connect
the points thus located to form the topmost line
A'-B'-C'-D' etc.
The upright octagonal, the truncated octag-
onal, the upright cylinder, and the truncated
cylinder in Figures · 205, 206, 207, and 208 are
developed in practically the same manner as
that given in the previous procedure. Observe
these figures closely in developing patterns for
the problems presented by the sheet-metal cup
(Fig. 209), the quart measure (Fig. 210), and the
sugar scoop (Fig. 211). Notice that the handle
of the scoop and top of the quart measure are
problems explained in radial line development
for cones.
A circular cookie cutter could be developed
in a way similar to that for a cylinder, octagon,
square, . or rectangle by using different dimen-
sions and placement of parts.
Numerous other ideas for development can
be found in hardware and sporting goods stores,
newspapers, magazines, and other sources . Con-
sider designs for such items as a minnow bucket,
a canteen, a dust pan, a match box holder, an
ice box, a small supplies box, ash trays, candle _
holders, and a hurricane lamp.
PROBLEMS
1. Develop the sheet-metal cup on drawing
paper. Cut it out and put it together with
drafting tape.
2. Develop the sugar scoop half the size as
shown. Cut it out and put it together with
drafti:µg tape . Note: If allowances for seams
are made, these developments can be used
as patterns in the sheet-metal shop for lay-
ing out on metal. ;
 BACK 7 an

&OTTOM

8EAD 1••l=ROMTOP
AND 80TTOM.

END FRONT ENP

1--6_......... 1... ---12. t ------~......

-----
' FOR ALL LAPS

-••
-
1,..,. TOP
FOLD &SOLDE') TMEN
TRAY II) WIRE-EDGE TO .

l
-Iv
HOLD TOP ON &Y
HINGES ON &ACK
2.

,ii-.
4 12t 1J.
4

.,.__
,_...
LAYOUT

_,,
f
-fl:I
'<
~J•
T <·"Y
STOPS FOR TR.AV_ SOLPERED HANDLE- 8 6A. WI RE.
IN EACH c ,oRNER
, IA
8 , f\lV&TTO TOP. TUR.NED
'FROM TOP £OGE. WOOD HANDLE IF
DE~JR£D

F1-Glr-im 2-01. Fishing Tackle Box with Tray

123
 ''BOLTS•- i-8-!)2.
RND.H.
MACHINE &CREWS .----.-

- t NICHROME
Z26A.

MANDLE
D~&IGN AS
DE91RED
CINTER
- OPENING --
-
loLT Oil RIV&T CORN.,_
WMERI. JOINT O«URS
DRILL TQ f=IT 8 EqUAI LY GPACED
&RILL WIR.U
e O O 0 0
• 0

ONE,.. OR TWO•PIECE 80DV

CORNIR I.AP l TO½

w------------1---------- ONE PIECE

~--~------------t•½----~
1-I-XJtFIREPROOF : GLIDERS ON
• Pl.ATE
CORNERS SOLDERED~~

6tX'iALUMINUM
- REFLECTOR ~TTACHED
TO SUPPOltTS

CLAMPS MAKE 4
SUPPORTS

FIGURE 202. Electric Hot Plate

124
 ---- "# • -~- - ___ _,....... - - _,_, -~ -· ....--· _...__,..
_ __ -

4 EXTRA METAL &HOULO 8£ ADDED AS AT''A' FOR

OVERLAPPa-NG AND JOININ6 SE~Ma.

3
(PLAN)
2
, 51 a~
A END A
7______ 5
_ _ 5I ' 6' -1~ A' sI
8 6 I

LAYOUT
I
(ELEVATION)

.4 I STRETCHOll rr LINE
3 z-- l' z 3' 4' I
END
FIGURE 203. An Upright Rectangular Prism
I' 4•

oB'A N 0
-
~--=- -

C r1 D

Al R CONDITIONING DUCT TOP

FO&.O LIN e3 --
1 I I

ELEVATION
2.-,. 2'
5TR TCHO UT
3' 8'
,,
4 I STRETCH
~ . fl• t' 4 7'
t,OTTOM &OTTOM
j 8'
4'
I'
2'
,.
FIGURE 204. Truncated Rectangular Prism FIGURE 205. Upright Octagonal Prism

Vl:NTI LATfON DUCTS

E'
FIGURE 206. Truncated
Octagonal Prism

-
~ l - --,--
LAVOUT
>
w '
_,t
~
r
5
6 '1
4 3 2 l' 2.' 8' ,.
BOTTOM

8'

2.' 1'
125
 I

1 1
' ':I 1d 11 12.' 1

7-)0
FIGURE 207. Upright Circular Cylinder VARIA&L.E

...___,J::=:===t==--==-_l
-----3½0-_...J
r~-r-----·Gttos--__...,.jt
-~
-
-Ma

1J .i
FIGURE 210. Quart Measure
A'
I.AVOUT

SWEAT ENO PlEClt

ON HAN~

I' 12' I'

· FIGURE 208. Truncated Circular Cylinder

WIRED
EDGE

i 3. Select some other object given and develop

r
I'
·~,
it. A simple layout may be made of a radio
transmitter chassis and panel as explained in
Division _9, "Designing and Building of
I Models."
LAP SEAM

RADIAL-LINE DEVELOPMENT
Radial-line development includes such basic
shapes as cones, pyramids, hexagons, and octa-
.gnns which come together at one point. · One
or more of these shapes are noticeable on such
items as funnels, cheer leader megaphones,
paper drinking cups, lamp shades, bases of many
statues, and pans with tapered sides. The bases
of these items are round, square, hexagonal,
FIGURE 209. Sheet•metal Cup octagonal, or of some ·related shape.

126
I
 -------4½0------•1
SAME JOINTS !t
ED6£ AS FUNNEL

_,"'
fl')

-'
-ta»
j
6---2-•---

I. 2D~
fl ___ __,_ HANDLE It
- Sfto 1 LONG ~cO
-J__
L. FOLD EDGES ,_l
-IN
FIGURE 215. Large-mouth T
Funnel, Can or Jar Filler
0

.,_-- --- 60 - -- -~

FIGURE 216. Florist's Watering Can

Remember that in conical development, as a

part of the radial -line type, and in the third
major type of development, that of triangula -
tion, the true length of the radial line or element
on the surface of an object is th e most impor -
tant factor in making accurate -dimensions and
developments.
1. Draw to the required size the base circle,
or plan, and the elevation . Notice the only lines
which are true in length are the sides of the
elevation, which are the hypotenuse of right
triangles formed with the center line.
2. Using P as a center and a radius of PA,
draw the stret chout line (arc) CD. This radius
N ·(PA or PB) is the true length.
B 3. Divide the circle (plan) int o 12 or more
~--+--2 ..L---1--~--- equal parts (with a 30-60-degree triangle).
4
4. Choose any beginning point on the arc
CD and step off these 12 or more equal divi-
sions with the dividers. · The more divisions you
have, the more nearly true in size the layout
will be.
5. Since this is a circle -it is not necessary to
join the radial lines from · point P with each
number as shown . However, draw the two lines
from this point to O and 12. All the lines are
necessary in some other radial developments .
6. If the pattern thus made was cut out and
9 formed you would have a cone. Extra material
FIGURE 217. Basic Development of a Cone can be added as shown if necessary to lap the .
128
 Some problems for development are the pans
in Figures · 212 and 213. You will notice that
· part of the corners has been left on the partial
IMt--------------~6--------------------..i
TOP 6X8
development. These can be folded outside, as
shown, or cut out and lapped as needed or
desired.

!,OTTOM 5X7

......----------5--------------4~

END "' CORN ER DEVELOPMENT

CORNERS MAYBE CUT
AND FOLDED oq. cuT
OUT AND L"PP£0

FIGURE 212. Rectangular Flared Pan

......
------------6~ 4 - -------------~

FIGURE 213. Square

Flared Pan

l.....
~------ -4¼-----~

Conical shaped problems are represented by

the handle of the sugar scoop and the top of
the quart measure mentioned pr~viously, a
small-mouth funnel (Fig . 214), and the large-
mouth funnel, can or jar filler (Fig. 215). The
watering can (Fig. 216) is a more complicated
development. The spout can be simplified for
easier development, if desired. ·

CONICAL SHAPES GROOVEDFOLDED

SEAM
Refer to Figure 217 and study the procedure N
for the basic development of radial lines on a
cone. A number of items can be selected which l 1
LAP
make use of this type of layout for objects. The --iioJ....-
base for this shape is a circle. F1GURE 214. Small-mouth Funnel
edges or join in another manner. These conical C
shapes may be formed on sheet metal stakes or
in slip-roll forming machines.
If you should be forming a cone for a funnel
shape, consider that the cutting plane EE' rep-
resents the depth of the funnel. Using P as a
center and the radius PE or PE', draw the arc
GH. You can easily see that the larger portion
is the development you need.
Ask your teacher to assist you on the above-
mentioned figure to develop a part if the cutting
plane cuts the cone (elevation) at an angle to
the base, as JJ'.
For ·this pattern development, lines on the
plan must be projected upward to the base as ·
at L, M, N, Q, and R of the elevation and then
connected to point P. :rhese will then cross the
angular cutting plane at S, T~ U~ V, and W.
Lines PJ and PJ' are true length. These may
be set off along their proper .radial lines from
P to the numbers . .To set off the other distances
on the development, the true length of lines ELEVA ION
I
PS, PT, PU, PV, and PW must be determined.

PYRAMID SHAPES
The · base for developing a -pyramid is the
square or some similar shape. Refer to Figure
218 and study the procedure related to this
development. ·
1. Draw the square base or plan and directly
above it the elevation. Again you can see that
the true length of the elements or sides is repre-
sented by either line PA or line PB.
2. With P as a center and a radius of PA,
draw the arc DC.
3. Choose any beginning point 0 on this arc
and step off the length of the 4 sides of the base
or plan, as 0-1, 1-2, etc.
FIGURE 218. Basic Development of a Square
4. Connect these points with lines as shown.
Pyramid
5. Draw lines from P to each of these points
0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. These lines represent the fold
lines. The true length of the lines or elements must
6. Extra metal must be allowed for lapping or always be considered.
other joining.
PROBLEMS
HEXAGONAL AND OCTAGONAL
1. What is the difference between parallel-line
SHAPES
and radial-line development?
Six-sided and eight-sided objects which come
together at one point, as do the cone and pyra-
mid shapes, may be developed in a similar way.
The base or plan is drawn as a hex~gon or
octagon and the procedure continues in much
the same way.
If cutting planes cross the object parallel to
the base, or at an angle, the procedure is related
to that shown for the cone, for the pyramid,
for the hexagon, and for octagon-shaped bases.
12 9 .
(~
 I
I
I
I

2. Develop a cone and a pyramid . on drawing
paper, · cut them ·out·qnd · put-each together ·
with drafting ·tape. · · · ·finding the true lengths of the sides forming
3. Basic conical development is learned by mak-
. ing an item ·such as the funnel. Develop .this
on. paper and make a funnel to dimensions
which you select.
TRIANGULATION
Development ·by .triangulation is more com-
plicated than the·
other two major types of de-
velopment. It is used in · the development of
the basis for triangulation is dividing the sur-
faces of the objects into numerous triangles and ·
each triangle. This type of development was
named from this use of triangles.
Most of your needs for development in your
work in the school shop would be cared for by
parallel-line and radial-line development.
If a line is oblique or at an angle to the plane
of projection, it will not show iri its true length
in the main views. If it is revolved to a position
I

irregular shapes. Ffgure 219 shows the basic parallel to the plane, it will be shown in its true
operations for this type. You ··will notice that length.
1

A &
I
5'
EACH A5:
·TRU£ LENGTH
_.._~~---
....... A.
I.
ELEMENT I
I
I
I
10
. : LTITUD
... HYPOTENUSE
I .
I
I
I
..___c--+-~...._.
--- ~
6-+-8' .C 8'
F1ctirut 219.· To Find the True Length of a Line .

I .3 ·0
/
/
'i

7. Graphs, Diagrams,
and Maps
PRACTICAL USES PERCENTOFWORLD
STEEL
OUTPUT
Graphs, maps, charts, and diagrams are pic- IN 1954
ture stories showing the relationship between
two or more things. Practically everyone needs
to use or _read the graphs, maps, and similar
items in this division. We make and use these
in drawing, but they are also of great impor- Other Free
tance in science, mathematics, geography, and Countries
other cours es. 39%
Everyone has need of a road map. It is a
drawing or diagram showing the relationships FIGURE 221. The Circle Graph
of direction and distance between one town and Co-urtesy (1) American Iron and Steel Institute
and (2) National Research Bureau, Inc.
another (Fig. 220) and among all the locations
in a given area . HOWBIGIS A TON
··OFINGOT
STEEL?
ONETONOF
INGOTSTEEL
2000lbs. THISAMOUNTOF
FINISHED
STEEL
MAKES ¾ TONOF
FINISHED
STEEL PRODUCTS
WOULD
MAKE
A
TOTAL
OF...

5
FREEZERS

6½
REFRIGEIIATORS

7 AUTO:~l~CLOTHES
WASHERS ~
~ @@@@@@
FIGURE 220. · Section of a Road Map
In;■

Graphs and oth er forms of picture represen-

tation are useful means of presenting facts, be-
½ Of·A CAR ~
cause they are clear in meaning and are quickly 1
and easily read. Also, through pictures and dia- SMALL
TRACTOR
grams they mak e it easy to remember informa- FIGURE 222. Picture or Silhouette Graph
tion which would be quickly forgotten if pre- Courtesy American Iron and Ste el Institute
sented as a list of figtires or a group of words
describing the facts. PROBLEMS
Facts presented by pictures have been used 1. Secure a road map of y·our state and area;
for centuries, but they are being used more and list the towns and cities you would pass
more today in magazines, bulletins, newspapers, through in traveling approximately a 100-
books, and other sources of information. mile distance as assigned by your teacher.
Bar, line, and area graphs are most common,
but other forms also show relationships. The
area, circle, or pie-shaped graph (Fig. 221), pic- ------------------------------------·-------------------.----------------------
ture or silhouette ._graphs (Fig. 222), How charts
(Fig. 223), electrical diagrams -(Fig. 224), topo-
graphic or land maps (Figs. 225, 226), and other
forms of picture repr esentation are generally
used. The common line graph is shown in Fig-
ures 227 and 228.
13 I .
~
~

•
~ '

0 FINISHING MILLS
SOME MA NU FACTURED

STEEL MAKING RAIL an d

STEEL PRODUCTS

RAILS a nd STRUCTURAL STEEL

From Raw Materials to Finished Steel Products STRUCTURAL MILLS 1
Ra ils
Bridges
@ From nature's store house s come the three principal raw
nateri a ls for steel making - IRON ORE, COAL AND
® STRIPPER CRANES remove lhe molds from the ingots. Buildings

LIMESTONE. In America, about 85 per cent of the ore is

Q) Ingo ts o re heate d to uni form tempera ture for the rolling Ships
mill in deep furnaces called SOAKING PITS. Machi ne ry

@
mined in the Lake Superior district.
ORE VESSELS transport the ore down the Great Lakes ta
0 The ingo t goes to the SEMIFJNISHING MILLS where the Electrical transm iss ion towe rs
first rolling operat ions are do ne. Passed. ba ck a n d .forth Railroad co rs and locomotives
unloading ports.
be tween powerful stee l rolls, the hot ingot is formed into
@ In COKE OVENS the coal is made into COKE for the BLOOMS, SLABS AND BILLETS.
bl a st furnoc.e. PLATE, SHEET, STRIP
a nd TIN PLATE

0 ORE VESSELS 0 STEELMAKING FURNACES

• SEMIFINISHING MILLS
Au tomob iles
Ships
Oi l refinery tonks
Refrigera tor.$
PLATE, SHEET,
STRIP a nd Washing machines
TIN PLATE MILLS Stoves
(j ~ Drug , chemical a nd paper
C C'.) manufactur ing eq 4:-1i pmen t
~ (j Aircraft
~

~- ~ 0 BLASTFURNACES Furniture
Toys

c:: t-.o CDINGOT STRIPPERS 0 SOAKING PITS

License p la tes
Toa sters ·
i~ Fa rm machinery and imp leme nts
~ Surgical , me dical ,
denta l equipment
tll
S'
..;. li-3
Tin co ns
Ga lva nized pails , d rums,
~
r,, 0"
(t) roofing , rura l ma il boxes
tll Terne p la te roofing ,
auto fue l ta nks
i~ ~- t-,,11 BAR, ROD
(j 0 and WIRE MILLS BAR, ROD an d WIRE
Q ~
"tJ
(Ba rs)
C Automob iles Mac hine ry
"t
~ ~ Ammonia · Hardware, tools
....
<-1"
C
0" Benzol
Creosote Oil
Farm mach ine ry
;s
! C9coKE OVENS
Tar Acids
Toluol
Xylol
Rein fo rced concrete
Tir~ rims
/Wire)
Wi re Springs Fence Nails
Nuts and bo lts Screens
Rope and cable Coo l hange rs
Poper clips Pins and need les
Strings for pianos and
other mu sica l instruments

@ Gases from the coke ovens are conv e rted into COA L ® In the FINISHING fl.ILLS, blooms , slabs and billets a re
CHEMICALS, which go into the manufacture al thousands manufa cture d into finished steel products as shipped from PIPES a nd TUBES
of products. the mills - pl ates, sheets, strip , rails, structu ral steel , bars , PIPE and TUBE MILLS Automobiles Aircraf t
@ Ore, coke and limestone a re cha rged into the BLAST wi,e and wire products , pipes, tubes a nd so forth.
Oi l well equipmen t
FURNACE which smelts the are into molten PIG IRON. © Some stee l mill fin ished prod ucts, suc h a , roil,, rai lroad Oi l re fineries
® Pig iron is refined into steel in three types of furnac e s- whee ls ond a xles, na ils and wire fence are ready for use.
But most p roducts shipped from stee l m ills ore manufac-
Oil, gas and wa te r lines
BESSEMER CONVERTERS, OPEN HEARTH a nd ELECTRIC Refr igera lion pla nts
FURNACES. In the last two furnaces, SCRAP is used in steel ture d by other industries into thou sands of-products wh ich
Boilers in ships
making processes. serve modern living in the Age of Steel. a nd loco motives
@ Maiten steel from the /urnoces is teemed into INGO T Furnitu re Ship masts
MOLDS, where the steel solid ifies into INGOTS, the first Bicycles Boaring races
sol id form in which most steel is made. Flag , lo lophono
and te legraph p olos
1
✓

7. Graphs, Diagrams,
and Maps
PRACTICAL USES PERCENTOFWORLD
STEEL
OUTPUT
Graphs, maps, charts, and diagrams are pic- IN 1954
ture stories showing the relationship between
two or mor e things. Practically everyone needs
United
to use or _read the graphs, maps, and similar States
items in this division. We make and use these 36%
in drawing , but they are also of great impor- Other Free
tance in science, mathematics, geography, and Countries
other cours es. 39%
Everyone has need of a road map. It is a
drawing or diagram showing the relationships F1cuRE 221. The Circle Graph
of direction and distance between one town and Court esy ( 1) Am erican Iron and Steel Institute
and (2) National Research Bureau, Inc.
anoth er (Fig . 220) and among all the locations
in a given area. HOWBIGIS A TON
·Of INGOT
STEEL?
ONETONOF
INGOTSTEEL
2000lbs. THISAMOUNTOF
FINISHED
STEEL
MAKES ¾ TONOF
FINISHED
STEEL PRODUCTS
MAKE
WOULD A
TOTAL
OF...

5
FREEZERS

■lli■
6½
REFRIGERATORS

Im■ ~
FrcuRE 220. · Section of a Road Map
CLOTHES~
7 AUTOMATIC
WASHERS ~~~~~@
Graphs and other forms of picture represen- ½ Of·A CAR ~
tation are useful means of presenting · facts, be-
cause they are clear in meaning and are quickly
and easily read . Also, through pictures and dia- SMAL~i:CTOR
"
grams they make it easy to remember informa- FIGURE 222. Picture or Silhouette Graph
tion which would be quickly forgotten if pre- Courtesy American Iron and St eel Institut e
sented as a list of :figures or a group of words
describing the facts. PROBLEMS
Facts presented by pictures have been used 1. Secure a road map of your state and area;
for centuri es, but they are being used more and list the towns and cities you would pass
more today in magazines, bulletins, newspapers, through in traveling approximately a 100-
books, and other sources of information. mile distance as assigned by your teacher.
Bar-, line, and area graphs are most common,
but other forms also show relationships. The '

area, circle, or pie-shaped graph (Fig. 221), pic- ------------------------------------·-------------~-----~----------------------

ture or silhouette .graphs (Fig. 222), flow charts
(Fig. 223), electrical diagrams -(Fig. 224), topo-
graphic or land maps (Figs. 225, 226), and other
forms of picture r~presentation are generally
used. The common line graph is shown in Fig-
ures 227 and 228.
131
 l .• ,,-. · - ···~·- -·

~ ·

~
NJ
0
SOME MANUFACTURED
• FINISHI N G MILLS

IL'--==-. STEEL MAKING STEEL PRODUCTS

~.:;;J!!;__//-- A RAIL and

- ---- w ORE MINES

From

@
Hau, illaterials to Finished Steel Prf#ducts STRUCTURAL MILLS RAILSand STRUCTURALSTEEL
· Rai ls
Bridges
from nature's storehouses come the three principal raw
r,aterials for steel making - IRON ORE, COAL AND
® STRIPPERCRANES remove the ma ids from th e ingots . Buildings

LIMESTONE. In America, about 85 pei cen t of the ore is CD Ingots are heate d to uniform temperature for the ro lling
m ill in deep furnaces called SOAKING PITS.
Ship s
Mac hine ry
mined in the Lake Superior district.
@ OREVESSELS tra nsport the ore down the Great Lakes lo
0 The ingot goes ta the SEMIFINISHING MILLS where the Elec t rica l transmiss ion towers
first roll ing operations are done. Passed . back a nd fo rth Railroad ca rs and locomo t ives
unlo a ding ports.
between powerfu l steel rolls , the h ot ingo t is Forme d into
© In COKE OVEt-:iS the co a l is mode into COKE for the BLOOMS, SLABS AND BILLETS.
blast furnace. PLATE, SHEET, STRIP
and TIN PLATE

0 ORE VESSELS
0 STEELMAK ING FURNACES
0 SEMI FINISHING MILLS
Automob iles
Ships
O il re finery ta nks
Refri gero to rs
PlATE, SHEET,
STRIP and Washing mach ines
TIN PLATEMILLS Stoves
~
C') ~ Drug, che mica l and p a pe r
C G') man u/oct uring e q uipme nt
.:! (j
~
Aircraft

~ - ti;j
!:O 0 BLAST FURNACES f urn iture
Toys
C: NJ 0 INGOT STRIPPERS
0
license plates

....Cv
;::!
N> SOAK ING PITS Toasters
Farm mach iner y a n d imp le men ts
""
~ Surg ical , medica l,
en den ta l equipment
Tin cons
S' ~ Galvanized pa ils, dru ms,
""
~ O"" roofing, ru ra l mail box es
cn ~ Terne p late roofing,

~..... ~
au to fuel ta n ks

...... .
BAR, ROD
C') 0 and WIRE MILLS BAR, ROD and WIRE
~ ~
'tS
(Bars)

...nO""
C Automob iles Mac hinery
~ Ammonia
BeTIZol
Hardwa re , too ls
""
C ~ Creosote Oil
Farm mach ine ry
;s Reinforced concrete
Tar Acids
~ Toluol Tire rims
Xylol (Wire /
C9coKE OYENS
W ire Springs Fence Nai ls
Nuts on d bolts Screens
Rope and cabl e Coal hangers
Pape r clips Pins and need les
Strings for p ianos and
other musical instru m ents

@ Gases from the coke ovens are converted into COAL ® In the FINISHING -'!\ILLS, b looms , slab s and billets are
CHEMICALS, which go into the manufodure of thou sands manufactured into finished steel produ cts as shipped from PIPES and TUBES
of products . . the mills-pla tes , sheets, strip , ra ils, structural steel , bars, PIPE and TUBE MILLS Automobiles Aircraft
® Ore, coke and limeston e are charged into the BLAST wire and wire products , pipes, tubes a nd so forth.
O il we ll equipmen t
FURNACE which smelts the ore into molten PIG IRON. © Some stee l mill finished products , such as rail s, rai lro ad O il refineries
® Pig iron is refined into steel in th ree type s of furnaces- wheels a nd axles, n ails and wire fe nce are ready for use .
But mo st product s shipped from steel mills are manufa c-
O il, gas and wa ler lines
BESSEMER CONVERTERS, OPEN HEARTH and ELECTR IC Refrigera tion pla nts
FURNACES. In the lost two furnaces, SCRAP is used in steel tured by othe r industr ies into thousands of·products which
B~ilers in ships
m ak ing process es . serve modern living in the Age o f Stee l. ond locomot ives
@ Molten steel from the furnaces is teemed into INGOT Furniture Ship masts
MOLDS, where the steel solidifies into INGO TS, the first Bicycles Bearing races
so lid form in which most steel is made. Flog, te lephone
and telegraph po les
 ,~ OFSTEELMAKING
POUNDS
CAPACITY
PERPERSON 1534
Ytllow 13!!
!171 !186 1237

853

556

Greto
1900 '10 '20 '30 '40 '50 '55

FicuRE 224. An Electrical Diagram

Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

1D '10

FIGL""RE 227. The Common Line Graph

Courtesy America n Iron and St eel Institute

PRESENT
UPTURN IN NEWORDERS
GIE.lTIRMANUFACTURING
fORlSHADOWS ACTIVITY
M ledca•, • Hew 0nNn -.IS... s--.lly Atl/vdeJ
Y..lJONS OF OOlLARS
28
FIGURE 228.
25 Comparison of
Sales and Orders
22 by Line Graph
Court esy National
R esearch Bureau, Inc .
19S2 19S3 19S4 1955
FIGURE 225. The Topographic Map PTtpett-d lty NAM Reword, O.pt . from Gov ·t S1oti1tie1

. 'j
I /;
....L.i
- (... ~ ... --,

_____
_ ,_

If- ---,,.·r::~;
.. ···: _ ·:~·-·t::
- ::,.o,-:; - • - •v<-4•t
~~~- 1>\
l"' - ar.A... 1,?(.A y ~- .. , • . "' "-'.o, ~
- i-,.G; Cf S'r:zti:ET.S
,,__
,.. :i. P oc onTS
AY'(i>~'°t l VI 5f2£.
C i:t,;;.! T'< ~:9;. ACA't.

FIGURE 226. Student Landscape Plan

Courtesy Wayne H. Wils on, Head Landscape Architectur e D epartm en t
The Pennsy lvania Stat e Univ ersity

133
 0
2. What are the 16 major points of the compass? N
,,,,,.
t--,.,

M / 0 7
II'
_;
I'
L L,..--
i....,.,,
K
DRILL Po~-:::-:'\ 951 / .v
J 1- ..,__~x.3~ DOWEL
s I ~ f_ V / t
~
H ~~ ~ i\
SAW KER~-
To FIT RU"-"-' ~ ''1'~ c-~~
,o }
G
f>AC.K }._I • -- ~...:~~
'9' e, I
s::
E
D
v~~~Ff I© j
\V I,"
~
II '
""~
~

~
1.-
i....--- ¾s~u~RE.S ON oooyoFwoo~" I\. ....
C l.~AIUS)
C I®" V ....... ~t"-....
&

~,
,
' v'
j)o {"4-_ OM
1RU&r>ER ....
....
'-tFEE ,T, ............
.......
A

0
'
I ?.
~~ -®

:!I 4
"'"-
5 6 "1
'4-
V ~
8 9~11 ll. l?> 14 15 11:, ]_ IS IC) z.o
3
I\ I 1· I II
I I I I

TIGHT FIT FOR. ~)1,2~ DOWEL

3. Select a principal city on the map, write it DucK PusH Toy

down, 'and compare the distance between it ...-
/ 'I\. ,.v ~
and four other places designated by your I \ I \
teacher. I

'
j
I
z SQ.•JAR ES
[
l
~ACK
Of:'
. t
\ R_U6BER.. J
\ 1

\ ,I
I
~1
' ~
Kl.RF
5 AW
TO
\. I/ FIT FEET .

------------. -----------------------------
----------------------------------- r\ /
II' .
~I\. ~
V
'I\.: ,,,~
'
1'. ./
4. In science or other reference books, find a
picture of the sun, earth, and other planets.
FIGURE 229. A Layout of Parts of a Toy Duck
What planet is closest to the sun?

5. Is the earth the ·1argest planet? -------

---------------~-
6. Which planets · are larger than the earth?

GRAPH MAKING
RELATED ·USES OF GRAPH-MAKING FIGURE 230. The Duck Toy as Made from
PRINCIPLES the Graph
Some of the simple features . of graph making
are used in increasing or decreasing the size of In making graphs we are usu ally comparing
an irregularly shaped object. A simple example two or more facts with each oth er. Th e H axes
of this is shown in Figure 229, which is a draw- in Figures 227 and 228 hav e th e years marked
ing of the toy pictured in Figure 230. on them, while the V axes indicate amounts in
The horizontal and vertical lines in a line dollars or per cent. ·
graph are called coordinates, or grids . Look at . The ~eeting point of the H and V axes at
the figure of the vertical bar graph. You will see.I the lower left is called th e origin point . This
one horizontal line at the bottom and one verti- is the beginning point from which th e two axes
cal line at the left or right. These can be called are first drawn . Oth er lines are added as the y
the horizontal (H) axis and the vertical (V) axis. are needed.
 Work the problems which follow and you
will be practicing some of the simple beginning
steps used in graph making as well as learning
something you can use in shop work to make
the full-size pattern of some irregularly shaped
object . · ·
Ask your · teacher to list 10 cities or towns.
Locate them on your map, circle them, and
.list them below, with the indication of their
location on your map by letter and number
symbols.

PROBLEMS .
1. The drawing of the duck toy states that the
grid lines are ½ inch apart. If you measure
them, you will see that the squares are
actually smaller in the picture shown.
a. On a blank sheet draw the .vertical and
horizontal axes beginning with the origin
point 0.
b. Measure ½" marks along each .
--------------------------------------------------
----------------------------
. .
c. Place letters at each mark along the left
or .vertical axis in alphabetical order be-
ginning with A; at each mark along the
horizontal axis place a number in . arith-
metical order, beginning with 1.
d. Draw the remaining vertical and horizon -
tal lines.
e. On the drawing, the point X is on the
li:rie outlining the duck and · crosses the
grids at I-9. Locate this point on your TYPES OF GRAPHS
drawing .
f. ·Other parts of the outline cross at U or The Bar Graph. The two most common types
A~2½, W or B-10½ , and Z or D-13. All of of bar graph, the horizontal (Fig. 231) ·and · the
these points can be located by finding the vertical (Fig . 232), are used extensively. ·
letter on the vertical axis, then following STEELOUTPUT
PERPERSON MOTORVEHICLES
IN 1954
across the horizontal line to the point cor- FORSELECTED PERTHOUSAND
responding to the number. For example, COUNTRIES PEOPLE
.
IN 1954
we locate A-2½ by finding A on the V Unpounds)
axis and following the H line to the right
until we reach the point above 2½.
. U.S. U.S.
g. Locate other points for the outline in the '. 1097 ________ 361
same way. When all .of these are located
GREAT
BRITAIN GREAT
BRITAIN
the points can be connected by a smooth 812 t::J 82
curve and you have · the outline of the WEST
GERMANY WEST
GERMANY
duck. 776 □ 45
2. Various magazines have pictures of irregular- SWEDEN SWEDEN
shaped objects. Ask your teacher to show 562 CJ - 75
you one. Then you can reproduce it on page
136, which is already marked in squares.
3. Most road maps list all cities and towns
shown on that particular map, with a letter
-
FRANCE

RUSSIA
542

421
FRANCE
CJ
RUSSIA
D
74

12

and a number to the right of each indicating Source:Fromdataof UnitedNations;

its location on the map. On one such map
of the southwest region, letters are placed in
alphabetical order along the top and bottom ·
edges of the map while numbers are placed
in progressive arithmetical order on both the
right and left sides. In the list of towns and
cities, the capital of Texas is Austin, and the
list shows it to be located approximately at
L-5. Secure a map of your state or region.
Source:Motor VehicleRegistrations
basedon datafromAutomotiveNews
U.S.Departmentof Commerce, Almanac.
FIGURE 231. Horizontal Bar Graphs
Courtesy American -Iron and Steel Institute
Basically there is no difference between the
two kinds of bar graphs. Keep in mind that in
such a graph you · are comparing two or more
items with each other. Imagine that you are
comparing the number of automobile accidents
135
 ,.
\

'

I36 '
 Work the problems which follow and you
will be practicing some of the simple beginning
steps used in graph making as well as learning
something you can use in shop work to make
the full-size pattern of some irregularly _shaped
object.
Ask -your · teacher to list -10 cities or towns.
Locate them on your map, circle them, and
-list them below, with the indication of their
location on your map by letter and number
symbols.

PROBLEMS
1. The drawing of the duck toy states that the
grid lines are ½ inch apart. If you measure
them, you will see that the squares are
actually smaller in the picture shown .
a. On a blank sheet draw the vertical and
horizontal axes beginning with the origin
point 0.
b. Measure ½" marks along each.
. .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. Place letters at each -mark along the left
or .vertical axis in alphabetical order be-
ginning with A; at each mark along the
horizontal axis place a number in arith-
. metical order, beginning with 1.
d. Draw the remaining vertical and horizon-
tal lines.
e. On the drawing, the point X is on the
line outlining the duck and crosses the
grids at I-9. Locate this point on your TYPES OF GRAPHS
drawing.
f. Other parts of the outline cross at U or The Bar Graph. The two most common types
A~2½, W or B-10½, and Z or D-13. All of of bar graph, the horizontal (Fig. 231) a~d the
these points can be located by finding the vertical (Fig. 232), are used extensively.
letter on the vertical axis, then following , STEEL OUTPUT PERPERSON MOTOR VEHICLES IN 1954
across the horizontal line to the point cor- FORSELECTED ~:1i'--- PERTHOUSAND
responding to the number. For example, COUNTRIES PEOPLE .
IN 1954
we locate A-2½ by finding A on the V Unpounds)
axis and following the H line to the right
until we reach the PO:int above 2½ .
g. Locate other points for the outline in the : - U.S. U.S.
1097 36l
same way. When all .of these are located
GREAT BRITAIN GREAT BRITAIN
the points can be connected by a smooth 812 CJ 82
curve and you have the outline of the WEST GERMANY WEST GERMANY
duck. · 776 □ 45
2. Various magazines have pictures of irregular-
shaped objects. Ask your teacher to show
SWEDEN

- 562
SWEDEN
C:l 75
you one. Then you can reproduce it on page
136, which is already marked in squares.
3. Most road maps list all cities and towns
shown on that particular map, with a letter
FRANCE

RUSSIA - 542

421
FRANCE
D
RUSSIA
0
74

12

and a number to the right of each indicating Source: Fromdataof UnitedNations;

its location on the map. On one such map
of the southwest region, letters are placed in
alphabetical order along _the top and bottom -
edges of the map while numbers ·are placed
in progressive arithmetical order on both the
right and left sides. In the list of towns and
cities, the capital of Texas is Austin, and the
list shows it to be located approximately at
L-5. Secure a map of your state or region.
Source:MotorVehicleRegistrations
basedondatafromAutomotive News
U.S. Departmentof Commerce , Almanac.
FIGURE 231. Horizontal Bar Graphs
Courtesy American Iron and Steel Institute
Basically there is no difference between the
two kinds of bar graphs. Keep in mind that in
such a graph .you are comparing two or more
items with each other. Imagine that you are
comparing the number of automobile accidents
135
 IN 1954OVER
ONEMILLION TONS of this axis should be as much as, or slightly
OFSTEEL WENTTOPRODUCERS more than, the greatest number of accidents, or
OFHOUSEHOLDAPPLIANCES. Refriger- other unit being compared. Label this axis
ators
TYPICALSALES «number of accidents.'' Consider that 20 acci-
Floor Clothes
INCLUDED: Vacuum , Washers dents occurred in 1946, 15 in 1947, 40 in 1948,

ct\ol!l I '
30 in 1949, 43 in 1950, 24 in 1951, 38 in 1952'
40 in 1953, 46 in 1954, and 36 in 1955.
OFUNITS
MILLIONS 5. Above the ··year 1946 draw a bar up to the
SOLDDURING1954
height of the number 20. From 1947 draw a
bar -as high as the number 15. In the same way
indicate the number of accidents for each of
Room
air .
condilioHrs Fro ~
Ranges the other years. These steps should result in
a neat vertical bar graph.
C®lcut..=.U
PROBLEMS
1.23 [;] 1.17 2.65 3.10 3.65 3.43
1. Find the batting average of an outstanding
baseball player each year for 10 consecutive
Source:Data on factory sales of electrical appliancesfrom
" Electrical Merchandising";VacuumCleanerManufacturers'Association.
years. In the space below make a horizontal
bar graph. Let the vertical axis indicate . a
FIGURE 232. Vertical Bar Graph scale for years, and the horizontal axis indi-
Courtesy American 1-ron and Steel Institute cate a scale for batting averages which would
include the lowest ·and ·the highest averages,
in a 1arge city each year from 1946 to ·1955. The such as .260, .270, .280, .299, .300, etc.
following procedure will assist you in making
a vertical bar graph. Make this graph i~ the
space below.

2. Find some other facts suitable for interesting

I. Select the origin point and draw the ver- comparison, and in the space - below make
tical and horizontal axes. from them either a vertical or a horizontal
bar graph.
2. Along these axes measure suitable dis-
tances on the scale chosen. One-fourth inch is
suggested. Each axis may use a different scale,
or the two axes may use the same scale for divi-
sion into scale units.
3. At the first point to the right of the origin
on the H axis place the year 1946, at the second
point 1947, etc., until there are ten points ending
with the year 1955. Time in years, months, or
other units is usually placed on the H axis.
Label this axis "years."
4. Place along the vertic .al axis a series of
numbers increasing, regularly by some fixed
amount, such as 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, etc., one at
each point on the axis. The number at the top
137
 The Line Graph. If you have studied the PROBLEMS
preceding material and have worked the simple 1. Use the same batting averages you used for
problems related to it, you have a basic back- the bar graph, and lay out the space below
ground for making other graphs.
for a line graph in the same way as that given
A line graph also can be made to present in the preceding line gr_aph procedure.
clearly facts we wish to compare. The simplest 2. ·Place the years along the H axis and the
form of this graph is very similar to bar graphs~
graduated averages along the V axis. Plot
Use · the same figures concerning accidents
.'the points and make a line graph for these
which were used in . making the vertical _bar figures.
graph, and compar~ the likeness . between the
two graphs. Use the following procedure in
the space provided below in this column.
1. Follow the pr6cedure for the bar graph
through the second step, ·.and then proceed as
below:
2. Mark the intersection of the axes 1946,
the first point to the right on the H axis '47,
the second '48, etc., ending with '55. .
3. At each mark on the H axis draw vertical
lines upward '.
4. At each mark on the V axis, draw horizon-
tal lines to the right. Your space should now ·be
"crosshatched'' ·with squares, 9 · squares high
and 9 squares wide.
5. There were 20 accidents in 1946. Follow
the vertical axis up from the origin, or 1946,
point to the number 20 and make an X, a dot, or .
other noticeable mark.
6. For ·1947 go up to number 15 on the ver-
tical axis and across to '47 and mark.
7. Continue until all 10 points are located.
· 8. Beginning at the 1946 point on the vertical
axis draw a line downward to the point 15-'47,
to 40-' 48, etc . until all points are consecutively The Pie Chart and the Picture Graph. The
connected for your line graph. pie chart, or circle graph, and the area graph
are usually used to show per cent comparison.
A circle of any size is constructed. Whatever
figures are used, the circle must be divided prop-
erly to show correct distribution and quantita-
tive comparison of the items. Remember that
any circle has 360 degrees. Using the 45- and
30-60-degree triangles and the T-square, you
can easily divide the circle into 24 divisions of
15 degrees each . Each of these sections, and
any others, can be divided in half by bisecting
the · angle formed by the sides of each segment
until very small areas are obtained .
An area ba r-type graph is illustrated in Fig-
ure 233.
The picture or silhouette graph, and map
graphs (Fig. 234) are frequently used. i\1any of
these could be converted to circle, line, or bar
graphs. The pictures are more difficult to make
but provide cle ar, and more interesting, presen-
tations of the facts. The pictures should illus-
trate in some way the facts. Map graphs are
used more often to indicate geographical dis-
tribution rather than quantitati ve comparisons.
138
 MADEWITHSHEETS
ANDSTRIPt procedure for producing lumber . . Find in
~ MOTOR
VEHICLES
HOTROLLED
IRONANDSTEEL various magazines pictures to show seedlings
PRODUCTION
BY growing, the forest, logging, -lumber mills,
[) (5TI HOMEEQUIPMENT 5-YEAR
AVERAGES sawing, edging, and other steps necessary to
(millionsof net tons)
liiJ ~ OFFICE
EQUIPMENT produce finished lumber and lumber prod-
ucts. Place these pictures in their correct
gj .I /\tROOFINGANDSIDING order and connect them with lines to form
CANSANDCONTAINERS a flow chart.
HEATING
ANOCOOLING 2. Make a flow chart on "'How Paper Is Made.''
EQUIPMENT
ALLHOTROLLED
IRON Pictures of seedlings, pulp trees, logging,
ANDSTEELPRODUCTS.
·
storage, debarking, chipping, cooking, roll-
ing, drying and cutting, and shipping are
some of the steps you will need to illustrate
32.4
in your chart.
23.0
The Topographic Map. You have already
13.1 considered _some aspects of the common road
ANNUAL AVG. 1930-34· 1935·39 1940·44 1945-49 1950-54
map. It is probably one of the most used of all
t lncluding black plate and coils for cold types of maps. This section will deal with some
reducedblack plate and tin plate.
of the common terms and symbols of a topo-
FIGURE 233. An Area Bar-type Graph graphic map.. This type of 'map shows all the
Courtesy American Iron and Steel Institute physical features in any particular area or land- ·
scape. The following are some of the items
PERCENT INCREASE
IN TONNAGE
OF TWOIMPORTANT
1945-54
IMPORTS which are commonly seen on topographic maps,
SOMEMAJORFOREIGN
SUPPLIERS each of which is represented by a particular
OFIRONANDSTEELMAKING
RAWMATERIALS
111111111~---
IRONORE

1954 IMPORTS
=ESE ORE
470%
, 17.7 million net tons
50%
symbol: roads; rivers; . streams; lakes; bridges;
1954 IMPORTS
, 2.2 million net tons various types of fences; the various types of
buildings, such as churches, homes, and schools;
railroads; hills; swamp land; evergreen trees;
PE•U)O
.VENEZ\JELA
'--..
C> BOllYIA
products, such as corn, wheat, and fruit; sand;
LEGEND
e IRONORESOURCES
. o•
BRA
ZIL (>
meadows; general cultivated land; or any other
o SOURCES
OF ALLOYING
nEMENTS OR NON•
O 0
UNIONOF
fact concerning the surface of the area. A.num-
FERROUS
METALS CHILE SOUTH AFRICA
ber of these symbols are shown in Figure 236.
Their use in maps is illustrated in Figures 225
and 226.
FIGURE 234. Map Representations
Courtesy American Iron and Ste el Institute
This type of map is particularly valuable in
forestry work, to surveyors, and for military use.
The Flow Chart . and the Electrical Diagram. To be of value it must be very accurate, clearly
The flow chart is an interesting forf!J. of pic- drawn, and plotted to a good scale. The scale
ture graph. Figure 223 presents a complete should be clearly indicated, and the northerly
chart on steelmaking. The basic steps in mining, direction should be given by some clear symbol.
transporting, and numerous other processings If the map is colored, many symbols have
are shown, together with many of the finished definite colors of designation. These colors, like
manufactured products and their by-products. the symbols, have meaning . We usually asso-
The electrical or schematic diagram (Fig. 224) ciate the color blue with water, which is the
is a picture showing various electrical parts and standard color representing water on maps.
symbols representing these parts as they would Similarly, many symbols are made to suggest
be connected to produce a radio, TV set, or meanings closely associated with the items they
other electrical device. represent. We usually associate a cross with
Some electrical devices . and symbols may be a church. Therefore, on a map a small square
seen in Division 8, "Architectural Drawing." or rectangle with a cross on top ·represents a .
Other electrical symbols are shown in Figure church.
235. A forester frequently cruises a tract of timber
lap.d. He goes over this section and determines
PROBLEMS
the amount ._of timber ready for cutting, the vari-
Work at least one of the following problems. ous kinds of deciduous woods (broad-leaved or
I. Learn from an encyclopedia the general hardwoods) and conifers (soft or needle-like-

! 139
t
 STANDARD SYMBO.LS FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF BUILDINGS
( Adopted by Boarllof Directors, American lnsli!u!e of Electrical Engineers,December14, 1923.)

Ceiling Lamp Receptacle

&ttery. ________•.. ·--····---- l1l1l1l1l1 Automatic Door Switch ••••••••••• -- S
0
Specification to Describe Type @
such as Key, Keyless or Pull
Signal Wires in Conduit Key Push Button Switch .•••• ~···••"- S"
Concealed Under Floor._. ______ -•- Chain.~ .• ··-·····-------·-·
Electrolier Switch_.................. SE Ceiling Fan Outlet·---·····-··-··· ex:)
Signal Wires in Conduit
Concealed under Floor Above
____-••- Push Button Switch and Pilot .• ·--·- SP Floor _Outlet······--------··-··-:... ~
This Character Markedon Tap Remote Control Push Button Drop Cord·--·--·--·-·-····--··- @
Circuits Indicates 2 No.14 Switch--·-·-·-~---•---·---- SR
Conductors in 1/1-in. Conduit Push Button•• ·---··-·•••····-... [!]
(see note).--···---------------• II Tank Switch-·--··---•--.--•··- · [IT]
3 No.14 Conductors in ½-in.
Buzzer.. ·-·------··'"·····-·····-· D
Conduit·-·--·-------------- 111 Motor·---·-·--··---····-·---·· @ B_ell••••• -··--··- .H•• 8
•···•·-·-·••
Motor Controller__ _._., _____ ··•·· @
4 No.14 Conductors in ¾-in. Annunciator•••••• ---····-···· ... _(>--
Conduit Unless Marked 1/:2-in...... 1111
lighting PaneL·-··-••••~---••-··· - Interior Telephone •.•••• ····-·...... ~
5 No.14 Conductors in ¾-in. Power Panel. .•• --.-· .. --.; ....... ~ Public Telephone-·-- ............... _.. j-4
ConduiL·-·---···---------· 11111
6 No.14 Conductors in I-in.
Heating PaneL·--··~·--···•- ........ c::;;iiiiiil local Fire AlarmGong .......... ·-··· @
Pull Box•••••••••••••• H _ .. _______ ~
Conduit Unless Marked ¾·in.~-- 111111
City Fire AlarmStation··-······· ·· III
7 No.14 Conductors in I-in.
Conduit ___-·---·--·· ••••••••• 1111111
Cable Supporting Box·~·--······- liltllJlocal Fire AlarmStation•••••••••• _ (£]

6 No.14 Conductors in I-in.

Conduit •• ·- - ----··_···-·-·
Branch Circuit, Run Concealed
under Floor Above_·--·-·········•~
Branch Circuit, Run Exposed•••••••
Branch Circuit, Run Concealed
Under Floor.. -- --··-···-··-··
Feeder Run, Concealed under
Floor Above.····--·-··- · •••••••• -
Feeder Run, Exposed•••• _. _____••. ••-
Feeder Run, Concealed under
Floor_····-··--····-··-··---·-
Pole line -· - ··-----·-··_·-·-·-··
Electric Door Opener.............
Exit light·---·--···-·-···-·--
Floor Elbow_·- ·---··---·--·-·
Floor Tee .·- ·· · -·- · ·- · ------·---
Pull Switch.·--··-··-··-·--·····-
Local Switch · Sin11lePole•••••••• -
local Switch - Double Pole. __ __
Local Switch - 3 Way••• _·-·-·····
Local Switch • 4 Way..............
Meter··-···--·--·-···· ----····· B Fire AlarmCentral Station---·····- ~
FIGURE 235.
•• 11111111 TransFormer·····-·-··............. V Speaking Tube......................... ~ Electrical Symbols
Wall Bracket••• ·----·-··-··-··--- -()- Nurse's Signal Plug_..................... ~ Courtesy Eugene Dietzgen Company
Wall Bracket (Gas and Electric)••••. ~ Maid's Plug •••··--·-•·•••"!••····· ~
Wall Outlet for l:.xtensions____····- "¢- Horn Outlet ••• ··-•- .. •·-•·-•- ..··- [>t
Wall Fan Outlet- - --··_-·--·--···· 8-- District Messenger Call:..•••• ,.._.... D--
Wall Lamp Receptacle
Specification to Describe Type such @- Clock'<Secondary)_._·-•••··-- -- (9
as Key, Keylessor Pull Chain.••. .•
• Clock.( Master)......... •-•·•·-·--· ~
Single Convenience Outlet......... §=
Time Stamp.......... .. ,.••••• _...... .
Double Convenience Outlet_··-·· 0f
--
Junction Box· ·· ····-······ · ··-·-· 0 Watchman Station .......... ·-···-··· ~
-o--o-
Special Purpose Outlet Watchman Central Station
[I] lighting, Heating and Power @ Detector··-··-· ·-"··--•-·-······ ~
as Described in Specification••••••
'"
©- Public Telephone • P. B. X.
'-·
Or:.
Special Purpose Outlet
lighting, Heating and Power 0 Switchboard_.. ·- -·····--···-··· IPx~·,
as Des.cribed in Specification.•..•• InteriorTelephone Central
OT Special Purpose Outlet .Switchboard___• .;:_·___ ~···--····· [gJ
__._.s.
TP
Lighting, Heating and Power 9 Interconnection CabineL •••••••••• c::::J
1
as Described in Specification·---
S
Telephorie Cabinet •.••••••••••• __12:5:)
S2 Ceiling Outlet •••• ·---·- - - · ·--· · · ◊
Ceiling Outlet (Gas and Electric) ... ""'" Telegraph CabineL ........ ·----···· ~
S3 Special Outlet for Signal System.
S4 Ceiling Outlet for Extensions---·-·- -¢" as Described in Specitication_··--- ·t8J

Note:• If la,gerconductorsthan Number14 are used; use the same symbolsand markthe conductorand conduitsize on the run.

SUGGESTEDSYMBOLS
Humidistat ·
(for Air Conditioning) •••••••••••• IE}-
Radio Aeriol Outlet ••• •••• •. •••••••
Circuit Breaker
... <]-
I-
Effective Temperoture
(for Air Conditioning) ••••• • •••••• @}-
Single Convenience Outlet
(switchcontrol) ••• •• ______ , ••••• er
( Load Centei) .......... ••••••••- · Single Convenience Outlet Double Conven.,ence Outlet ~
Thermostot (sug gested change)-·-···••·-·· 9- . (one circuit on switch control) ••••• ~
(for Heating, Ventilation or II}-- Double Convenience Outlet · Double Convenience Outlet ~
Air Conditioning) . · --·· · T (suggested ch~nge) ••••••••••••• • @== ( both circuits on switch control) •••• : ~

~,11,,
.•.. ~'"'''... -~ff,,,,
'l111 7' 71 ----0-0---0---0-
.. • • • ,~11,, ... .. • .. ...~,,,,, • • •
~lllr, •.•• ,,llrtt . . • • ,,Ilk,, I i l t fl SMOOTH WIRE J:"E.NCE
CORN ORCMARO
6ijASS

FIGURE
Common
236.

Topographic
---)(----
8ARB WIRE FENCE OECl&:;)UOUS TREES SCHOOL
•
CHURCH
Map Symbols \'------J'
I \
A.AILR.OAD BRIDGE RAILROAD TRESTLE

..
MOUSE5
• & e,UILOINGS RICE. CULTIVATED
. ..
. . .
, LAN 0

140

. I
leaved woods), and the respective locations of
these trees. _
He makes a topographic map called a "type
map." He uses many of the common symbols,
but he may use also various colors to show the
different areas where each kind of wood is most
abu11dant. Pine (a conifer), represented by a
particular color, may be most common in one
section and · then appear again several miles
away. Some form of oak (a deciduous wood),
represented by another color, may appear be-
tween -these sections. Several other colors repre-
senting other kinds of trees may be found in
scattered or concentrated spots on the same ·
map. . subjects you might prefer are a suburban
To show the elevation (number of feet above
sea level) of various areas on this kind of map,
a contour drawing would be made. Numerous
points would be surveyed to determine which
points are higher than others. A -contour prob-
lem is illustrated in Figure 237. You will notice
that the 275-foot contour is drawn, the 305-foot
levels are indicated, and the 350-foot contours
have been sketched. Follow the instructions for
making a contour map in Problem 3 below. Lo-
cate the lowest and highest points in this prob~
lem.
PROBLEMS
1. A map should be accurate, not estimated.
However, merely to get some practice in
making a topographic map, estimate dis-
tances in a section of your city and dra~ a
map in the space provided below. Other
section, a farm with which you are familiar,
or other topographic areas which you know
and for which you might estimate distances.
Select a scale for distances which will allow
you to draw the plot in the space provided.
141
311 337 330 350 355

321 329 ~44 ?>55' . 377 310 356 364

34,4 374 368 ?>62 MO

32.6 365 580

300 - OS S30 ~60

2.84 29 32.1 seo 300

295 !>60 364 330 810

277 t.94 290 ~415 360 &41 Sl9

,J
Ct) ' -0
' ~
In
tO

300 3~6 - !81 ~Z2

260 2."17 290 300 ~60 540 511

FIGURE 237. Mapping Contour Problem

142
2. The compass is important in map-making and . . 3. A contour proble:µi in forestry mapping is
· numerous other activities. Map-making and shown in Figure 237. Draw the contours at
the use of the compass are frequently prac- 5-foot intervals. Use 350 feet as the starting
ticed in Boy Scout work. In the space below, point. Make the following contour lines
draw the picture of the face of a compass and darker than others: 380', 365', 350', 335',
mark the 16 major points of the compass. 320', 305', 290', and 2751 •
4. Using the crosshatched sheet (p. 144), lay out
a p~ttern for the duck toy in Figure · 238.

__ ·eACK
~)(
8
Ill
i6
X4
. .

5t0E5
¼>< 4*><a 1
11
USE 1 5CilU ARE5
IN DEVELOPtNG
51 DE PAT"TE.RN

WHEELS
~HO~E ~ THJCK x 1! DIA.
BOTTOM le_HOLE
gx 4x 6£ ---- SCREWS
11
1 -°ioR'D H•o BLUE.

PULL DUCK 'Toy

5ASSWOOO, P\NE OR PL~WOOt>

FIGURE 238. Pull Duck Toy

Courtesu The Joseph D·ixon C-rucible Company
143
 8. Architectural Drawing
Home Planning
Almost everyone will want to build or buy money when you plan a house or other building.
a home sometime in his life. The desire to own First of all you must consider the type of
one's own shelter is a natural one, and may have soil your house is to be built on, the topography,
been ·satisfied, at different times during the geologic formations, and the load-bearing
progress of man, by a tree house, a cave, a fishing capacity of this soiL Some buildings, including
or hunting cabin, a town or city home, or a · homes, are built on solid concrete slabs, and
country home. When most people begin think- the above information is very important in such
ing of a home, they usually secure pictures and cases.
plans from various magazines and other sources In Figure 239 a floor plan of a modern home
as aids in planning the house of their dreams . is shown. Two other plans, with pictures of how
the house will look when finished, are shown · in
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING IN Figures 240 and 241.
RELATION TO YOUR .HOME Constructing buildings of all .kinds is very
You may not desire either to actually draw fascinating . Various people are needed to de-
the final plans of your home or · to become an sign the building, to make drawings, to specify
architect. However, if you know how to sketch materials, to estimate costs, to construct the
your ideas, apd how to read to interpret various building, to supervise its construction, and to
plans and drawings, y~u may help save time and perform many other necessary functions. A per-
,-"'

~ ,~\ •~ •~/w
'
, i..:
•
'!:
t .. ,.- r~ '!
r ...
-;.-=
~ -
.,. I~

d". -·
1')\:&,
f.., ,. ,/r
,;
/~ )

. •, -'
.. ;

•·""... '\ ,..·

f

\
•

, .•
._

71
,

. \
\
~- - ~..r
"(,
")
\l,.1J
c,.; ,f/>
)\ ·' , ..1 )ga• ,--:<··. ,
:r,--};v-:
.>•/if':::
~ :, ~t ~ 1,;, ..~ / ~.\\:·::._,"
t""l
... •Jlltt _;· .~ 1
...···-~-
..., ...
..·•,. ~.........
...·.,..... . .......u,✓ \.J\/..·:-)."_;··
,;,,.,, ......
. ...
._
...................
. • .•

\ j '\, . ...:·,.1
\
, \ 1
II .. .
('fAllAt" .....
\\
,!
\ ! ~~£.-►i~•· t ;
\·, i/ \\ ,/
{ \i
I'. t

,
'~'-~~
..~~~~r~::t~~•w·~'~W'•~?,.;.x~ _· ~···~ 11 ~
'. 1 ~ \:;:,•>:'·
'f,~%:~:::. ,_' ••'.;.'.'-',.._>. .,, ;.. ~• .,~

I
,.
I
I
I
I
';
'
l

~~rJ
'

~~~
\ . ~.rvd·- :.ii
.,.~...
~-,1
!2,-
_g<Ni.°'-t:...
Qot~-e.t::.
FIGURE 239 . A Prize-winning Floor . Plan
Courtesy Ford Motor Company
Made by: Robert J. Binder, 1952 ·
1st prize Outstanding Achiev em ent Award, Chicago Vocational
School, Chicago, Illinois

145
 FIGURE 240. Styled for Indoor and Outdoor Living
Courtesy Ford Motor Company
Made by: Sherman Gerber~ 1953
1st 1>lace,Von Steuben High School, Chicago, Illinois

146
FIGURE 241. Compact Plans for a Modem Home \

C ourl:esy Ford Motor Company

Made by: S. / . Howard, 1953
1st Place, Chicago Vocational School, Chicago, Illinois

147
 ----·------ ·· --·----· ·-------

PROBLEMS If you cannot pay cash for building ·or buying

-1. Name two places in the home where each of a home, the following suggestions and informa-
the following materials is used. tion may be helpful:
1. A loan of money might be obtained from
Glass ------- ----------- --------------------------- private individuals and firms, banks, building
---------··-------------
and loan associations, insurance companies, and
other financial agencies . The amount you may
be able to secure may depend upon the . size of
· Steel ---------- -------
------------------------- ------------------
------- your annual income, your estimated ability to
pay in the future, your age, the value of your
lot and house, or the value of other property
you may own.
Tile --------- ------------------------------------------------------------ 2. The total cost of your house should not
be more than two to three tµnes the amount of
..your yearly income.
3. The monthly payments required should not
Concrete ----------------------------- --------------------
----------- be more than fifteen to twenty-five percent of
your monthly income.
4. The cost of the lot should not exceed fif-
teen to twenty-five percent of the entire cost.
P las tic ______________________ _________ ----------------
----------------- Most home loans are of the amortized type.
Briefly this means that you pay the money back
to the lender over a period of 5, 10, 15, or 20
2. What building materials are commonly used years, or over some other period of years. Each
in homes? monthly payment will probably include pay-
ments of interest, principal, taxes, and insurance.
-----------------------.-----------------· ------------------------------------ Ask one of your teachers to explain any of the
words you do not understand in this paragraph.

PROBLEMS
3. How would you explain the difference be- 1. Check your dictionary to find the meanings
tween a house and a home? of the following words, and then write a
definition for each:

amortize -----------------------
----------------
-------------
----------

mortgage ---------
------------------------------------------
---------

--------------------- .---------------------------------------------------------
interest (in relation to money borrowed)
FINANCING A HOME
The cost of a house varies greatly, differences
in cost being determined by the size of the
house; its location; the materials used; labor
costs; the architect's fees·; the design, amount,
type, and kind of conveniences installed; the
possible cost of interest if money is borrowed principal (in relation to money borrowed)
to pay for it; the cost of the lot or prqperty it is
built on; and many other factors. You should
plan very carefully, should you buy or build
a house in future years. Only some of the basic
problems are called to your attention in this
unit.
149
J
son who does this kind of work and supervises ---------------------------------------------------
the construction is ·called an architect.
His training begins in school, just as for . all ------------------------------------------------------------
other well-trained people, whether they be
teachers, doctors, lawyers, craftsmen, or others. ------------------------------------
He must know something about good design for 2. Explain briefly why mathematics is important
the various kinds of buildings desired, such as · to the architect.
schools, homes, industrial buildings, or even a
summer cottage on the lake or river. Mathe-
matics is important in his training in many ways,
especially in estimating building costs and in ---------------- --- --- ----------------- ------------- ---- - - -
figuring the cost of loans, taxes) and other pay-
ments.
An architect must know something about the
work done by carpenters, plumbers, electricians,
plasterers, brick masons, and any other crafts-
men in the building industry if he is to super- -------------------------------------------
----------------------------
vise effectively the work done by these people.
·· Most architects have gone to college four or
mqre years to help prepare themselves for this 3. List 3 functions of the architect in addition
type of work, but they started learning the be- to the drawing of the building plans.
ginning basic information just as you can. You
rnay not wish to become an architect, but prac- ·
tically everyone has a need for information
sometime concerning a house or other type of
construction.
Dwelling houses are small buildings in com-
parison with large business buildings, l~rge
bridges, and skyscrap ers, but you are probably
more familiar with these and have seen more A HOUSE OR A HOME?
Such houses being constructed. Some architects
specialize in one kind of construction, but we A house may be defined simply as a combined
shall discuss some general information concern- unit consisting of a foundation, a floor, and walls,
ing the house. Drawing the plans is only one cove red with a roof. This "house" becomes your
of the things to consider. "home" when you enjoy living in it and having
socia l activities and entertaining your friends
in it, or when you enjoy working at your favorite
hobby there.
PROBLEMS
Houses riiay cost less to build in some parts
1~ Name 5 different trades represented in build- of the United States than in others, even when
ing a house. After each one list two specific the same materials are used. Houses in the
tasks each tradesman performs . northern states are commonly built of brick,
stucco, and stone, as well as wood, but wood is
--------·----------------------------
---------·-------------------------------- probably the most common material in the
houses farther south.
Other building materials which are being used
more . and more are steel, concrete, tile, glass,
and plastics.
Basements and two-story houses ate more
common in areas which are colder in the winter.
More closed space is necessary to accommodate
the heating mechanism, laundry, hobby room,
and supporting areas. · ·Because of their greater
compactness and relatively smaller roof · and
foundation area, these houses may be heated
more easily, and they are probably somewhat
less expensi ve in construction for ·the added
-.' --- ---------- ----- ----- --- ------------- --- --- ---------- ---- --- -------------- floor space.
148
2. If the total cost of a house and lot is $12,000, .
. what is recommended as the maximum cost
whiGh you should pay for a lot?
3. If your income is $5,000 a year, what is the
maximum cost recommended for your home?
PREFABRICATED HOUSES
A prefabricated house (Fig. 242) may be made
from many different materials. The various
parts of the house are cut, numbered, and made
ready for assembly, and are then shipped to you
from a place possibly many miles away. Parts
are cut and made up on an assembly line in
much the same way in which your automobile
is put together on an assembly line. .
FIGURE 242. A Home Made from Prefabricated
Parts
Courtesy National Homes Corporation
These houses may jnclude special picture win-
dows, shoulder -high bedroom windows, alumi-
num or other metal door frames, windows,
awnings, fiber-glass insulation in all exterior
walls and ceilings, steel sinks and built-in cabi-
nets , and .many other modern features.
PLANNING A HOME
Many items are to be considered when you
plan a home. Some of these are the outside
appearance, design or style, the balance and pro -
portion of each part and of the whole house,
arrangement of the inside to satisfy the needs of
your activities, and the conveniences you expect
to place in the various rooms.
150
TYPES OF HOME ARCHITECTURE
Traditional or Conventional. Many of the
older homes of the traditional type had certain
characteristics of architectu re common to each
in outside appearance and inside design .
The Spanish or mission type of house is com-
mon in the southwestern region. It usually has
a flat, or almost flat, red tile roof, fewer doors
.than most houses, thick walls for strength and
for insulation against the heat of the long sum -
mer season . This type of house design is not
used in most sections.
The colonial house developed somewhat dif-
fe'rently in New England and in the South, with
some differences in outside appearance. Both
the New England Colonial and the Southern
Colonial, however, are formal, with living and
dining areas on separate sides, with tall columns
in front usually, and perhaps on the sides also,
in Southern homes, and with good balance. We
commonly think of . this type as being white
with green window shutters.
Houses in the English and Italian styles once
ranked high in popularity.
· · Modern or Contemporary. Many new homes
today are built in what is called the modern or
contemporary style. The ranch type is an ex-
ample. This style and others of our modern
era may be one-story, two -story, a combination
of one -story and two -story, split -level, or low,
long, and rambling. They may combine many
of the features from the older styles with what
we now call the modern design. Wood, stucco,
brick, and stone are still common materials used
in constru ·ction, but glass, plastic, steel mesh,
sprayed or molded concrete, and other materials
are also used for the modern house or parts of it.
PROBLEMS IN HOME PLANNING
Some problems are common to all types of
homes. The utility room, or laundry, and stor -
age of clothes are main items for consideration.
The area for the preparation and serving of
food, the sleeping area, and easy and convenient
access to the "bathroom are all common prob -
lems .
Problems which have recently become n1ore
important and which require special planning
are access to outside patios or living and play
areas, libraries or dens, hobby and recreation
areas inside the home, halls, stairways, windows
and doors, placement of modern mechanical
conveniences, the everyday lounge or living ·
room, and the modern living-dining area. The
prevalent direction of wind and rain, and one -
car or two -car storage areas must be considered .
also. ·
 ·Other problems are the kind and design of
furniture, electrical and plumbing needs, and
interior and exterior decoration. The arrange-
ment of all of this to meet the activity needs
of those using it is of major importance for bet-
ter health and happiness.
· In planning any house each family should ·
study its desires, needs, and immediate and
future financial .situation, and should consult
with qualified individuals in order to obtain the
house that will serve the family best.
Study all available pictures, plans, and ideas
for various house areas, in this Worktext and
elsewhere, before you begin planning. The size
of rooms usually depends upon your available
finances and your needs, and upon the specifi-
cations set up by those making the loan to you,
if a loan is necessary.
PROBLEMS
1. Name 5 styles of homes.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
·------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------·--
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. The bathroom, the sleeping area, the kitchen,
and the living and dining areas are common
to almost all homes. What are some other
areas to be considered in the modern home? ·
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------·-------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What is a split-level house?
-- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------- - ------------------------------------------------------------------
VARIOUS AREAS OF THE HOME
The Living -dining Area. In the early-style
homes, which we have just discussed, the food
preparation, dining, living, and sleeping areas
were all separate rooms or areas. The living
room was used mostly as a sitting parlor only
on Sunday or special occasions. A small area in
the kitchen served for dining purposes except
for ·special use of the dining room when guests
were present. .
The modern living and dining areas have be-
come combined multi-purpose units 'Yhere you
entertain friends and visitors, view television,
eat, generally lounge, play, or possibly sleep at
various times. Various placements and uses of·
modern furniture can be seen in Figures 243
and 244.
FIGURE 243. A Modem Living Area
Courtesy The Mengel Company
FIGURE 244. A Modem D.ining-living Area
;
Courtesy Th e M engel Company
Decorators and designers stay busy designing
and styling furniture for such multi-purpose
rooms. Many stress mixing the popular old-
period furniture with the modern, thus · com-
bining dignity ,with "streamlined living."
Since a great amount of your time is spent in
this area, you should pick those styles, designs,
and color combinations which will not grow
tiresome to you, and which will be comfortable
to live with.
The Bedroom . It is important in planning the
bedroom, and all other rooms, to consider the
151
furniture and what its use will be. In the bed- ciency , a careful arrangement of the import ant
room we must consider the bed space, dressing work centers is necessary.
space, and circulation space. Many arrangements will work equally well .
Each bedroom should have access to a bath- Five basic arrangements are shown in Figures
room or compartment contain ing a water closet 247-251: the single -wall (Fig. 247), the corridor
and lavatory without passage through another (Fig. 248), the U-shape (Fig . 249), the L-shape
bedroom or habitable room. (Fig. 250), and the peninsula (Fig. 251).
At the same time, each habitable room, in- . . . .
cluding a bathroom , should be accessible to ~
. .
others without passage through a bedroom.
Figure 245 shows a modern bedroom arrange - ·
REFRIGERAltlA.
[ SliK] RAN GE

la,
ment and decoration. You should check the FIGURE 247. The Single-wall Kitchen Arrangement
over -all sizes of furniture to be placed in the
- . ..
bedrooms and other rooms, before selecting the
size of the room. GE]

FIGURE 248. The Corridor Arrangement Ii

--
"'
-
·a:
~ .
I,., "'2'
~
~·
1¥ <t
u. ct
LIJ
,.:,'-: cc ~

FIGURE 245. A Modem Bedroom

Courtesy The Meng el Company

The Kitchen. This is one of the most impor - GE) .

tant centers in the home, and it is the place
where one or more of the family will spend FI GURE 249. The U-shape Arrangement
~
many hqurs .
An efficient kitchen (Fig . 246) depends on l
many variables, such as the size of the hom e and u
0
the family and the structural limitat ion s. The tc
over -all design is governed to a great extent by °'
~
ID
ii:
the size and shape of the room, and the location .
u.
l,AI
. cc
of doors and windows . For the greatest effi-

[ s~fK
l RANGE
.
-
FIGURE 250. The L-shape Arrangement

Kitchen units are becoming more standard-

ized in a wide _range of sizes and types and are
designed in accordance with a work -flow idea
for all types and shapes. This general work flow
is shown in Figure 252.

PLANNING THE KITCHEN

To plan your kitchen , study the related ma -
FIGURE . 246. A Modern Kitchen teria ls as needed and use the following as a ·
Courtesy Y oungstown Kitch ens guide:
f

152
 Work surfaces and storage area should be with-
I
in easy reach. Cooking utensils, canned foods,
shortening, and seasoning may be stored near
this center.
"tr
0 .

~
D 5. The refrigerator center (Fig. 256) is a stor-
u., age area and a preparation center also for cold
-'°
CIC
LI.
aJJ
d)
z
□ □ beverages, salads, and desserts. It should be ac-
II.I
a: < cessible with minimum effort and maximum con-
□ □
It:.

venience in relation to the range and sink cen-

J
ters. This is an excellent location for the food
GE] . □
.
mixer, and storage of glasses, salad bowls, des-
I

. . sert dishes, and related accessories . 1

6. To obtain information on _the actual sizes 1
FIGURE 251. The Peninsula Arrangement of tl;ie various appliances visit your local hard-
ware and appliance dealers to · see the actual
equipment or to secure catalogs and magazines.
Study the five basic kitchen arrangements and
... ··········")(-<- ...• ..... complete your plan with indication of the need-
"t~-,....•· ~ ···•..
.. ~,o~ ed units, the exact sizes, and where they should
/~I ·-.#

,
STORAGE
....
/ ,v~ 9~~qt-\ .. CENTER
be placed.
.. . This is the modern way to plan a kitchen, or
. any other room of a .home, for efficient _use,
CO(?KING
, ,
. pleasure, and convenience.

.
RECEIVING PROBLEMS
i..
. 1. What are five basic shapes or arrangements
~

for the kitchen plan?

FIGURE 252. A Kitchen Work-flow Diagram

1. · Sketch the general shape and determine

the length, width, and location of doors and
windows. Plan for efficiency to save money in
building, time, and effort for those who work -------------,-----------------------------------------------------------------
in the kitchen.
2. Consider that about 20 feet is recommend- --------------------------------- ·----------------------------------------~---
2. What are the 3 main appliances to be con-
ed for linear space for normal equipment in, the
sidered for the kitchen? Circle the one which
three main work areas with work usually pro-
should be most centrally located.
gressing counter-clockwise or from right to left.
These areas are -the receiving and storage area,
the mixing and cleaning area, and the cook- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ing and serving area.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. The three main appliances or centers are
arranged around the sink-garbage-disposal unit,
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
the refrigerator-storage unit, and the range- 3. When food is brought into your home it goes
cooking-serving unit. Various plumbing sym- through a general flow of work processes
bols may be seen in Figure 253. . before it is actually placed on the dining
The sink center (Fig. 254) is the most used table. What are the 3 main areas in the
and should be centrally located. Food washing, work-flow plan for its progress?
peeling, cleaning, and other preparation takes
place in this area on both sides of the sink. ---------------------------------------------------------------------~----.---
Space should be available for cutlery, some pans,
and other cleaning equipment and utensils. -------------------------------------------------··---------. ------------------
4. The range center (Fig. 255) is the work
area where foods are finally cooked and served. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

153
.,
 STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR PLUMBING, PIPING AND VALVES
( Approvedbythe AmericanStandardsAssociatio11,
November,193.51

PIPING PIPE FITTINGS (continued) PLUM 81 NG (continued)

ForWeldedor SolderedFittings,
Piping, in general_ ____________---- use jointindicationshownbelow. Screwed
Bell ond
SDioo~ Plain Kitc;henSink _____________ l:::f

rr
( Letteredwith nomeof materialconveyed) s
Non-intersecting Pipe$-__ _ _ _ _ I Lateral__ ----·-------- Kitchen Sink, R & L Drain Board_ ~
~ I txpansion Joint Flan·ged. __ ~ ~
Kitchen Sink, L H Drain Board___ ~
'Steam·-----·--·--------------
Conqensate ________________ --·------- Combination Sink & Dishwasher_. @QQj
VALVES
Cold Water __________ ~----- ForWeldedor SolderedFittingi, Bell 011d Combination Sink & laundry Tray 7::IJ"
Hot Water _________________ -·-·- usejointindicationshownbelow, S.:r.wed Spigot S<,T

Gate Valve·-----------· ---t:l"<l-~ Service Sink-------·-·-----·· l:f

A~---------------------- ----
Vacuum_______________________ _ Globe Valve. ___________ · ss
-t><l- -3>oc:E- Wash Sink (WellType>·------·-· L!:!rr
Gas ________________ • _______________ _
Angle Globe Valve_______
F Wash Sink_ __ _._.. _·--··----- IH-41

FIGURE 253.
Plumbing
Refrigerant. •• ___ -----·
Oil_ _______• ___ --- - -------·-
____._ -+-+-+-
····-····-
Angle Gate Valve_______ •

Check Valve---··-·--·---
r-
+f-,.J- ~
Laundt,-Tray_·----·-----·---·
Water Closet (LowTenkt ______ _
1illT

Symbols
Courtesy
Eugen~ Dietzgen Companfl
PIPE FITTINGS
ForWeldedor Solderedfittings, Screwed Bellond
usejoint indicationshownbelow. Spigot
Angle Check Valve__.,____
f-
-1Ch-- ➔0€-
r Water Closet (No Tank).·--·---•

Urinal (Pedestal Type)____ ··•--·- G

Joint. •• ·-··-·-··-·----· -+- -€:- Stop Cock·-------··-·--

Elbow. 90 deg.·---·-~-·- -r t Safety Valve-- • ·--- ·· --· ~ ~ Urinal. (WallType)-· ·---·~-~'-• • '<5/'"
Elbow - 45 deg.,.·----·-- { {
Quick Opening Valve______• ~ Urinal (CornerType)•• _.-·-••···
Float Opening Valve______ .J;,:~l Urinal (StallType)_·-'--••··•---" ~r 72Sr
Elbow • Turned Up.~--- --- 0f-- 0+-
Elbow - Turned Down. ___ _ Gl- G+-
Motor Operated Gate Valve .£9 lJrini:11(TroughTyp_e>---·--·•--··· ""9"
Drinking Fountain ( PedestalType)... 0
~
Elbow • Long Radius·---~ PLUMBING
OF
Drinking Fountain (WollType)_____ ~
Side Outlet Elbow -
Outlet Down· ···---· · r- ~ Corner Bath____··------------ - q _ Drinking Fountain (TroughType)•• _ •• ~
OF

Side Outlet E:lbow•

Outlet Up _________ _ f. ~ Recessed Bath.----·-----------
lCJl Water
•

@
OF

Base Elbow-·-- ______ ••

Double Branch Elbow•• - ••

J-y- t. Rqll Rim Bath.·--·--·--··------
cl
Hot Water TanL·-·--·---·--·-·
Heater •• _________________ (§}

Single Sweep Tee _______

Sitz Bath••• ·-- --~----·-----·- ~ Meter••• --- -~-·-- - -·-·-··----- ro-t
H

T Foot Bath.'·- -- ------·-· ----- ·

lSf Hose Rack.·-····---··----·-·-- ~
Double Sweep Tee •• ·--·
T @
Hose Bibb••••••• _____________ T
\
Reducing Elbow. _______ _

Tee- ---- -------------

r+tt-~ Bidet. _·· · --··-·-----------·

Shower Stall_·---~------------111
-

1iiJ Gas Outlet-··-··---·----

Vacuum Outlet •••••• _________
- -·-·
V
116

TG
Shower Head•••••• •••••••• (P1.tl<i;1~
..__, ·--2:, '
Tee. Outlet Up _______ _ --101- ~
Overhe11dGang Shower.- ... - ...<P1••>O O O Drain-·--···-·-·· - -·-·----·-- D
Tee• Outlet Down _____ ,. ,Bl-~ .(Elev.) J, £ J. D
Grease Separator______________ g§
Side Outlet Tee
Outlet Up----- ------ 44 Pedestal Lavatory______________ [QJ
PL
1Qf
Oil Separator·-----·------·---- ~
~ ~
Side Outlet Tee Wall Lavatory.·---- -- ----····-
WL
Cleanout_ _____ .______ • ___,..___ ~
Outlet Down--- -~- -··
~
Cross-·---------
Reducer________ __ -·-·-
- ··--·
++ C~rner Lavato,Y----·-·---··----
Manicure Lavatory
Medical Lavatory·---:. ··- -- ·- --
LAV

[QJ
ML
Garage Drain·---·----
Floor Drain With Backwater Valve...
- -- -- -- - ~
~
Den.ta! Lavatory.·-·• --'-------·· "'@"" Roof Sump ___ • _ ______________ [j}
Eccentric Reducer•••••••• DENTAL
LAV

Tvpes of Joints

II I- ( X 0
Flanged , Screwed Bell & Spigot Welded Soldered

I I

·~
<
/ t

c:::=- ( g )
'
I ~-...Z...... I

SINK
0
-
. CE"TER
-iiiiiir

-ae- RA"i6E CE~TER.

4-

J. ~-=
---
..........

---
T

FIGURE 254. The Sink Work--center FIGURE 255. Range Work-center

154
 Wor k surfaces and stor age area shou ld be with -
I in easy reach . Cooking utensils, canned foods,
I shortening, and seasoning may be stored near
ct
I thi s center .
0 .
tiD: D 5. The refrigerator center (Fig. 256) is a stor-
age area and a preparation center also for cold
□ □
uJ

-
c!>
«II.
11,1
LU

'°
z
<(
beve rages, salads, and desserts. It should be ac-
« cessible with minimum effort and maximum con-
□ □
~

venience in relation to the range and sink cen-

ters. Th is is an excellent location for the food
GE] □ mixer, and storage of glasses, salad bowls, des-
. .
-

. - sert dishes, and related accessories .

6. To obtain information on the actual sizes
FIGURE 251. The Peninsula Arrangement of tlie various appliances visit your local hard-
ware and appliance dealers to · see the actual
equipmen t or to secure catalogs and magaz ines.
C!) Study the five basic kitchen arrangements and
z
······')( -<···· .• complete your plan with indication of the need-
"(~ p············ i ····.... .. ~,o~ ed units, the exact sizes, and where they should
/ ~ I A. ••~q}'- STORAGE
/ '"& ~qr\. CENTER
be placed.
9~ ·.
'
This is the modern way to plan a kitchen, or
'
t ' . any other room of a home, for efficient use ,
CO(?KING pleasure, and convenience.
..'
' .
'

, "'~"'--< ~ PROB LE .MS

RECEIVING
...... !.
"!,~t 2 1. What are five basic shapes or arrangements
t- ....
....... > '
..
for the kitchen plan?
COOt<JNG ········a...«
111~•
•.
CENTER -, ·,

FIGURE 252. A Kitchen Work-flow Diagram

----------------------------------------------------------------
. . --------------

1. Sketch the g·eneral shape and determine

the length, width, and location of doors and
windows. Plan for efficiency to save money in
building, time, and effort for those who work
in the kitchen.
2. Consider that about 20 feet is recommend -
2. What are the 3 main appliances to be con-
ed for linear space for normal equipment in the sidered for the kitchen? Circle the one which
three main work areas with work usually pro- should be most centrally located.
gressing counter -clockwise or from right to left.
These -areas are the receiving and storage area,
the mixing and cleaning area, and the cook-
ing and s.erving area.
3. The three main appliances or centers are
arranged around the sink-garbage -disposal unit,
the refrigerator-storage unit, and the range- 3. When food is brought into your home it goes
cooking -serving unit. Various plumbing sym- through a general flow of work processes
bols may be seen in Figure 253 . . befo re it is actually placed on the dining
Th e sink center (Fig . 254) is the most used table. What are the 3 main areas in the
and should be centrally located . Food washing, work -flow plan for its progress?
peeling, cleaning, and other preparation takes
place in this area on both sides of the sink .
Space should be available for cutlery, some pans,
and other cleaning equipment and utensils .
4. The range center (Fig. 255) is the work
area whe re foods are finally cooked and served .
·15 3
 STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR PLUMBING, PIPING AND VALVES
( Approved bylhe AmericanSlanderds Association,November, 1935 >

PIPING PIPE FITTINGS (,ontinued) PLUMB ING (continued)

r
For Welded or Soldered Fitt ings, Bell ond
Piping,in general_____________
---- use joint indication shown be low. Scrtwtd Spigo~ PlainKitc;henSink_____________ II • H
(Lettered .with name of materialconveyed) r--~--------+------+-...;;;.i;.;=.:...-1 s
. tersect'mg p·1pes_______
Non-in I Lateral_______________ V
i KitchenSink, R & L DrainBoard. [3=EI

~ I
·steam ____________________----
~
1----------....1..--,a,_---1
ExpansionJoint Rang~--- --e::3-
Kitchen Sink, L H Drain Board___ ""@QT°

Conqensote________________---------- CombinationSink &- Dishwasher__ @!;J§.1

VALVES
Cold Water________________ For Welded or Soldered Fittin gs ~- ...• ~ Bell=cl CombinationSink &- LaundryTray 7:I]"'"
Hot Water_________________-·-·- use joint indication shown below: ~ Spigot: St, T

Air______________________ ---- Gate Valve____________ ~ -,¾- 7l:::r

ServiceSink_________________
ss
Vacuum_______________ _________ _ ·Globe Valve___________ · ~ ~ Wash Sink (Woll Type}__________ ""Irm""
Gas ________________________________ _
Angle Globe Valve_____ _
Wash SinL H________________ (t-Hf
Refrigerant________________
._--1--+-+-
AngleGate Valve ________ LaundryTray
________________
FIGURE 253. 0il_ ___________------------ -··--····-
~

Plumbing Check Valve____________ ~ ~

Water Ooset (Low Tank>~-------
Symbols PIPE FITTINGS
For Welded or Soldered l'ittings, ScrewedBellond
AngleCheck Valve__~-- f f Water Closet (No Tank)_____ _ __ _

Court esy use joint indication shown below . Spigot

Urinal (PedestalType)__________ _
Eugene Diet zgen Compan11 Joint___________________ -I- -E-:- Stop Cock______________ --10~ ➔~ G
Elbow- 90 deg_______.:.___ .p- ~
Safety Valve____________ ~ ~ Urinal {Wall Type}____ ___ __ .. ,___ ""ic5'

Elbow - 45 deg__________ t { Quick Opening Valve_ ____

Float Opening Valve._ ..___
Urinal (ComerType ) ___________ _ ~

Unoal (Stall Type)__-'------·--~ :..r l2Sf"

Elbow. TurnedUp-~------ 01- 0+-
MotorOperated Gate Valve Urinal CTroughType}_____________ ""9"
Elbow - Turned Down_____ Gl- G-+-
Elbow - Long Radius_____
Drinking Fountain ·( Pedestal Type)___ 0
0 PLUMBING DrinkingFountain (Wall Type) _____ -g-
l)F

Side Outlet Elbow-

Outlet Down--------- r- ~ CornerBath________________ _ Drinkin
g Fountain (Trouglr Type}_____ ~
oi:

Side Outlet Elbow-

Outlet Up---------- f. ~ RecessedBath____________ _ _ Hot Water Tank________________ @
OF

Base Elbow____________
JL RollRimBath______________ _ Water Heater___________________E)
DoubleBranchElbow_____ -y Sitz Bath________~-------- M.eter____.______ ______________ ~

Single Sweep Tee_______

DoubleSweep Tee______
T Foot Bath_._______________ _ HoseRack________________
_____ ~

T Bidet________________ ____ _ HoseBibb___________ _________ T

r
ReducingElbow________ _

Tee------------------+4~
ShowerStall___ __________

Shower Head________
______f>"..:t"lB--<~
~ ~
Gas Outlet _____________.:._____

Vacuum Outlet ___________----

TM8
V
G

'J --°& .
Tee - Outlet Up________ -l0t- ~
OverheadGang Shower______ f>"-> O O O
Drain___
__________
___________ □

Tee- Outlet Down_____,. -tet- ~ (Elev.) .!. xr GreaseSeparator______________ ~

0

Side Outlet Tee

~~ Pedestal Lavatoiy___________ IQ j Oil Efil
Outlet Up ___ -- ·--- -- Pl $eparat¢r_ ____ ___ _ ____ __ __ ~

WallLavatoiy_________ _______ 1Qf

~~
Side Outlet Tee Oeanout ______ ._ ___ • __________ ~
,n.
Outlet Down----~---- Corner Lavatory
______________
_

++ ~
Cross_________________
Garage Drain_________________ ~
ManicureLavatory
Reducer____r__________-t>1- ~
MedicalLavatory______________ [QJ
ML RoorDrainWith Backwater Valve___~
Dental Lavatory________________ "@'"
EccentricReducer________ -<:::::+~ DENTAL
LAV RoofSumP-----~------------- [JJ
Trpes of Joints

II I· C X 0
Flanged Screwed Bell & Spigot Welded Soldered

I' I • I

/
----<SC
t ·- t

~ ( g )
I ;:, _....z...... I

-!5-
• ~ i5E -iiiiii-

SINK CENTER ~ RAt.16E C£'-ll "EA.

L ..........
....---
~J:

--=ir

FIGURE 254. The Sink ,vork-center FIGURE 255. Range Work-center

154
.!L±:2-. - E!L -.L!J ...._..........-EE.. ..•.t- .... £.!5.□EEi!t!S.t&U!il.!!UEt!l.tttM!._&_m:_. ±1:!! :....... ·-··- -- .!t sw.• xzau
 ELECTRICAL OUTLET SYMBOLS
When Used on When Used on
I~ u Installed Plans Installed Plans

.I
This is an outlet box for
conn~cting a ligh~i':g fix-
ture in wall or ceiling
This is a switch for contr .ol-
I~
A This is a hanger outlet for
Q ,.a»..I an electric wall clock ©
A This represents* any special-
S \:::;) purpose outlet which has @

REFRICiERATOR
..

~
•-
I -~

Multip I e
ling one or more lights or
convenience outlets from
one single location
-- . - This is a "multiple" switch
for controlling one or
S 3
@
l
_ no special symbol. Use
it to indicate individual
connections for major
equioment such as:
·electric water neater

I~ I
CENTER more Iights or conven- dishwasher-s ink
1ence outlets trom two or furnace mechanism
..... -5!!!-
more locations
This is a "lampholder" <light n\
automatic washer
electric clothes drier
I ~

-~-1
-r.:,-
..
•
fixture) having built-in
pull switch
\blp5 home freezer
water pump

l
This is a standard duplex -A built-in bathroom heater
I- lv l:tJ convenience outlet -'C::I This is an electric range =::B
This is a floor outlet (single ti' outlet ~R
~ convenience outlet set ~ This represents the connec- r.:::;i
'1m:;r' flush in floor) -A tion for door chimes* --f.!:!.I
256. The Food Storage · This is an outdoor weather.:-Owp This is a push button for ___r.:-,
FIGURE
~ proof convenience outlet front and rear _door signals 7..!J
Work-center ~·:.~ This represents an outlet for ® * No special devices used for these cormec-
c::><O a built-in ventilating fan* tions; therefore cannot be pictured.

CONSIDERING UTILITIES FIGURE 257. Plan View of Electrical Symbols and

Whether a home is built in a rural or an urban Installed Items
Courtesy General Electric Company
center, there is a utility problem. We must con-
sider such items as electricity, water, sewerage,
the telephone or other communication, and gas,
coal, fuel oil, or other heat-producing items. BEDROOM

Probably the most important of these in our ;/

modern society is electricity. It is being used I
I

more and more not only for lighting, but for

heating, cooking, and power for all the 'modern I ' '
''
conveniences . LIVING ROOM I
I
I
'
'o
Besides light, electricity is necessary for the I
I
BEDROOM

clothes washer-dryer-ironer unit, the deep freeze

and refrjgerator, the home workshop machines,
the food mixer, television and radio, sewing ma-
c~ines, garbage disposal units, dishwasher, cook-
ing, • furnace thermostats, some l~wn mowers
and hedge clippers, water pumps, milking ma- .,
I
chines on the farm or dairy, and numerous other I
I
I
mechanisms. I
I

I
Since electricity has become so important in I

RECREATION
1
I
I
I
our everyday life, we shall discuss it in some PLAYROOM \
OR . 1
I
1
'
GARAGE
I
detail. Figure 257 shows some of the main elec- TV ROOM \
I
s
'
I

trical symbols as they appear when drawn on

plans and pictures of the installed items with
which they are used. Figure 258 shows a floor
plan with various electrical symbols. Figure 259
is a chart showing minimum -requirements in the
various rooms of a house and areas connected
with it. Figures 235 and 260 show the necessary
symbols for practically any electrical plan.
You are the best judge of what you want
your electrical wiring system to do. Electricity
will be supplied to your home to meet your
needs adequately, but you must consider the
wiring necessary to fit your needs best, the mas-
ter control switch, cables, wires, outlets, and
other items. The representative of your elec-
trical supplier will be glad to assist and , advise
FIGURE 258. Some Electrical Symbols on Plans
of a Three-level House
Courtesy National Adequate Wiring Bureau
you in all aspects of your home's electric service.
Remember that overloaded circuits and im-
proper wiring may cause a fire and great loss
to you as a home owner. Be safe, and secure
assistance.
Because the electrical system is so important,
the procedure to help you determine your needs
is shown below.
1. Sketch your basic floor plan (Fig. 261) and
indicate roughly the placement of typical fur-
nishings in each room or area.
155
 FOR CONVENIENCE OUTLETS SPECIAL OUTLETS PERMANENT LIGHTING SWITCHES

-------- ---------------
LIVING ROOM Placed so that no point along floor line FM Radio
for--------- --- ------------
From ceiling, wall, cove or valance
RECREATION ROOM of usable wall space is more than 6 ft. · Television lights
GENERAL LIVI.NG AREAS from an outlet Room Air Conditioner Switched convenience outlets may be
substituted in living rooms

DINING AREAS Near hostess' chair. Placed so that no Ceiling Light over talSle
point along floor line of usable wall
space is more than 6 ft. ·trom an outlet,
On latch side of each fre-
One above C"Ounteror table space when
quently used doorway
next to wall
BEDROOMS Place outlets on each side and within Room Air Conditioner From ceiling, wall, cove or valance
lights Rooms with entrances
6 ft. of each bed location. Apply Living
more than 10 feet apart
Room rule to remaining space
should have multiple con-
KITCHEN For each 4 ft. of work counter Electric Range Provide general light and light over trol switches
For refrigerator Dishwasher-Disposer sink
For planning desk Home Freezer Others over work counters as needed
At table space Clock
Ventilating Fan
LAUNDRY For hot-plate, etc. .Automatic Washer At washing area
Electric Dryer At ironing area
Iron or Ironer
Ventilating Fan
BATHROOMS Adjacent to mirror Built-in Heater Light both sides of face at mirror ·
Ventilating Fan One in enclosed shower compartment
HALLWAYS For each 15 ft. of hallway One at leost; two in long halls
ENTRANCES Near front entrance At front entrance Inside front entrance
(weatherproof) At trades entrance Inside trades entrance
STAIRWAYS light at head and foot Switches at head and foot
for each light
CLOSETS For each closet
PORCHES, TERRACES, For each 15 ft. of usable outside wall For each 150 sq. ft. of porch Inside door to porch
PATIOS (weatherproof)
UTILITY ROOM OR One at workbench Fuel-fired Heating For each enclosed space At head of stairs or
BASEMENT One near furnace Equipment . At workbench at entrance
Electric Water Heater Near furnace
At foot of basement stairs
ATTIC One for general use Summer Cooling Fan One for each separate space At bottom of stairs
GARAGE OR CARPORT One for gene ra l use Food Freezer Interior light At door
Work Bench Exterior light if detached garage Multiple Switches
Door Op ener at Garage and House
NOTE: The requirements given here for number and place- ask your electric power supplier or an experienced electrical
ment of outlets, lights and switches are the bare minimum contractor about the accepted Standards of •Wiring Ade-
requirements. For additional s119gestions and more details, quacy, approved by the National Adequate Wiring Bureau.

FIGURE 259. Minimum Electrical Requirements

Suggested for Rooms

0••
,--
;0 !
.. Lighting Outlet
General Outlets

Ceiling Lighting Outlet for Recessed Fixture

f Courtesy National Adeq~ate Wiring Bureau

Multi-outlet Assembly
li.mits of installation.
(Extend arrows to
Use appropriate sym-
bot to indicate type of outlet. Also indicate
spacing of outlets as X inches.)
r::,
l!:J Push Button
'O Buzzer
Auxiliary Systems

1:J Bell
~- -
(Outline shows shape of fixture.) Q Combination Bell-buzzer
Continuous Wireway for Fluorescent light- :@--$combination Switch and Convenience Outlet
ing on ceiling, in coves, cornices, etc. ....o.rn, (CHIChime
(Extend rectangle to show length of in- ~Combination
stallation .) 9'iRadio and Convenience Outlet
@ (>- Annunciator -
Ii'\
~ Lighting Outlet with Lamp Holder
. Range Outlet
R
• Floor Outlet [Q] Electric Door Opener

Ii\ Lighting Outlet with Lamp Holder

...Ja\ Special-purpose Outlet. Use subscript letters
~ to indicate function. OW-Dishwasher, lft\lMaid's Signal Plug
~Sand Pull Switch DWCD-Clothes Dryer, etc. 0 Interconnection Box
® Fon Outlet Switch Outlets (D Bell-r inging Transformer
Q) Junction Box S Single-pole Switch ~ Outside Telephone
@Drop-cord Equipped Outlet SJ Three-way Switch t:>fInterconnecting Telephone

-© Clock Outlet
S4 Four-way Switch (i} Radio Outlet

To · indicate wall installation of above out-

So Automatic Door Switch (iii Television Outlet
lets, place circle near wall and connect with Sp Switch and Pilot Light Miscellaneous
line as shown for clock outlet.
SwpWeatherproof Switch L\\\\5\1Service Panel

Convenience Outlets S2 Double-pole Switch - Distribution Panel

=@Duplex Convenience Outlet
Low-voltage and Remote-control
____ Switch Leg Indication.
with control points .
Connects outlets
..Q Triplex Convenience Outlet (Substitute Switching Systems
~3othe,:- numbers for other variations in num-
ber of plug positions.) S Switch for Low-voltage Relay Systems 0 ab
..c::.,.
Special Outlets. Any sta!1dard sym~o.1 giv-
en above may be used with the add1t1on of
~ subscript letters to designate some special
~ Duplex Convenience Outlet-Split Wired MS Master Switch tor Low-voltage Relay ~ab variation of standard equipment for a par-
~
~R
- Duplex Convenience
type Plugs
Outlet for Grounding-.
.
Q t
SyS ems
RRelay-equipped Lighting Outlet
~ 1 icular architectural
the variation
pion. When so used,
should be explained in the
a,b Key of Symbols and, if necessary, in the
~p Weatherproof Convenience Outlet -•---•-Low-voltage Relay System Wiring □ specifications .
a,b
FIGURE 260. Graphical Electrical Symbols for
Residential Wiring Plans
Courtesy National Adequate Wiring Bureau

156
 --•

I
---rn
\:

.0$
~• OUTLET FOR O/SHWASHf q
\ KEY @.0UTLfT F0( WA.STt ·OISl'OSf/1
{ JI&•OIJTDOOR. PROJECTOR, Ft.00D L.AM PS
UNDll/ /'.Ail~

FIGURE 263. Locating Other

FIGURE 261. A Basic Floor Plan Electrical Outlets on Plan
Courtesy General Electric Company Courtesy General El ectric Company

2. On this sketch draw in the approximate

placement of floor and table lamps and special
lights (Fig. 262).
3. Next, locate your general lighting fixtures
in rooms, on walls, in closets, and at outside
entrances (Fig. 263).
4. When all of this has been completeq., plan
and note where your wall plug -in outlets should
be.
5. Determine where your main switch and
fuse panels will be located. This may be de-
termined when you consider where your elec-
tricity will come into your house. Figure 264
shows how wires lead into your electric meter
for safe electrical power.
FIGURE 264. Three Wires Offer Adequate Electric
Power to Your Meter and Home
Courtesy National Adequate Wiring Bur eau

,___
~-:~:~
~ i PROBLEMS

---~--.I□
---
--- DD
"
1. Name as many items as you can, and as space
permits, that use electricity in your home.
OIN/N'3 TABLI!

HALL
81!.NCH

LIV I NG ROOM - l2 '-3'x /9'-6"

BED
[D
n1
>: (O F,(£
TA&E

ft5 ~ IB·fSHADC 10CJ1oow

.
3 OT1fC/l$IN L.R-lbSJWJit(
5o/t50 W. R.'/0
. : -~ .
;°#
·~..

FIGURE262. Placing Lamps

and Special Lights on Plan
Courtesy General Electric Company

157
2. What utilities should be most carefully con-
sidered for homes in your area?
3. Sketch freehand, in the space provided, sev-
- eral of the common electrical symbols as as-
signed by your teacher.
CHOOSING THE c ·oRRECT WINDOWS
In general, windows function in two very
important ways, as a means of lighting and as
a means of ventilation. They have always pre -
sented a.problem as regards privacy, which mod-
ern architects are solving in various. and inter-
esting ways.
The selection of the type of window best
suited to your house will depend on the service
you desire from windows. They must also con-
form with the type of architecture into which
they are placed.
158
As a result of assembly-line production, prac-
tically all conventional window units are fabri-
cated in the factory and fitted into place on the
job. However, many glass walls, which are
popular in modern homes, are framed in with
plate glass.
The following stock list of the conventional
types of windows, with descriptions, has been
included to assist you in your selection. Space
will permit inclusion of only a portion of the
types and sizes on the market. Be sure in select-
ing your windows to meet light, ventilation, and
other requirements for each room.
1. Awning Type Windows. For many years
these were used only in schools, hospitals, and
factories, but now have been adapted to home
use . They swing outward to give almost 100
per cent ventilation and protection from rain.
2. Casement Windows. Casement windows
are a variation of the awning type, being smaller
and consisting usually of two or more sashes.
3. Combination .Windows. Privacy and ven-
tilation are both important; a combination of
casement and awning windows is a good choice.
4. Picture Windows. You may concentrate
windows in groups rather than having a series
of single windows. There are many stock sizes
on the market, but be sure you have a view
worth framing as a permanent picture.
5. Double-hung Windows. These are . the
most common among all types of windows and
are available in wood, aluminum, or steel. Ven-
tilation is limited to 50 percent of the opening.
6. Sliding Windows. These open horizontally
instead of vertically, on a track in the sill. They
are attractive and look well in pairs or groups.
They can be removed easily for cleaning.
7. Strip Windows. These handle the problem
of light and ventilation in rooms where privacy
is needed, also leave more wall space for furni-
ture arrangement. They take care of basement
ventilation, and, when used in bedrooms, and
sometimes in living areas, they are usually
placed shoulder high above the floor.
8. Corner Windows. A combination of fixed
glass and operating sash at a corner is often
very effective.
9. Jalousie Windows. They are one of the
latest developments and operate on approxi -
mately the same principle as venetian blinds.
Some of their important advantages are: full
ventilation, tight closing, inter-changeable inside
screens and storm sash, ease of cleaning, and
the possibility of lifetime frames.
As you plan · widths, heights and locations for
your windows, be sure to keep in mind what
you want those windows to do for you and "kitchen-house" or "cook-house" was set apart
your home. from the main house, but the same fireplace, or
Ask your instructor for some catalogs or other a similar device, was used, and for the same
pamphlets showing various kinds of windows. purposes. The clay and log construction of
Study these and decide which type you wish to fireplaces in early times made them fire hazards.
use . This gave way to stone and brick fireplace and ·
chimney construction.
DOORS A fireplace in a house today is an item of
Most houses use doors of a stock type, that choice or desire. Because of modern •conven-
is, doors that are of standard sizes and that are iences, which now do the work formerly done
already made up. These may be had in many by the fireplace, it is no longer necessary as an
different kinds of woods. Most doors are veneer, essential part of the home .
built up on a honey-comb core, to prevent warp- Brick, stone, steel, and tile are materials com-
ing. Every house should have at least one out- monly used in fireplace construction. To be effi-
side door 3 feet wide to allow for easy access cient, safe, and pleasing in appearance, a fire-
and for greater convenience in moving furniture place must be properly constructed. Since it
in and out. adds expense to the total cost of your home and
The most commonly used sizes are: is not an absolute necessity, many homes do not
include a fireplace.
EXTERIOR DOORS Figure 265 shows the floor plan view of a fire-
WIDTH HEIGHT THICKNESS place as it would be drawn on your house plan;
2'-6" X 6'-8" l 3/s" and 1¾" the elevation, or a front view, as drawn facing
2'-8" X 6'-8" l 3/s" and 1¾" it~ and the sectional side view as it would ap-
2'-8" X 7'-0" 1%" and 1¾" pear if we cut down through it and removed
2'-10" X 6'-8" l 3/s" and l 3/4" a part.
3'-0" 6' -8" l¾" A brick or tile company will be glad to give
X
you information concerning various sizes and
.3'-0" X 7'-0'' l¾"
types of fireplaces.
INSIDE DOORS
WIDTH HEIGHT THI~KNESS
2'-0" X 6'-8" 13/s"
2'-6" X 6'-8" l 3/s"
2'-8" X 6'-8" 13/2/'
2'-8" X 7'-0" l 3/s" E.ffed:ive
flue Si-z.e
-.&:::::::!==1:...,_.
___ --1,._ /10 "ToV,2.
1

3'-0" -
X 6'-8" 13/s" c::"tBl'"~clt,
\:lus\.i ,I
II ;;
ul. _ ..JI.
II
Of f irep\a ce
Opq,nin9

3'-0" X 7'-0 " l 3/s" , 11 / II

I
I _J I VII II \. D
\
n I I
I
II n / II II II \ II II

Veneer doors may be solid, consisting of sev- II I/ II B I! \ I II

~t._i 1t
II I II
II I I \ II
eral plies of thin wood glued and pressed to- II
,c,
II
II
fa
lk
gether, or they may consist of an open frame II II ,. J

II ==:J C
covered by veneer. Still quite common are ,c= -= ~-===-/=--
II

~
II I •

doors consisting of 3 main parts - the stile, II

II 1--=4-
-~
ia 1.-~~

\D~ __ l, _
/

II
• -- - • I
whJch extends from the bottom to the top on 171 = 11
II
II

•· . - ~

each side; 'the rails, which run crosswise or II

II
·- -- ~~-~~
-="'· II
II :c

horizontally between the stiles at the top and E.Lt:VATlON

bottom or in between; and the panels, which SECTION
fill in the remaining areas. . e,
f1 cf • Iii
Sliding and folding doors are commonly used ~•i:;"
0111 > • 41
~,-5
to conserve space and to prevent obstruction of I. II) c:.S::
_.; e, v
:, E C
0·--
u"C:
G) ~-
l!:<o-
Q \.II Ill
other openings, doors, hallways, or other areas. 8 112.x e•~ 41
4 1"1.x I~ 36
B'1ix 13 70
1111
1 I~ x 13 99
THE FIREPLACE 111
8 112. ](17~ 100
131 12.xl7' '2 15~
Above·i,le
14 In . Lon9. 17112. X 17'J.i 195
11any years ago the fireplace was a very im- E.ffec\:.ive Area Should Be Used
portant area in the home. In the early one-room ln De\:.ermininq1he S,2.eQf f\ue.

cabins, as well as in larger cabins, it was used PLAN FlRE.PR.OOl=lNG TILE.

for cooking, for heating, and for partial lighting. FIGURE 265. Fireplace Construction .Details
In more ,elaborate layouts for early homes the Courtesy Acme Brick Company

159
 PROBLEMS -- -- ----------------- ---------------- ----- --~. -------
1. What are four different types of windows?

---------------
----------------------
--------------------- -

STEPS AND STAIRWAYS

There are two parts to a step, the .:.:riser,"or
-
the vertical part, which increases your elevation
------------------------------------------------
------------------------------ step by step, and the ,.:tread,'' or horizontal part,
2. Which type of window is the most common
in your locality? which gives you support as you step.
A step may have a «nosing/' which projects
beyond the face of the riser. The total width
of the tread is termed a '<run.';,
3. Why should every home have at least one
outside entrance door three feet wide? For interior steps or stairs the riser is usually
about 7" high, and the tread about 10" wide.
As a riser increases in height the tread de -
creases in width; as the riser becomes lower the
-
tread becomes wider.
. ----------------------------------------------------
--------------------------
We might apply the following rules in figur-
ing steps:
4. Why was the fireplace needed particularly 1. Two times the height of the riser plus the
in early times? width of one tread equals 24" .
2. The height of the riser plus the width of
the tread should equal from 17" to 18".
3. The product of the riser and the tread
should equal from 66" to 70" .

GARAGE OR CARPORT
The shelter for the automobile may be of any
size as need requires. It is usually called a car-
5. Make a small sketch of a door in the space
port if open or parti ally open, and a garage
provided and label the 3 main parts.
if closed.
The carport shown in Figure 242 is very de-
sirable in many climates and areas. It may add
breadth and style to your house, be a shelter
for the auto, provide open shelter for outdoor
living, dining, and play, or give built -in storage
space for bicycles, various other toys, sporting
equipment, and tools. .
Your car-storag e area, like your house, must
fit your needs. You should figure it out for your-
self, but the following suggestions may help
you in planning it .
Ask yourself, «Do I need a garage or a car -
port?"
A carport has three advantages over a garage:
1) it is cheaper, 2) it does not shut out light or
6. Why would a fireplace add to the total cost air, and 3) it usually does not become an ugly
of constructing a home? · «catch-all" for storage.
A garage, too, has its advantages. Besides
------ --- ------------ ----- --- -------- ---- -------- -------- ---- -- ---- ------- -----
/
housing ·your car, it can compensate for what
is often a disadvantage of the small house - lack
of space for hobbies, recreation, and storage. By
all means think of your garage as a part of your
house, whether it is attached to the house or of
160
separate construction, not as . just a place in
which to keep your car.
When garages are included in house plans,
consider the following minimum sizes :
1. For one car the garage should be ap-
proximately 10'-0" wide X 20'-0" long.
2. For two cars the garage shot;tld be ap-
proximately 17'-6" wide X 20'-0" long .
If in doubt as to whether your garage should
be ·single or double, build it double if possible.
The garage is often extra storage space for
lawn and porch · furniture, screens, firewood,
assorted lawn and garden tools, storm windows,
stepladder, and other hard-to-store items.
PROBLEMS
1. How many inches are common for the rise
and the tread of inter ior steps?
Rise -------------------------- Tread _______
________
____
___
2. What is meant by "nosing ,, on a step?
3. What are the minimum width and the mini- ·
mum length suggested for a one-car garage?
r
4. Explain briefly the difference between a car-
port and a garage.
PUTTING YOUR PLANS ON PAPER
You should study carefully all the preceding
pages in this section concerning the house in
general; your needs and desires relative to a
home; finances; style; the various areas of a
home, such as the bedroom, kitchen, living-
dining area, garage or carport; service and stor-
age areas, utilities; and such smaller com-
ponents as windows, doors, and fireplaces. Then
you will be ready to start sketching your own
plans.
STEPS IN DRAWING PLANS
The first drawing is usually the floor plan , or
plans if the house is a split-level, or two-story
house, or if it has a basement. The plan is a
view of the house from above, cut off above the
floor but showing where windows, doors, and
other openings appear in the walls. The front
or main entrance of the house is usually drawn
facing the bottom of your drawing sheet. All
symbols and necessary notes should be shown.
Besides this general floor plan, you may have
a plan view of walls and openings only, on which
you draw the electrical plan or requirements,
and another show ing the plumbing plan or lay-
out. El ectrical symbols are listed in Figures 235
and 260, and plumbing symbols are presented
in Figure 253.
Other drawings may present the plot plan
(which shows the location of the house on the
lot); construction details for footings and founda- ·
tions; details of basement walls, general walls,
the overhang of roof or cornice, sills, and floor;
and elevation views showing what the house
looks like from its various sides.
Eight basic progressive steps in drawing plans
are indicated in Figure 266. Study these and
you will note that these steps progress from the
first over-all outline sketch indicating size and
shape to the finished first-floor · plan and front
elevation .
If you need other ideas, study the various pie-
, tures and drawings as shown .
FLOOR PLANS
General Procedure . The following brief gen-
eral procedure will assist you in making your
floor plans. All lines and lettering should be light
until you are ready to complete the drawing.
I. Sketch each room on plain or graph paper,
and check it carefully to see that it will accom-
modate the furniture and fixtures that would go
into it, and to see that it is practical for the
expected usage. Check each step with your
teacher or others for ideas and suggestions.
2. Using single light lines, draw the general
outline of the house, locating all partition walls
for the entire house and garage or carport. Be-
fore this is done you may have to draw a plot
plan as shown in Figure 267, so that your house
may be fitted on the lot properly if in an urban
area. The floor plan in Figure 268 may be of
value to you in sketching your plan.
3. After discussing all the aspects of your de-
sign and rough plan, begin the floor plan and
lightly draw in all walls to their proper thick-
nesses. Outside frame walls may be 6 inches and
inside 4¾ inches, except where large sewerage
161
 I_J r---~----+

A B
E

<>TTLOj.lNt./.rw:Jf(' "0

=~~~~----
HOW THe.c1.1n UV
Lu,t Of 11.ooMq
Allt.LO&TAINUV

.
_j '
' ''
b _____
_
.
'
'

CA/LO Opum,c.r, A.R.C.>tUI<'

I
I
OpLl'l1N~/ A.NO On1t. Me..o.lV
?>f.A.r,t/ , -'llit llil OlCA.lE.I~/
&y 0O"(lL0 LINL.f OIi /
....,__ ___ 4-1 --==-
-=r-=-
I
iI TH L fLooa.. PLAN. /
--H---------~ - -- -
'T--....-i"
"'
II
"
' '
' .
''
r-
- ____.
. '

[
---

G
- --- --

H
---~-

-- --- ., - . ___ _ ___ &~l l. ML"Ll,... _ _ _ ____ ,.__ ___ ___

.c D
--WALLf[CTION~

FIGURE 266. Eight Basic Steps in Planning

Court.esy Eu ge n e Di,etzg en Company '

disposal pipes are placed in the wall. . These Some dimensions will be shown on plans in-
dimensions will vary with the materials used side of the house, and others outside, particu-
and the type of construction. For convenience, larly for room size . They are determined in the
all walls may be drawn as 6" thick. A scale of same way in either case. Study the following
¼" ==l'-0" or ¼" ==l'-0" is a standard scale notes on dimens ions and schedules.
on plans and elevations. Remember that inside 1. Dimensions are given from the outside face
walls are measured from their center to the of studs on outside walls to the center of parti-
outside of wall studs. tions of inside walls.
4. Locate all doors and windows . Sizes 2. The interior of rooms will be several inches
should be standard construction as shown pre- smaller than · dimensions indicate, since wall .
viously. Because of the various types of ma- . thicknesses are included.
terials for windows and wall construction, these
3. Dimensions for rooms on some plans may
sizes may not conform with that of the common
be placed· outside to allow more space inside
standard double-hung window.
the room fo·r notes and symbols for other .ar-
5. Study the various figures and draw in all
rangements.
fixtures-kitchen, bath, laundry, and others.
6. Dimension all rooms. 4. Some prefer the room size to be given just
7. Label each room and all other areas . -Room under the room names, thus:
names and special notes should be capital let-
I

ters about ¼" high.

8. Darken all lines and lettering as necessary. · BEDROOM
Dimensions. Incorrect or improperly placed 9' - 11" X 12' -0"
dimensions can be costly in construction.
162
 I
f

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BE DR -00 M DINING
_,_
BEDR ·OOM
FIGURE 268. Floor Plan Sketch Sheet
If this method is used, it usually indicates ac-
tual inside dimensions; ,so remember to add wall
thickness to the over-all plan measurement.
Window and Door Schedules. Door and win-
dow sizes should be given with the floor plan.
There are two common methods of listing these
and each has an advantage over the other.
1. The schedule method locates the windows
with a letter and the doors with a number. Then ·
the various windows and doors are listed in two
separate columns on the plot plan, as in Figure
267, or on the floor plan if space permits. Each
letter and number may be enclosed in a circle,
which makes them easy to find, and prevents
confusion with other information on the draw-
ing. This practice also makes window and door
cost easier to estimate separately, these items
being grouped each in its own list, called a
schedule. · -center of the floor plan. Draw all lines light
2. The second method is to give the sizes at
each opening. This method may require addi-
tional notes outside the floor plan but on the
same sheet. Most carpenters prefer this method
because it eliminates reference to the schedules
for sizes each time they frame an opening, since
the sizes appear right on the same sheet with
the opening concerned.
ELEVATIONS
Your completed floor plans are used as a guide
by which to draw elevations which follow in
164
--□□-----
RANGE DISHWASHER
SINK
AREA REFRIGERATOR
DRYER
HOME
FREEZER
WASHER
l,.RO°hR
- --- - . (STORAGE)
~3111111
LIVING ROOM PORCH
order-front, back, and then sides. The figure
showing the eight steps in drawing the plan
and the front elevation will help you get a bet-
ter idea of these drawings. However, before
beginning this step, study the roof terms and
information about roof shapes on the following
pages.
General Procedure. The following procedure
will also assist you.
1. Tape yo.ur floor plan to the top portion
of a large drawing board with the front of the
house downward . This locates your plan di-
rectly above your drawing sheet, and you pro-
ject downward from the plan to help you draw
the elevation in accurate relation to the floor
plan.
2. Draw a center line downward from the
until the elevation is complete.
- 3. Locate the grade line or ground shape on
the lower portion of your sheet.
4. Draw the horizontal floor line approxi-
mately 22" to 24" above the grade line if the
ground is about level.
5. The horizontal ceiling line should be
drawn above the floor line, and is usually 8'-0"
to 9'-0" above the floor.
6. Determine the ridge or roof height and
locate this line above the ceiling line.
 7. From the floor plan project downward
the wall lines, windows, and other openings and
offsets. . QI-
. 8. Determine the roof over-hang and pro-
ject roof lines to the front elevation or view and
draw in the roof and cornice lines.
9. Width sizes of windows, doors, and shut-
ters will be projected from the floor plan. Height
sizes should be determined and drawn in.
10. If a porch, steps, fireplace chimney, or
other additions show on the front or main side
of the house, draw in the outlines of these next,
and then use representations or symbols (Fig.
10) to show the · glass, siding, brick, concrete,
shingles, or other materials used.
11. Check your drawing for any errors. Get
someone else to check it also, and then make
any necessary changes .
·12. Add any necessary notes, and finally go
over the lines and make them dark and uniform. .
The Roof. To determine the ridge line in
your elevations, you must first determine the
type of roof you desire and the amount ofslope.
If your house is a modern flat top , naturally
the top, ceiling, and floor lines on the elevation
are all parallel. However, most .of these houses
have a small amount of slope from the center
out.
The common roofs are the gambrel, the shed,
the gable, and the hip (Fig. 269). The last two
are most common and are usually found on the
main parts of houses. The shed roof is common-
ly found on porches or carports. These roofs
determine whether you need a common rafter,
as on gable roofs, the hip rafter, as on hip roofs,
or the valley rafter, .where two gable roofs meet
to f onn a valley.
-- SHED
GAl!>LE
II
' be easily obtained. As an example, for any
VALLEY
FIGURE 269. Common Roof Shapes
UI
z
::;
~ ffi·
- z
ctw
u
f,.,.,-RIDG£
PLATE CEILING LINE
.,__-+---RUN--. OVERHANG
i---+-------SPAN----+-~
FIGURE 270 . Figuring Roof Pitch
To determine the amount of slope on these
various roofs, study Figure 270 and the follow-
ing terms and explanations. Then you will have
the information for determining the total roof
height. .
The roof pitch, or degree of slope, is expressed
as a fraction and is commonly ¼, ½, or ½.
After you are familiar with this, you will easily
notice that roofs of some homes are flatter or
steeper than those of others.
Locate the words "rise," "run," and "span" on
the figure above, and remember the following
definitions:
Span - the distance from the outside of one
stud leading up to a gable to the outside of
another stud on the other side, or the distance
from a common rafter seat on one side to the
opposite rafter seat. This seat is where the
rafter sits on the plate.
Rise - the vertical distance from the plate
line to the ridge center line.
Rise in inches - the distance a roof rises for
each 12" of run.
Run - the unit of run is 12" and the total
run is one-half the total span .
To figure the pitch of a roof, assume that the
span is 24'-0". If a house or part is 24 feet wide
and has a ¼ pitch, your rise would be 6" for
each foot ( 12" ) of span , or 6 feet would be the
total rise. This pitch might also be expressed
as %4 or ¼.
Whatever pitch you desire, the roof slope can
width building , if you desire a ½ pitch, measure
12 units in horizontally along the plate line and
then measure 8 units vertically. This vertical
distance will be the proper height of the ridge
for this particular pitch. Remember that the
pitch is the ratio of the rise of the roof to the
span.
When considering the pitch of a roof for a
building remember to consider that the walls
and foundation must be strong and well sup-
165
ported to handle the dead weight of the house . CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
itself and furniture, plus · the live load · of people. Every set of _working drawings for a house
There are three .critical points in .construction. should include the drawings for construction
These are where the roof and wall meet, where details. These are usually sectional drawings.
the floor and wall meet, and where there is a Figures 272, 273, and 274 will give you some
wall opening. ideas on these dra~ings.
Cornice Details. There are many types of Only · a small portion of
cornice details used in house planning, each the wall need be shown.
type being . determined by the design of the Use the symbol indicating
building. The procedure explained below can that only a part of it is
;\~5UL~il0N
be applied to any type of cornice . Study Fig- shown. Different cities and
ure 271. ·states have different re-
HEAD quirements for building
codes. Refer to your local
.lN~ULA."T\ON code for suggestions on the
size of footing or ·other re-
quirements .
Indicate materials by
proper symbols and notes.
All dimens ioning should be
added last. First, sketch
these details roughly, and
then, after this is checked,
STUD
proceed with your main de-
tail drawing.
CROWN SILL
MOULDIN& FIGURE 272. Section
FACIA through Frame
FRIEZE
SMEA.TMING Wall

SIDING

FIGURE 271. Cornice Details

Ht.AO
FRAME CONSTRuc.·noN
y·ou shot1ld not attempt to draw a cornice
until -you have examined ·a real cornice and
understand what it mean~. Ask your teacher to
show . you one and explain it on a model or a JAM~
real house. .
1. Draw 2" X 4" wall stud with plate. The OUTSIDE IN~H)E
plate consists of two 2 X 4's nailed together. ~~
2. Draw the ceiling joist . From the side these
$ILL BR\C.K \/EN'EE'R
may be 16" on center. The size depends upon 11oe---WALL
the building. A small house requires 2" X 6" \NSUL.1\1\N(:, L~ T \-\
BA.':>E. ~01\ R 0
joists. HOE OR MOULD\ NG
3. Draw the correct roof pitch. Any desirable BE.\IEL£ D. ,,.,.__ROUGH FLOOR

pitch may be used, using a 2 ,, X 6 ,, rater.

f f
Rat- 6
SID\N

JO\S'T
ers should be placed 16" on center also if joists
are placed on this measure.
4. Note the overhang. It may be up to 3'-0",
but a common amount is from 8" to 12". STUC.c.O ON FR_/\\"\£
5. Add decking, felt, or other insulation, and
composition shingles or other type of roofing. FIGURE 273. Details for FIGURE 274. D etails for
6. ·Add siding, .frieze, plan ch er , facia, and Exterior Wall Structure Exterior Wall
molding as shown. Finish

166
 ~-----~-~~----~---- ,·- ··•-:;.,."-""•- ·-

1. Draw the sill, joist, and header back from 2. Besides the general · house floor plan, what
outside face of wall so the boarding will be are 3 other plans which may be needed ,also
flush with the foundation wall. Notice the metal for a complete plan of a house?
termite shield.
2. Draw rough flooring. _ --------------------------------------------------------------------------
. --
3. Draw upright studs ( 2 X 4) flush with
outside of sill and header.
4. Draw boarding or sheathing.
5. Show anchor bolts if the foundation is
to be attached to the wooden parts. 3. What is the difference between an elevation
6. Draw siding. This may vary, depending drawing and a floor plan?
upon the material and design used for the out-
side finish.
7. Draw thick line to represent deadening
felt on sub floor, if it is desired.
8. Draw dry wall or plaster ½", also ½"
batten strips to nail baseboard on.
9. Draw finished flooring.
10. Add baseboard and molding. Baseboards
may vary in size, but 6" is a commonly used
size.

PROBLEMS
4. Explain what is meant by a schedule listing
1. In the space below, use single lines and lay
out a small floor plan for a cabin to accom- of doors and windows. How is it made
easily?
modate four people as a hunting or fishing
lodge.

5. Make a small sketch in the space below and

show what is meant by rise, run, and span.
Label the parts and figure the rise of a build-
ing 24 feet wide using a ½ pitch.

167
 FIGURE 275. A School-room Sample Depa rtment
6. In the space below sketch the detail section
of a foundation, sills, and other parts up to
the window of a wall. Draw the proper sym -
. bols for the materials used, such as wood-end
grain, brick veneer, or concrete.
168
DECORATING
Take your room plan; draw it to scale on a
piece of ·paper, allowing room for walls; draw
your doors and windows; add furniture. You
may plan your decorations room by room, or
lay out all your rooms and plan all color and
decorating at the same time.
Your local paint, paper, interior decorating,
and department stores will cooperate with the
schools in setting up a "sample department."
Any instructor or student can develop a de -
partment such as is shown in Figure 275.
 ~-- --------
--
9. Designing and Building
of Models
This division includes material on designing
and model building in seven areas-prepared
models, aircraft, automobiles, houses, electricity
and radio, boats, and miscellaneous items.
LEARNING TO DESIGN
You can design many things without being a
draftsman, but a know ledge of drafting helps
very much. Many models, as shown in the sec-
tion, ''Prepared Models," require for assembly .
only a reading knowledge of drawings and in-
structions. Learning something about the vari-
ous types of drawing, however, will help you
read plans ~ore easily. It will also assist you
in designing various articles. This division
should give you many ideas and problems for
designing new or different items.
There are many local and several national
contests in which boys and girls may enter one
or a number of different items, such as your
freehand sketches, machine drawings, and
architectural drawings, and any type , of actual
project made in the shop from any kind of ma-
terial. Very valuable awards and scholarships,
both large and small, are offered. Possibly you
or some of your classmates have been one of
these lucky winners. Local, state, and national
contests are held in model aviation. Model
homes, cars, and boats, and projects made from
any material may be entered in national con-
tests . Discussions and pictures of some of these
items may be found in this Worktext.
Patience and hard work will earn for you
valuable awards now and possibly later. Re-
member that · planning, design, and drawings
of some type are the beginning steps for , any
project.
Many students and other people think of
"design" as something very different and mys-
terious, or as something they cannot master.
Designing can become complicated or it can
be simple. Your ideas may come from many
places, but you have probably designed many
things without realizing that you were de-
signing .
Some explanation will help you overcome
any doubts of your ability, should you lack con-
fidence ·to begin. "Design» means a sketch, pre-
liminary drawing, or a plan of something to be
made later. This plan or outline usually devel-
ops first in your mind. The actual development
of details may come after you observe similar
items or begin sketching your idea for a pattern
or a model.
You will find Some plans ( designs or patterns)
in this division for different kinds of models.
In some parts of it you will find pictures, draw-
ings, and instructions for assembly and painting
of models. Figure 276 illustrates some of these
items concerning the F-7U-3 Cutlass mentioned
in
. Division
,, 1, "Blueprint Reading and Sketch- .
1ng~
PREPARED MODELS
Many interesting models are prepared for
sale in special kits. They are to be assembled
and painted according to the drawings and in-
structions included with the parts in each kit.
The authentically scaled models illustrated in
Figure 277 are representative of things and
events occurring from times in early American
history to our recent era. Drawing, designing,
and carrying out the finished plans for items
such as these help you to see some of the ad-
vances in our industrial age. · In addition, when
you finish, you have a model of some historic
item. Some kits like these contain a short his-
tory of the item, also, included with the in-
structions.
You will notice that when an item is large
in actual size, a model of it usually requires more
parts, more designing, more instructions, and
more time for planning, designing, and con-
structing it.
These models should give you some ideas for ·
drawing or designing other models to your lik-
ing.
MAKING AIRCRAFT DESIGNS
AND MODELS
You have frequently heard that we are living
in an industrial age. Aircraft development is so
basic a part of this epoch that our period in
history is often called the air age. The aviation
industry is one of our most important industries.
It has continued to grow and develop since the
first Hight was made in 1903. Special technical
courses and aeronautical engineering are offered
169
 The Famous World War II Patrol
Torpedo (PT) Boat
Colt .45 Revolver, First Patented in
1836, Dubbed the "Peacemaker"by
"Wild Bill" Hickok
FIGURE 277. Models with Historical Interest
(Continued)
at many colleges for high school graduates who
are interested in this work. Others who cannot
or do not desire to go to college may obtain
specialized training · in aircraft mechanics, one
of the many crafts employed, learn to fly in the
Air Force, and secure sound technical training
in many other special · phases of aeronautics.
Drafting . and designing is a large field in this
work. Every part of a plan must be designed to
meet the needs exactly . Two of the numerous
parts which go to make up an airplane are
shown in Figures 278 and 279. These are some
of the more simple but important parts which
must be designed, . altered, and redesigned as
progress is made.
Not all the workers in the aircraft industry
need to be licensed or skilled fliers, but drafts-
men, designers, test pilots, and · others need spe-
cial knowledge. _The knowledge you gain in
junior or senior high school drawing and other
courses, in trade school, special night classes, ·
or in college, will help you advance in this work
if you are interested. . by 5¼"
The design and construction of models has
led to the original development and advance-
ment of modern aviation. The plans and in-
structions for three beginning models are given
here. ·study the designs of these models. Then
1914 Stutz "Bearcat"
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
study all the instructions and pictures provided
to help you in planning, drawing, and construct-
ing, as well as flying, these models.
THE OUTDOOR GLIDER
The glider is a basic beginning model to teach
you simple layout, construction, and flight as a
basis for your future work with mor ·e compli-
cated models. Take _your time · in drawing and
building all models.
From the simple plans shown in Figure 280
you can make a glider which should furnish
many hours of outdoor fun as it climbs, spirals,
and soars. "'
Follow this procedure:
1. Preliminary
a. Round up · all the necessary materials
as listed below:
Fuselage-I piece hard balsa ¼" by ½"
by 9"
Wings-2 sheets soft balsa ½6" by 2¼"
Tail surfaces-I sheet soft balsa ½2"
by 2" by 6½"
Bottle of cement, several small pins, a
knife, lump of modeling clay, some-
thing for sanding
171
 RED

NAVY
DECAL

DECAL
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BLACK

DECAL

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-
..-, SPRING RING
BASE UPRIGHT
-.)

BLACK

FIGURE 276 . .Exploded Assembly Drawing

Courtesy Revell, Inc .

The U.S. frigate Constitution Popular British Sportscar, 1953, XK-120, Jaguar

The Wells-Fargo Stage Coach The Covered Wagon

FIGURE 277. Models with Historical Interest

Courtesy Rev ell, Inc.

170
NO.RTHWESTAIRLINES INC.
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FIGURE 278. Aircraft Clamp Assembly-

Junction Box Mounting
Courtesy Northw est Airlines, Inc.

172
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NORTHWEST AIRLINES INC.

ENGINEERING AND PLANNING DEPT. ST. PAUL, MINN.
7B70-2646'1

LCT. CH A N·G E DATE: BY PART NO NO. NAME OF PART . STOCK SIZE MA T'L SPECS
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Assembly
Courtesy Northw est Airlines, In c.

173
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- . FIGURE 280. Full-size Plans for . Outdoor Glider

Courtesy X-Acto , ·Inc.
 b. Trace the pattern of the parts.
2. The wings
a. Start with the wing first. Cut out the
pattern exactly and check for accuracy
by placing the cut-out over the original
drawing.
b. Next, place the pattern over one of the
pieces of ½.6" balsa sheets ·and trace its
outlines.
c. Cut out the shape, using your knife.
Note the cambered shape of the .wing
section.
d. Draw this shape against the straight-
edge, and with a little shaving round off
the leading edge. Work out the rest of
the curve throughout the entire length
of the wing with your hand sander.
e. The right half is made by turning your
pattern over on its back and again trac-
ing its outlines on a second piece of
½6" sheet. Be sure the rounded part of
the wing is on the right end of the balsa
.
piece.
f. Use the same method of cambering and
sanding.
g. With both wing panels completed, the
next step ·is to put the sweepback angle
into it. This is done by using a ruler
placed against the top side of each wing
near the joining erids and marking off
the position shown by dotted lines on
the plan drawing.
h. Slice clean along the dotted lines.
i. Now place each wing-half edge against
the other and note how the wing halves
while slightly enlarged as .to actual
thickness, illustrates the streamline sec-
tion to which it mµst be sanded. Mark
off the center of the stabilizer with pen-
cil line. .. · ·. . .
4. To assemble for flying, place both wing
panels together on a sheet of paper and under .
their tips set blocks of wood or any other ob-
jects which will raise the wing tips to a height
of ½ inch.
5. Apply cement to their inner edges, press
firmly together, and re-set so t];iat .the wing tips
are raised to the dihedr~l . angle. Allow the
wings to remain in this position until the cement
is dried.
6. Cement the elevator to the underside of .
the fuselage, centered along- the penciled line.
A small pin inserted temporarily will. keep the
elevator from slipping out of _position.
7. The rudder is mounted in the position
shown. A pin on each side will hold it straight
until the cement hardens.
8. When the wing is ready, apply more ce-
ment along the notch in the fuselage and set
the wing in it. Place more cement along the
undersides and build up a skin between the join-
ing ends. Pins will hold the wings steady.
Later, remove all pins.
9. Modeling clay is applied to the nose for
the purpose of balancing. ·Launch the model
into the wind. If it dives abruptly, remove
some clay, ·as the nose is too heavy. Keep the
clay packed in a smooth form.
Note: See Figure 281 for pictorial instruction
on flying your models. .
STALL. ... ~

.
sweep back. For the time being lay the MOVE WING BACK ✓

wings aside. ----,~--- '

,,
,I '

.........
\ ',, · -............ ,,,,....,,, !
3. Fuselage and tail surfaces \ ......
\ ' ',
a. Trace the shape of the fuselage onto \
\ '
•, ...,'l&
the piece set aside for that purpose. . \ .. .............
.........
b . Carve the body carefully, round off the \
\

edges as shown in the body cross sec- , DIVE. . . \ , ',,,~.

tion, and cut out the notches for the MOVE WING FORWARD }.. NORMAL GLIDE """fj
wings and elevator. After the rough .
cutting is done, complete the fuselage FIGURE 281. Flying Your Model
by sanding. Courtesy X-Acto, Inc .
c. Trace the outlines for the rudder and
elevator on a ½2" sheet of soft balsa. THE ALL-BALSA R.O.G.
While only the right half of the elevator The All-balsa "Rise Off Ground" model is
is shown, actually it is cut out in one slightly more difficult to draw, c~nstruct, and
piece. This is done by simply turning fly. Beginners should plan and build the glider
over the pattern and tracing the left side before making this, their second model.
outline flush alongside the right side. · Every part of the model is shown in full size
d. Then cut out the combined outlines ·as in Figure 282. Make patterns or templates for
a single pattern and in turn trace the the right and left wing panels and tail surfaces.
full elevator outline onto the sheet balsa. Before starting work be sure yoti have the nec-
e. The cross-section view of the elevator, essary material on hand, as listed (pp. 177-8):
175
r

LEFT WING PANEL

- -------------
- ------ ------

RIGHT WING PANEL

--
r

---- --
-----
-------------

,~· DIHEDRAL ANGLE

;.,.._.------s%' - _____ l
AIR FOIL SECTION
r..-.·~•••
( 1 • • • •' • ·
• •··••
• 1 • I ..
• it I• ca
• 1 •• • • $ • ' ... 7i 5
BODY

__ -_ l' -=----
-- --- - - ,1- -- --
-- 111 -=----
-
SHEET BALSA l - ELEVATOR =--
---=--, -
,' .

_\ .
-...;,._-..
.· _11 LANDING GEAR
·- - ----- - l

FIGURE 282. Full-size . Plans for AU-balsa R.O.G .

.Court esy X-A cto, In c.

176
 --t
I
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a,
m

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::::0
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FIGURE 282. Full-size Plans for All-balsa R.O .G. =i I -0
(Contin .~ed) . -1- --- V,
01 -- -- I
Fuselage - 1 piece of hard balsa 1/s"by ¼" by z,--- .,,
)>
10¼" .
Wings - 1 piece of soft balsa ½ 6 " by 2" by 12"
'---
1- .
--t
,,
Tail - 1 piece soft balsa ½6 " by 6" ;:::c
Propeller - 1 block hard balsa ½" by ¾" by 5",
1 thrust bearing, 10 inches of No. 10 wire
for landing gear and fittings, cement, hand
'!t
.I 0
-i:,
m
r-
r
sander, pair of long -nose and cutting pliers, m
:::0
knife
ca
1. Start with the fuselage, commonly called ~ .-
the motor stick. The front end is rounded slight- 0 )>
ly at the bottom as shown.
--t z7':
0 .
2. Place the thrust bearing in position with .:::0 ;:o
V) m
cement, and immediately bind it securely with )>
strong thread. -()
--t
;:::c
3. Next, shape the landing gear as shown.
4. Slip on a pair of hard sheet balsa wheels. I " I
0
Turn up the extreme wire ends and place a drop 0
of cement on each side of the hole in the wheel I :,i=:;

to prevent the hole from widening.

5. Slip the landing gear around the stick
and apply cement generously so that a skin is I .D
built up over it and the wood itself. '.

6. The rear hook is shaped as shown and

cemented in proper position.
7. The wing is made in one piece. Right -0
and left portions are shown. The leading edge 0
is rounded off slightly and the trailing edge is --
V,
--t
tapered as shown in the airfoil section drawing . 0 ;:::c
8. Finish off the wing with smooth sand- z - c
papering. --0
9. Next, draw a line from leading to trailing
.,,
0 O-
m .
m ;:::c
edge in the center of the wing. r
m
<
-
)>
--t 177
0 ,
;:::c~.......---
\
t .
, 10. Run your knife blade along the top light-
ly so that when the wing tips are bent upward
the wing will crack along the line, enabling y~u
to raise each tip to a dihedral anywhere from
¾" to not more than I½".
11. Apply cement generously along the crack,
place on a -flat surf ace, and set "blocks" under
. the wing tips to hold them at the raised angle
until the cement has hardened.
12. Cut the elevator and rudder parts, and
then sand and streamline them to match with
their outlines on the plans.
13. The elevator is cemented to the under-
side of the motor stick at the very end. The
rudder is cemented on top of the stick as shown.
Use a few small pins to aid in holding the tail
parts steady until the cement dries. Then re-
move pins.
14. Carve the propeller, following the method
illustrated in Figure 283.
15. Drill a hole in the hub, insert the wire
shaft, and shape according to the ·illustration.
---- ---
~----
-·~
·.-:5 -~ -
-
··• -- - ·
- with proper care, from your hands. --~
~--- -~-·- -_~.: - -
-.:. ·-.-::..-:- --
.178
For assembly and flying follow this procedure:
I. Before attaching the wing in a permanent
position, place the prop shaft through the thrust
bearing. Then attach a single loop of ½" Hat
rubber between shaft and rear hook.
2 .. Now hold the wing against the bottom of
the motor stick in . the same position as that
shown on the plans .
· 3. Insert two or three small pins through the
wing right into the stick ·for a temporary attach-
ment.
4. Glide the model with a slight push for-
ward. If the model dives steeply, remove the
pins and move the wing .forward. If the model
noses up steeply and stalls, move the wing back.
Keep shifting the wing forward or backward
slightly until you get the best possible gliding
angle so that when th_e model touches the
ground the tail drops easily. ·
5. At the correct position of the wing, apply
cement generously to .the underside of the motor
stick as well as the top part of the wing.
6. Press the wing firmly to the sti.ck, insert a
few small pins and allow to dry for a couple of
hours.
7. Later remove the pins, and apply more
cement between the stick and wing, filling in
the open cracks so as to build up a solid joint.
8. Take the model outdoors, and wind up
the propeller until the rubber strand is well
knotted. Face into the wind, _place the model
· on the ground, and give it a slight push to start
it off the ground.
9. A smooth surface will help ·the model take
off better. If you prefer, it may be launched,
FIGURE 283. Steps
in Making
-
.
.· ~ a Propeller
Cou:tesy X-Acto, Inc .
THE OUTDOOR R.O.G.
If you have successfully made the plans for
the Outdoor Glider and · the All-balsa R.O.G.
and have constructed them and flown them, you
should be ready for a more advanced model, as
shown in Figure 284. If you are interested in
still more advanced models, try designing your
own, using these as beginners. Ask your in-
structor to assist you in locating more informa-
tion on model airplanes which you can Hy.
Accurate covering and doping information
should be obtained from suppliers of models
and materials. Some main parts of a model
plane are clearly shown in Figure 284.
WING TIP
WASHERS
PROPELLER
.
.TRAILING EDGE
RUDDER
WHEEL
. RIB
FIGURE 284. Parts of a Model Airplane
Courtesy X-Acto, Inc.
·The Outdoor R.O.G. is a sort of big brother
to the All-balsa R.O.G. It has built-up wings
and tail surfaces. With the exception of the
tracing of the rib sections and wing and rudder
tlps, the model can be built directly off the plan
itself (Fig. 285). , gether by applying cement generously on the
Required · materials are listed as follows:
l piece hard balsa, %2 " by ¼'' by 15%",
for the motor stick
2 pieces soft balsa, ¾6 " by ¾6 " by 9", for
leading edges
2 pieces soft balsa, ~~ '' by ¾" by 9", for
main spar
4 pieces soft balsa, ½6 " by ¾6 " by 9", for
trailing . edges and tail frame
1 piece soft balsa, ½6 " by ½6 " by 15", for
rudder frame
I piece soft balsa, ½6 " by 3" by 12", for ribs,
wing tips, etc.
I block of hard balsa, ½" by 1 ¼" by 7½ ",
for propeller
Thrust bearing, washers, No. 020 wire for
landing gear, prop shaft, rear hook, wing clips,
thread, cement, knife, sander, long-nose pliers,
hand drill
1. Start on the motor stick by cementing the
thrust bearing in place and binding with thread.
Apply more cement over the whole joining.
2. Next, bend the landing gear to shape.
Note how the top portion is bent back so that
when attached to the underside of motor stick
it can be cemented and bound with thread.
3. Attach the rear hook in the location illus-
trated. Shape all the wire fittings at the same
time and set aside in a safe place until needed.
Piano wire in 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 gauge is used
for common beginning purposes.
. 4. For the wing and tail surfaces, first trace
the main rib onto a piece of ½6" sheet.
5. Cut out and use it as a pattern to trace
one more. The very last rib is smaller, and only
two are required.
6. Cement the ribs in place as shown on the
plan. A piece of wax paper placed over the plan
will allow you to make one side complete. Note
how the very Rrst rib is slanted inward ¼".
7. Re-shape the leading and trailing edges
before cementing in their proper positions.
8. The last two inches of the main spar are
tapered down so that it joins the level of the
wing tip. This is shown by a front view.
9. To make the second half of the wing,
trace the wing plan on a sheet of white paper.
Go over the lines heavily with pencil to make a
bold impression. Then turn the piece of white
paper over and go over the lines again. This
will give you the framework drawing of the left
half of the wing. It is made in the same manner,
the only exception being the first rib, which in
this case slants ¼" to the left.
ln. Rudder and elevator parts are built up as
flat surfaces. Cement all joints well and allow
plenty of time to dry.
11. Before covering; fas ten the wings to-
sides of the first ribs of each half.
12. Press both wings Rrmly together and as
the wings raise themselves in a natural dihedral
angle, place blocks of woo.d under the tips at
each end so as to keep the angle set. Allow
plenty of time for the joint to· dry.
13. Next, attach the wing clips by sticking the
prongs of the front clip into the leading edge and
the second clip into the trailing edge spar di-
rectly over the middle of the wing joint.
14. Before cementing the rudder and eleva-
tor in position as illustrated, water-spray them
lightly and allow to dry by placing them in a
leaning position against a wall or book.
15. The elevator is cemented to tfie bottom
of the motor stick with the rudder attached on
the top portion directly behind the rear hook.
16. For power, use two strands of ¼" flat
rubber. Glide-test the model before attempting
to fly it with full power on.
179
 ·BIND LANDING GEAR AND THRUST BEARING
· WITH THREAD AND COVER ·WITH CEMENT. .

----- -- -
BODY
THRUST BEARING
TOTAL LENGTH. 155/s"~
.. --- ►I

JI

t
I

WASHERS I
J
I
PROP SHAFT

WHEEL
)
I

MAKE TWO WING CLIPS

BEND DOWN
} 8"
\
------~
--------- FRONT I I I I I
ELEVATOR FRAME
i ) I I
REAR I I
I
Il \
LANDING GEAR
I I

\ l
FIGURE 285. Full-size Plans for
l \
Outdoor R.O.G.
Court esy X-Acto, Inc.

180 14 2 ~"8 •I
;
i;
 F?'= . - -----,
SPAR TAPER AT END

c=- --n- '.l

END RIB- MAKE TWO .
14 I
I "
l¼J ___.,
LEADING EDGE

TYPICAL RlB- MAKE TWELVE

7~ ,,

REAR
HOOK

I
..

ELEVA TOR POSITION

PROPELLER
BLANK

I
.~-
T
71 FIGURE 285. Full-size Plans for Outdoor R.O.G.
.i. a:::::;:..:.;,.i..&.L..,,;.;.,;:;.a;;;..:.;....l..,,,,IM
(Continu ed)

181
 PROBLEMS
®
You ,hould strive for a
light, graceful upper @ Design of "section" through car.
1. Trace the plans and make templates or pat- structure in your design.

terns from cardboard for the outdoor glider.

Ask your instructor about constructing this
as a special project.
2. Draw the plans and make patterns for con-
structing the All-balsa or the Outdoor R.O.G. "Crisp" design Too "round."
of section Highlights will
3. Design a glider or other type of model plane.
, Make all necessary drawings. ~1ake a pic-
® Rear views
through car will
result in longer
be soft
short.
and
Design
highlights and
torial sketch of your idea. If you like to build better stream- will be more
1in in g. See difficult to
model planes, construct this and test it for drawing below. streamline.
performance.
4. Ask your teacher to hold a "model day="and
~---
~( I I ~~ew"··~
Poor proportion Good proportion
ask the class to bring in various kinds of
models which they may have made. ·
FIGURE 287. Steps E through G in Designing a Car
Courtesy Fisher Body C-ra#sman•s Guild

DESIGNING MODEL CARS

The fact that you have never tried to draw
or design a car does not mean that you cannot.
The .sketches shown in Figures 286-289 are
Good "space design"
sketch sheets distributed to contestants in the
Fisher Body Craftsman's Guild Competition.
They are practice steps for drawing an auto-
Pion view of your
design is important.
.&- -~_
mobile. Work at them for an hour or two each 'J'
\:!_}
Side view of upper structure
proportions
"Fast"
day for a week. You will be surprised how much
skill you gain in that short time. After several
weeks ·of practice you should really have the
"feel" of it.
·~ -E ] t
·~ ...
r____
"Slow, boxy"
Many boys and girls have used these same
steps to design model cars in national competi-
tion for scholarships and many other awards.
·[ [ -) } __.S Outline of car

/-

®
Trace a few present day
cars from a magazine. © Direct front and rear viey.,
designing.

.g;ff1);;~ cp <ti~ ® Front-end composition

or design
©- front-end
theme "doodling"

~--a--••·
>·-~ ..
Work out design in "perspective"-
os well os head-on view.
This gives you the feel and
proportions of_car "form." 7i>
Grille design Other details
Try a few side views next.
@ Do these free hand.
"Perspectives" tell more.
n

Make your design over a car from

a catalog illustration.

FIGURE 286. Designing a Car, Steps A through D

Courtesy Fisher Body Craftsman's Guild

FrcuRE 288. Steps H through L

Courtesy Fish er Body Cra~sman's Guild

182
 MAKING ARCHITECTURAL MODELS
Fender and tail-light
theme "doodling" ® Study windshields

THE VALUE OF MODELS

After a home or other building has been
drawn or designed, a model will help you make
your design on paper come to life. It will also
help correct mistakes that might be costly if the
first plans were carried out in constructing the
full-size project.
Study hoods
A scale model, made from clear plastic ( Figs.
290 and 291) _or other materials, and fully fur-
nished with .items on the same scale, will help
Cones and
bullet shapes anyone visualize the actual home. The number,
in perspective
SookeotYpe~ size, and spacing of windows are easily ob-
served. Size, location, and spacing of rooms
are easily seen. You can also see if one or more
rooms can be added without ruining the design.

® Line, form and texture suggest

speed and graceful motion. @ Various types of ornamentation

_,-~ ,#
~ Windsplits
.; C
<Iii{ .. .·. - ~

~ -==Z:; :.~.
-
~L- ~ Grooved effect

«¢· --~---
-- ·y
·-·--· Perforated
panels

Fine "egg-crate"

FIGURE 290. Top View of the Plastic Model

Use Drawing "A" or "B" (on

® sketch sheet you received with
this book) to develop side view
® Usingthe over-all length,over-
all width and wheelbase (on
of your car. Guild sketch sheet), develop
the plan view .of your model,
drawing axle lines as shown.

Tracing
paper
After careful study and "design
thinking," you can work over any Plan view needs special study
one of the model types given on
Drawings "A" and "B," using
and attention to give design
speed and beauty. Remember,
FIGURE 291. Angular View of the Plastic Model
tracing paper on which to draw this is highly important.
your design.

MODEL CONTESTS
Although you may enter national contests,
FIGURE 289. Car Design Steps M through S
Courtesy Fisher Body Craftsman's Guild
ask your instructor about developing a local
contest. Real estate boards, lumber dealers,
If you are particularly . interested in model brick and concrete ·manufacturers, and many
building and possible competition, ask your in- other local materials dealers and suppliers may
structor to help you secure information relative be interested in judging or sponsoring awards
to this or other competitions for awards. for designs in each of various types and classifi-
183
cations. Figure 292 shows some winners in a
recent local contest in one city.
FIGURE 292. Prize-winning <'Rock" and "Frame"
Model Houses
MATERIALS FOR MODEL HOMES
Many suggestions for model materials may
b e obtained in hobby shops. Expensive ma-
terials may be used, but all kinds of scrap
materials are available which serve just as well.
Many different materials, such as balsa, heavy
cardboard, and plywood, are used in making
models .
Some suggestions and ideas for materials to
be used in various parts of a model house are
given below: .
1. For the base, a plywood board covered
with a dark green towel makes a good lot with
a nice green grass yard. Sawdust dyed green
and spread on wet glue gives a good grass
appearance. Green felt paper and flock sprayed
on the base are other possibilities. Study of the
original plans and specifications ( Fig. 293) will
assist you in planning the base, landscaping, and
oth er details before construction begins.
FIGURE 293. Good Planning, Designing, and
Construction Necessary in Building a Home
184
2. The frame house may be made by strip-
ping onto a balsa or other light wood base a
good grade of paper strips in desired siding size.
These may be glued. The windows and doors
should be already cut out. Cut the siding twice
as wide as the width you want exposed. This
gives a good glue base and the "boards'' will not
tend to curl up or pucker as badly.
3. The brick, tile, or concrete house may be
made by painting sandpaper the desired shade.
After this dries, tape it to the drawing board
and scribe lines to represent brick. A form of
'<brick" paper may be purchased.
4. Rock houses, too, are easy to make. Cut
the sides from balsa or other soft wood, cutting
out the windows, doors, and other outside
openings. Paint the remainder with thick paint.
While the paint is wet, sprinkle sand on freely.
After a few minutes, lift the side to allow the
surplus sand to fall off. Then take some sharp
instrument, as a nail, and scribe your rock shape.
This work is done much more easily while the
paint is still wet. Only one side should be done
at a time.
5. Doors and windows require more time for
construction when an effective appearance is de-
sired. Doors made from balsa may be designed
and painted to suit the house. Thin plastic win-
dows may be divided into panes with India ink
or · thin strips of colored tape. Tooth picks or
matches may be used. Cellophane stretched
smoothly and glued over thin strip frames offers
a pleasing appearance also.
6. Painted soda fountain straws make good
gutters and downspouts . Screen wire is an effec-
tive substitute for vents and louvers.
7. By using your initiative and imagination,
you can make the landscape come to Hfe. With
the aid of scissors, glue, and pins, transform pipe
cleaners, paint, bushy twigs, sponge, colored
paper, or similar materials into grass, hedges,
lichen, and flowers.
FURNISHINGS AND DECORATION
In building a home continuous planning is
necessary, with constant thought for all aspects
of the finished home. One important phase of
this planning is the interior decoration and
furnishings. Further planning for exterior deco-
ration and landscaping is necessary after the
drawing and house construction are complete
( Fig. 294).
An interesting project in decoration n1ay be
carried out on an individual basis. Each person
designs and builds a separate room. He designs
the furniture, light fixtures, carpets, drapes, win-
dow flower boxes, and other utility or decorative
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
We are interested here in learning to make
electrical drawings and in mastering .the mean-
ings of symbols . These drawings are cailed
schematic diagrams.
Space does not permit discussion of the many
phases of electricity or how to build various
electrical items. However, in this section and in
Division 8, "Architectural Drawing,'' you will
find definitions of a number of the symbols com-
monly used in electrical work and especiaily in
elementary radio and communications. You will
find also pictures of finished products, parts
lists, chassis drawings, and circuits for a buzzer
FIGURE 294. Planning for Exterior Decoration and code-practice set, a simple receiver, and a trans-
Landscaping mitter.
Possibly one of your teachers or neighbors can
items, makes them, and installs them, so that his help you in learning more about other kinds of
room is a complete unit in the house. electrical drawing and about electricity.
Housing developments, also, (Fig. 295) make
attractive and instructive projects for the class- THE BlJ-ZZER CODE-PRACTICE SET
room. Such a project will be of definite value
to you as a future homebuilder. The amateur radio operator must learn a num-
ber of things before getting his license. The
ability to send and to receive a minimum num-
ber of words per minute by code is one require-
ment. This code is given in Figure 296.
A finished buzzer is illustrated in Figure 297,
and the circuit diagram is shown in Figure 298.
A
·- J
K-•-
·--- s •••
··---
T-
l
2
·----
.-·· ··-
B - •••
C-•-• L u···--
.... 3
D
E
-··
•
M
N-•
-- ···-
w ·--
V
s •••••
- 4

F
G--•
··-· 0
p
--- -····
X-••-
·--· z -- ·•• --···
-·-- y
6
7
H •••• Q --·- ---·· 8
I •• R
·-· 9 ----·
0-----
FIGURE 296. The Common Communications Code
Courtesy How To BEcOME A RA010 AMATEUR

FIGURE 295. A Model Housing Development in

the Drafting Room

ELECTRICAL DRAWING AND

DESIGN
_;. Electricity is probably one of the most im-
portant forms of energy ever controlled by man.
In this country our industry, homes, and prac-
tically all business would come to a standstill
without this service.
There are many phases of electricity which
can be explained only in numerous books. Some
of these are electrical repair, power, radio and
tele vision, other forms of communication, elec-
tronic research in all kinds of work to assist us FIGURE 297. A Buzzer Code-practice Set
in everyday life, and many others. Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

185
 TwolJnJ
Cd/s i.nsenes about as simple and inexpensive a set as is pos-
To COl'fnec
:ted here
Ph:r~ sible for beginners and can be used until you
I ~~-_,_~ become more advanced.

TUNING
Buzzer COIL CON0ENSER
SOCKET
/c~
FIGURE 298. Circuit of the
Buzzer Code-practice Set
Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

You will notice that the phones are connected METAL

SPACERS
across the coils of the buzzer with a condenser
in series. The size of this condenser determines
the strength of the signal in the phones. Should REGENERATiON TUNING·
the value shown give an excessively loud signal CONDENSER R£G£NERATlON DIAL
C2 CONTROL KNOB
it may be reduced to 500 or even 250 p.µ. fd.
FIGURE 300. The Completed One-rube Regenera-
(micro-micro farad). tive Receiver with Parts List
'Common schematic symbols used in circuit Court esy H ow T o BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR
dia grams are defined in Figure 299. There is
no set size for drawing each symbol. Observe The pane l and chassis templates, schematic
the various diagrams, and notice on a drawing diagram for wiring , and details for coils and
th e re lation of the size of each to the others. other constru ctio n may be studied in Figures
A =={] -=(] B 301, 302, 303, and 304.
J_

GROUN
D
A

HEADPHONES
==B D 5/''
1716
A-Double
8-Sintlt
E ==EJ
MICROPHONES
r,·r,~·
A-Sintle-butlon O-Dynam1c --- 2o/.,."-
-----i
S'~ .i.ll OOflCES B- Double-button E-Veloc,ty
A-'W'.=~ C-Condenser F-Cryslal
5- !f=5'r.t c-eded

FUSE
LAMPS
+0+---
A-Panelor Dial 1
-- @Ir+-
- 11
I1
B- Uluminatint
~ ~ 11 VACUUM-TUBE
ELEMENTS
-
II
11

----+@
FOll':B~
11
I I

r
•1
~ I
~~~~~:
-1~·~

-- gH-
-
f ARAD,i.YSH!ELD

.
I " l t·
Iii;
iQJ~
}Elfi~~

treJruat
roa --0---
MOTOR Grid Plate

'------------ 7'' -------'-----

FIGURE 299. Schematic Symbols Used in Circuit
Diagrams FIGURE 301. Panel Template with Dimensions
-
Courtesy Ho w To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR
Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR
REAR

A SIMPLE RECEIVER ,y;

7"

.c-
Possibly you can afford to buy the best ready-
•¼-~ 2 1/;''
2
made receiver and transmitter. However, every
beginner who is interested should make his
drawing and _build his first sets. By doing this
4++f
-J½ 1Y/
5 .. 7/s"
the beginning amateur can learn to draw circuit
diagrams and to build and test his apparatus,
r+ l 2¼#
and can get a bas ic knowledge that all begin-
ners should ha ve. This practical experience will
3½ t,¼,,
I4

help you under stand th e theory. FRONT

A one-tub e regenerati ve re ceiver and the parts FIGURE 302. Chassis Template with Dimensions
list for it are pictu red in Fi gure 300. This is Court esy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

I 1 86

l
 DIAGRAMOF COIL

TOP VIEW OF COtL~soCKETCONNECTIONS can start with a low-powered oscillator and add
~J£3
~J;'/J'
point
__ higher-powered amplifiers as your skill and
BOTTOM
VIEWOFTUBESOCKET c,
lle¢p,ho11e Pin 6 Tuhesocket
finances permit. A simple transmitter with its
pmjad<.. '
parts list is given in Figure 305.
A11toma,wire
f,o receiver ::::,oooooc: ___ _
ToAlttenna.

Toli1amen,t
batferie.s.
flash- F/,1$1,.
119.M lig/ti
bdtlu!J batluy

FIGURE 303. . Details of Coil Construction, Coil.;

socket Wiring, Antenna Coupling Scheme,
and an Enlarged View of the Turbo-socket
Connections (bottom view). If a 3S4 tube is
not available, a 3Q4 may be substituted.
Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR
CO I LS FOR
-40 METERS
ANTcNNA
FIGURE 305. A Simple Transmitter

t-------c_l----
C4
3S,--4 ----
Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

Two pictures and four other diagrams (Figs.

306-311) will help you design and construct the
transmitter. y OU will notice that two of the
diagrams have been reproduced roughly. See
the problems which follow for instructions.

HEA~E
TIPJAc.KS
l FILAMENT
8+ 8-ANO
GROUND BATTERIES CRYSTAL
CONNECTION

FIGURE 304. A Schematic Diagram of the Wiring

of the Simple Regenerative Receiver
Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

If you are interested in operating the trans- THE.5E NUMBERS R.E f'E.'R.
TO PINS ON PO'-"JE.R
mitter and receiver, it is suggested that you lo- PLUG (OLI) OCTAL Tl)~E
4 BASE.)
cate another more experienced amateur to assist
you. You will need twenty to forty feet of hook-:- FIGURE 306. Rough Schematic of Transmitter
up wire strung around the room for an antenna. Wiring
A longer outdoor antenna will give much better
results. ·
CRYSTAL
A SIMPLE TRANSMITTER
The code-practice set will enable you to prac-
-t ice code while you design and build the re-
ceiver . The receiver will permit you to listen in
on the amateur bands while qualifying through
study and practice for your amateur license.
You must not connect your transmitter to an
antenna unless you have an amateur license.
There are several penalties for putting a signal
on the air without a license.
Many people end by buying a ready-built
receiver. Most amateurs use a home-built trans- FIGURE 307. Mounting of Parts under the Chassis
mitter. This is the usual practice because you Courtesy How To BEco~E A RADIO AMATEUR

187
t.

COIL WINDING INSTRUCTIONS ,ss feet t35 feet

Wirewrappedarounda
nail at start and 1/nish Feed-fine---1====1
,.._.a.-------+,,,.._. of coilin orderto holdd separators~
in placeuntil tied with
-- -~-
string . I
7 oai/sspaced
40-foot
open-wire
32-fool
.100-ohm
twiri-lea.d.
line
equallgona (A) (B)
Bel/wire 2- inch "diameter
weavin9.ba.cl< circle
ond forth be-
tweenthe 67'/z feet 67'/2 feet 67'/z feet 67 1/2 feet
nails

-- JOO.foot 82-foot
open wire line 30o-ohm
WhencoilIs completed. twin-lead
secureit with strin9at these
cross-overpoints (C) I (D)
FIGURE 308. Method of Winding Coils for the FIGURE 311. Suggested Antennas
Transmitter · Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

Courtesy How To BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR

PROBLEMS
'Tj ~ (..V.
Red
:: 1. Make a full-size layout of the receiver chassis
+ o"
Pir11
power template, including the sides and folds.
R,!d Ye/lo.., socket

R, 2. Look at the two rough diagrams given in the

Red. transmitter section and draw these neatly.
Yellou.1
Add to these diagrams the names of the parts
Yeflou, in a parts list or bill of materials on the
FIGURE 309. Rough Circuit Diagram of the drawing.
Power Supply 3. If this type of drawing and work is of interest
to · you, reproduce the code-practice circuit
in the space below and add the part names .

FIGURE 310. Top and Bottom Views of the Trans-
mitter Power Supply
Courtesy How To
MARINE DESIGNING
Men who design ships are called marine
architects. This type of designing combines
mechanical, architectural, and practically all
other kinds of drawing. We shall limit our dis-
cussion here to a small boat - rowboat, motor-
boat, or sailboat- and a fu n-craft which you and
others may wish to draw, revise, and construct.
BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR
The boat plan includes many detail drawings

188
of parts. To show the hull shape, a number of A SMALL BOAT
drawings are made as if the hull were cut hori-
zontally in several places. Such drawings are In Figures 312~317 a complete set of plans for
also called section drawings. The same general the small boat is given. Seventeen of the twenty
principles of drawing and dimensioning and necessary steps of construction are shown. Also
other standards apply here. included is a bill of materials. Steps 11, 13, 18,
t· 3g' I"
~- - \1
I 1!."
2
and 19 have been omitted.
• © I· 27" "I :22 ~\
I-
iE
--=::::
I"
2-

40" - --
e;---

)
iJ
11_
, 1 FRAME
16"~,\ UPRIGHT
6 RE.Q.'
-----
-
46f'2 ---------...l
- -- --~ ··-

----~
3 II
s48 ----4"

---19" I
!''COPPER NAILS/

FIGURE 312. Cross-section Drawing of

Steps 1-2 of a Small Boat
Court esy POPULA R ME C HANI C S

©
FIGURE 313. Steps 3-7 in Small-boat Construction
Court esy POPULA R °MECHA N ICS

189
 era:
ow
h.. ..J
uJ
i.J>
...J<{
0 0::
-:ci-
Ltll~

INNER
CLAMP 0
®

® . rJ)
w
I--\!--- C)

w
u.
0
_,
~
w
~':-t..:1-;:.._,~-=.r,1+-o
I
C I
u---:t
a
<t
,,
0<.'.> 'I d
coz I
z
o:- w
316.
FIGURE t.J (/)
1-<
I
I
j....
zO
Boat-construction w
0 I
"+
N

Steps 16-17
I
I
11
_J__--
Courtesy I'
POPULAR MECHANICS O>lst° ~l<X>
H---11)

PROJE.CllNG
E.NDS OF PLANK-
ING TRIMMED TO
DOTTE.OLINES

9"

r 36"

FRAMENOTCHEDTO
RECE.IYE.B.ATTE.N,_c::--~=-----=~
RUDDER
BATTEN·SEAM fxfx 3•e AASSPLAT£
FAST!:NEO THR
OUGH
[BATTE.~---:;: ~~ CONSTRUCTION HAST WllH {' BR. 60llS
;..,.,.,.....:'-~
f PLANKING-+
,FIGURE 314. Steps 8-10, 12 in Boat Construction
Courtesy

MATERIAL LIST
2 p ieces \2 x 18 In. x 12 ft. (or equivalent In na r- 1 piece ;~ x 14 x 38 ln.-tran so m
row wldth s )- slde pie ces 1 p iece 1 \~ x 8 x 20 ln.-mast partner
1 p iece % x 6 in. x 10 ft. -ch ines 1 pi ec e % x 10 in. x 4 ft .--seat
l piece % x 6 in . x 10 ft. - bottom center plank 1 piece % x 10 In , x 12 ft,-frames and crosspleces .;l
4 pieces % x 6 In . x 10 f t.-(2 e ach s ide) 1 pi ece \2 x 3 In. x 12 ft.--oa.k mold ing
2 piec es \2 x 8 in. x 8 ft. - ( 1 each side) 1 pi ec e 11,2 x 8 In. x 1 ft.-mast step
6 pieces \ 2 x 1 \~ in . x 10 ft .- ba tt.ens 2 pieces 1\2 x 4 In. x I f't.- stern k ne es
2 piec es ',2 x 1\2 in. x 10 ft. 6 in. - inner clamps 1 pi e ce l \ 2 x 8 In. x 4 ft.-skeg and k ee l
1 piece ' 'l, x 14 In. x 6 f t.-sld es o f cente rcase I piece 2 x 8 x 24 ln. - stem a nd cu t wate r
1 p iece 'l • x 2 x 26 in .-kln g posts 1 piece pine ~• x 8 In. x 12 ft.-bulldln g board
I piece '.~- In. Iron - for centerboard 1 piece 1 1,4 x 3 In, x 16 ft,-mast
1 piece % x 14 x 30 ln. - rudd er 2 p ieces ~• x 3 In . x IO ft. - mast
1 piec e 1 \4 x 2 \1, x 30 in.-tiller 1 pi ece 2 x 2 In. x IO ft.-boom
HARDWARE
2 gro ss 11,!z-in , No , 8 flat -h ead brass sc r ews 75 ft. 1,(,- ln , cott on ro p e for lines and rope trav eler
\ 2 gro ss 2-ln. No . 8 flat-head brass screw s 1,1, pint, C -qu a l! ty marine g lue
5 gro ss 1 1,<•ln. No. 6 flat-h ea d brass screws
1\ ~ lb s.of I 1,~-in. coppet: n a !ls (!f bat tens a re u sed) '·• lb . case in g lue
\~ lb. coppe r tacks , "ls-m, (If lap Joint is u se d) Br a ss and bra ss bolts for guy-wire attachments
l sheave fo r top o f mast 3 ft. % -In. ha.If-oval brass for bow t rim
2 swi ve l pulleys for sheet line 25 ft. ga lv. wire
2 deck block s fo r halyard and top'n !!rt . % -In. bra ss t ubin g , 30 In. l ong
l flat deck block for ,to p'n li ft 2 ft . ja ck ch a in for centerboard lift
Woo ds generally used for small-b oa t construc tion ar e: sp ru ce or oak for Jrnme; pine or oak for t he
stem, and mahogany, ceda r or cypress for pl an king , Kn ees, mast steps, inwales and other small p art s
either vis ible or subject to strain-oak or mahogany.

·•
FIGURE 315. ID
Boat FIGURE 317. Sail Detail, Step 20, and Materials-List
Courtesy PoPULAR MECHANICS Courtesy POPULAR MECHANICS

190
I
A MARINE FUN-CRAFT
The tire-tube catamaran shown in Figure 318
is easily constructed and you can have many
hours of fun with it on the water. General sizes
are shown . By adding your own ideas in design,
you can make a real pleasure craft.
A variety of materials, from paper to steel,
have been used in this section. A number of
different _kinds of drawings must be made in
designing the projects shown in Figures 319,
320, and 321. You may make these objects in
the home or school industrial arts shop, using
various materials.

PROBLEMS
1. The box kite can be of many different sizes.
Have a contest with your neighborhood
friends to see who can design, construct, and
fly the smallest and the largest box kites.
2. Make a list in the space below of the differ-
ent materials and hardware needed for the
outdoor gym (Fig. 320).

' -- ---------------------------------------

FIGURE 318. A Tire-tube Catamaran

Courtesy POPULAR MECHANICS

PROBLEMS
1. Select parts of the small boat and make
scaled, detail working drawings of the parts.
2. Make detail drawings for the catamaran.
3. Select one cross -section of the small boat and
make a scaled sectioned drawing.

MISCELLANEOUS PROJECT
DESIGNS
We are concerned with good design in every
article that is produced. You could name hun-
dreds of different types of articles to discuss for
designing and still not cover the entire field.
The purpose of this division is to introduce you
to a number of common models where you may
start some practice in designing.
The principles of design in home building,
several large industries, and other fields of work FIGURE 319. Box Kite for Windy Days
have been briefly pres ented. Courtesy POPULAR MECHAN1cs
"
 ..t@

12'

This simple, sturdy outdoor gym can be built in the yard with several
11
pieces of pipe and a few fittings. Both the horizontal exercise bar and
9' · 6 the support for the striking-bag platform are adjustable for height.
Three uprights of 2-in. pipe, one of them a 12-ft. climbing bar, are
: anchored in concrete. A series of ;½ -in. holes are drilled in two of the
.-~· uprights on 3-in. spacings. Each upright is screwed into ~ coupling on
the upper end of the length of pipe which is embedded in concrete. Use
2 ½-in. pipe tees with reducers on the ends of the P/2-in. exercise bar.
The detail at the upper left shows the assembly of a bolt which supports
the bar at each end. The striking-bag frame, which is attached to the
uprig,hts with U-bolts, is detailed· at the uppe·r right.
-;,r-
~7'-10½" 22"
~
~
FIGURE 320.- An Outdoor or Basement Gym
Courtesy POPULAR MECHANICS

...L
,,,r
~
~::~
', ~
'.°'
12"
.l
-
M

½"TWILL b
,0
TAPE
8"LON]
27" 27" ~
co ...r
.. 1 '

132" -I 72" ®

l SCREEN-DOOR
SPRINGS
-

' ..:---..------
---~-

TWILLTAPE

©
FIGURE 321. n Tent for Camping Out

I .,_ ·-