Mechatronics

CARAGA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

MECHATRONICS SERVICINGNATIONAL CERTIFICATE LEVEL II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
I. GETTING STRATED WITH FESTO FLUIDSIM®3.6
1.1 Technical Requirements
1.2 Basic Parts of FESTO FluidSim®3.6
1.3 Simulating and Creating Circuits
1.4 Hands-On Training Kit
II. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
2.1 Switches
2.2 Relays
III. PNEUMATICS
3.1 Sensor
3.2 Valves
3.3 Cylinder
IV. ELECTROPNEUMATICS
4.1 Sensor
CNY 70
Proximty sensor(inductive,capasitive,risistive)
Other sensor
4.2 PLC
Definition
Panasonic
Siemens
activty
V. MOTOR CONTROL
4.1 Switch Motor Control
4.2 Relay Motor Control
4.3 Variable Frequency Drive
VI. SOLUTIONS
VII. REFERENCE
Mechatronics Servicing National Certificate Level Page 2

GETTING STRATED WITH FESTO FLUIDSIM® 3.6
1.1 Technical Requirements
The minimum requirement for a processor is a Pentium processor that runswith an

operating system like Microsoft Windows9x®, Microsoft WindowsME®, Microsoft Windows
NT®, Microsoft Windows2000®, Microsoft Windows XP® or Microsoft Windows7® with
atleast 128 MB RAM.
1.2 Basic Parts ofFESTO FluidSim® 3.6
Menu bar
Toolbar
Drawing area
Component library of
FluidSIM in its totalview
Context menu
Status Bar
Component library of FluidSIM in its total view contains pneumatic and electrical
components for the creation of new circuit diagrams. In case of losing the Component
library it can be found in the menu bar and then click Library  Total View . In the Library you
can also chose Hierarchical View and FluidSIM Version 2.

Context menu appears when the user clicks the right button on the mouse within
the program window which contains a useful subset of functions from the main menu bar.
The menu bar at the top of the window lists all the functions needed for the
simulation and creation of circuit diagrams.
The toolbar beneath this menu displays frequently used menu functions. The
toolbar contains the following nine groups of functions:
1.
Creating new circuit diagrams, previewing a circuit diagram, opening and saving circuit
diagrams
2.
Printing the contents of the window, for example circuit diagrams and component photos
3.
Editing circuit diagrams
4.
Alignment of components
5.
Using a grid
6.
Zooming in and zooming out of circuit diagrams, component pictures, and other windows
7.
Superficial circuit checking
8.
Simulating circuit diagrams, directing animation (basic level)
9.
Simulating circuit diagrams, directing animation (additional functions)
Status bar displays information on the current calculations and activities during the
operation of FluidSIM. In Edit Mode, FluidSIM displays the designation of the component
found under the mouse cursor.
The Toolbar and Status bar can be also be found in the menu bar then
View  Toolbar or Status Bar .
Creating a drawing area is simply clicking New located in the toolbar with this
symbol or go to File then New in the menu bar. It possible to create multiple drawing
area in the FluidSim.

1.3 Simulating and Creating Circuits
Creating circuit diagrams in the drawing area is only possible in Edit Mode
indicated when the mouse cursor in the drawing area appears . Having a drawing area for
the first time will have a default name of “noname.ct”. Saving the drawing area will allows
you to change its name. To save your drawing area is simply clicking the save symbol
located in the toolbar and automatically a saving window will appear to allows you to
located where you want to save and change the name. Clicking the save symbol after you
have first save it anytime while you are in the Edit Mode will automatically overwrite your
previous data of the drawing area to the current circuit diagram.
In the Drawing area you can create a Pneumatic diagram, Electrical diagram and
ladder Diagram. All three types of diagram can be simulated on how it actually reacts as
whole circuit. Pneumatic, electrical and ladder diagram can be link together to create a
diagram that interacts with other types of diagram. These can be achieving by using the
same “label” of the component present in both ladder diagram and the pneumatic diagram.
Note that not all component symbols can be used in the both diagrams since same
component on a different diagram can have different symbols.
1.3.1 Basic Simulation
Open the File Selector Dialog Box by clicking , a selector dialog box will appear,
in which a circuit diagram can be opened by double clicking on its filename. Open the
circuit diagram demo1.ct by double clicking on its miniature representation.
Click on or press the key F9.FluidSIM switches to the simulation mode and
starts the simulation of the circuit diagram. When in the simulation mode, the mouse
cursor changes to a hand .
Move the mouse cursor to the left switch. The mouse cursor becomes a hand with
index fingertha the switch may be flipped. To activate the switch you simply click it while it
is on index finger.
In this example the clicked switch becomes closed and recalculation begins
automatically. Following the calculation, the new pressure and flow values are indicated
and the cylinders retract to their starting position.
The switching of a component is only possible when a simulation is running ( () or

when a simulation has been set to pause ( ).In the event that you would like to simulate
another circuit diagram, it is not necessary to close the open one. FluidSIM allows you to
have several circuits open at one time. Furthermore, FluidSIM is able to simulate multiple
circuits simultaneously. Simply click stop to exit in Simulation Mode and return to Edit
mode. It also useful to simulation in single step mode ( ) which allows you to simulation
to a certain point where a state change happens. In order words is a step by step

simulation. During the simulation FluidSIM first calculates all electrical parameters. This
step is followed by formulating the model of the pneumatic circuit and based on the model;
the entire distribution for flow and pressure is calculated. Formulating models is
demanding. Depending on a circuit’s complexity and the computer’s power, a circuit’s
simulation may take considerable time. As soon as the results are available, the connection
lines will be shown in color and the cylinders extend. The colors of the connection lines
have the following meaning:
Color Meaning
Dark blue Pneumatic line
under pressure
Light Pneumatic line
blue without pressure
Light red Electrical line,
current flowing
The exact numeric values for pressures, flow rates, voltages, and currents are
displayed on the attached measuring instruments. Calculated values should closely match
measured values. When comparing results, please acknowledge thefact that in practice
measurements can be subject to large fluctuations. The reasons for differences range from
component tolerances, different hose lengths to air temperature. The calculation of
variables forms the basis for an exact, real-time proportional animation of the cylinder.
Real-time-proportionality guarantees the following property:
 If in reality cylinder moves twice as fast as another one, the relationship

between these two components is shown in the animation. In other words,
the real-time relationship remains unaltered.
 Manually operated valves and switches, found in the circuit diagram, can
be switched by clicking on them with the mouse
 When you click on a manually operated switch, its real behavior is
simulated.
1.3.2 Creating Circuits
1. Create an empty drawing area by clicking on .
Circuit diagrams can only be created or altered in the Edit Mode. The Edit Mode is
indicated with the following mouse cursor . Each and every newly opened drawing area
automatically contains a name, with which it can be saved. This name is found in the title
bar of the new window.
Using the scrollbars found to the right of and underneath the component library,
you can scroll through the components. Using the mouse, you can “drag” and “drop”
components from the component library onto the drawing area:
2. Drag onto the drawing area a configurable cylinder, 3/n-way valve and a
compressed air supply.

Arrange the components in the following manner:
3. Double click the valve to assign an operation mode to it. A dialog box appears:
Description of the dialog box:
 Left/Right Actuation - For both sides the actuation modes of the

valve can be defined individually; it can be one or more of the
categories “manual”, “mechanical”, or “pneumatic/electrical”. An
operation mode is set by clicking on the down-arrow at the right-
hand side of the list and selecting a symbol. If for a category no
operation mode is desired, simply choose the blank symbol from
the list. Moreover, for each side of the valve the attributes “spring-
returned” and “piloted” can be set.
 Description - Enter here a name for the valve. This name is used in
the state diagram and in the parts list
 Valve Body - A configurable valve has at most four positions. For

each of the positions a valve body element can be chosen
individually. Such an element is set by clicking on the down-arrow
at the right-hand side of the list and selecting a symbol. If for a
position no element is desired, simply choose the blank symbol
from the list.
 Initial Position - This button defines the valve’s initial position

(sometimes also called normal position or neutral position), which
is the position without having any operation applied to the valve.
Note that this setting is only exploited if it physically does not
contradict a spring-returned setting, possibly defined above.
4. Choose from the left-hand side in the topmost list a manual operation with
snap in, and select the “spring-returned” option in the right field. Close the
dialog box via OK.
5. Since the connection “3” of the valve serves as air discharge, an exhaustshould
be assigned to it.
6. Double click the connection “3”.A dialog box opens in which a terminator can
be chosen by clicking onthe down-arrow at the right-hand side of the list and
selecting a symbol.

7. Select the third symbol (the simple exhaust) and close the dialog.
Now the valve should look as follows:
8. Move the mouse cursor over the left cylinder connection.
In Edit Mode, the mouse cursor changes to a cross-wires pointerwhen it is above a

component connection.
9. Press the left mouse button while the mouse cursor is above the cylinder
connection. Move the mouse cursor and notice how thecross-wires pointer
gains arrows .
10. Keep pressing the mouse button, and move the cross-wires pointerto the
upper valve connection. Notice how the arrows on thecross-wires pointer turn
inward.
11. Release the mouse button.
Immediately a line appears between the two chosen connections:
FluidSIM automatically draws a line between the two chosen connections. The
mouse cursor changes to the prohibited sign when it is not possible to draw a line between
two connections.
12. Move the mouse cursor to a line.
In the Edit Mode, the mouse cursor changes to a line-selection symbol, when it is
positioned over a line.
13. Connect the remaining components.The circuit diagram should look somewhat
like the following one:
The circuit diagram has been completely drawn and connected. You may now
attemptto simulate this circuit.

1.4 Hands-On Training Kit
1.4.1 General Instruction
After you have simulated you diagram and achieve your desire output you
may now create your diagram in an actual construction by connect the banana
plug connector in to banana socket following your pneumatic and/or ladder
diagram. You may use both trainer depending on your diagram
Relay Trainer
4PDT RELAY
Relay Counter
Relay with ON Delay
Relay With OFF Delay
PLC Trainer
RFL
5/2 Solenoid Valve
Limit Switch
Reed Switch
PLC (Panasonic)
PLC (Siemens)
Pilot lamp
Buzzer
Push Button (N.O)
Push Button (N.C)
CNY 70
Inductive Proximity Sensor
Connectors

ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
In FluidSimHierarchical View you can find the Electrical Components which contains Ladder
System, Relays, Signal Devices and Switch’s
2.1 Switches
An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit.
Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on ("closed") or completely
off ("open"). There are many different types of switches, and we will explore some of these
types in this chapter.
The normal state of a switch is that where it is unactuated. For process switches, this is
the condition its in when sitting on a shelf, uninstalled.A switch that is open when unactuated
is called normally-open. A switch that is closed when unactuated is called normally-closed.
Sometimes the terms "normally-open" and "normally-closed" are abbreviated N.O. and N.C.,
respectively.The generic symbology for N.O. and N.C. switch contacts is as follows:
Multiposition switches can be either break-before-make (most common) or make-before-

break.
The "poles" of a switch refers to the number of moving contacts, while the "throws" of a
switch refers to the number of stationary contacts per moving contact.
The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact
with each other by the motion of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex,
containing electronic circuits able to turn on or off depending on some physical stimulus (such
as light or magnetic field) sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be (at least)
a pair of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected together by the switch's
internal contact mechanism ("closed"), or not connected together ("open").
1.1.1 Hand Switch

Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch,
and they are manufactured in several varieties:

 Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more

positions. The common light switch used in household wiring is an example
of a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will come to rest in any of their
lever positions, while others have an internal spring mechanism returning
the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is called
"momentary" operation.
 Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that

is pressed and released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring
mechanism returning the button to its "out," or "un-pressed," position, for
momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately on
or off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in
their "in," or "pressed," position until the button is pulled back out. This
last type of pushbutton switches usually has a mushroom-shaped button
for easy push-pull action.
 Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to
select one of two or more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector
switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring-return
mechanisms for momentary operation.
 A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis
of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated
depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it
is pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the
direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick
hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control.
2.1.2 Limit Switches
Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a

machine rather than by the hand of a human operator. These motion-operated
switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are often used to limit
the motion of a machine by turning off the actuating power to a component if it
moves too far. As with hand switches, limit switches come in several varieties:
 These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand

switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Often, the levers
are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from being
worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.
 Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by

a magnetic or high-frequency electromagnetic field. Simple proximity
switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed switch mechanism
whenever the machine part gets close (typically 1 inch or less). More
complex proximity switches work like a metal detector, energizing a coil of
wire with a high-frequency current, and electronically monitoring the
magnitude of that current. If a metallic part (not necessarily magnetic)
gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip the
monitoring circuit. The symbol shown here for the proximity switch is of
the electronic variety, as indicated by the diamond-shaped box
surrounding the switch. A non-electronic proximity switch would use the
same symbol as the lever-actuated limit switch.
Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light

source and photocell. Machine position is detected by either the interruption or
reflection of a light beam. Optical switches are also useful in safety applications,
where beams of light can be used to detect personnel entry into a dangerous area.

2.1.3 Process Switches
In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical

quantities with switches. Such switches can be used to sound alarms, indicating
that a process variable has exceeded normal parameters, or they can be used to
shut down processes or equipment if those variables have reached dangerous or
destructive levels. There are many different types of process switches:
 These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal

weight mechanism mounted on the shaft, or by some kind of non-contact
detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic.
 Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that

pressure is applied to a piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts
pressure to mechanical force.
 An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the "bimetallic strip:" a

thin strip of two metals, joined back-to-back, each metal having a different
rate of thermal expansion. When the strip heats or cools, differing rates of
thermal expansion between the two metals causes it to bend. The bending
of the strip can then be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism. Other
temperature switches use a brass bulb filled with either a liquid or gas,
with a tiny tube connecting the bulb to a pressure-sensing switch. As the
bulb is heated, the gas or liquid expands, generating a pressure increase
which then actuates the switch mechanism.
 A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the

liquid level in an tank rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically
conductive, the liquid itself can be used as a conductor to bridge between
two metal probes inserted into the tank at the required depth. The
conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of
relay triggered by a small amount of current through the conductive liquid.
In most cases it is impractical and dangerous to switch the full load current
of the circuit through a liquid.
Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid

materials such as wood chips, grain, coal, or animal feed in a storage silo,
bin, or hopper. A common design for this application is a small paddle
wheel, inserted into the bin at the desired height, which is slowly turned by
a small electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height,
the material prevents the paddle wheel from turning. The torque response
of the small motor than trips the switch mechanism. Another design uses a
"tuning fork" shaped metal prong, inserted into the bin from the outside at
the desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant frequency by an
electronic circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil assembly. When the bin
fills to that height, the solid material dampens the vibration of the fork, the
change in vibration amplitude and/or frequency detected by the electronic
circuit.
 Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in
excess of a certain threshold, usually with a small paddle or vane which is
pushed by the flow. Other flow switches are constructed as differential
pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop across a restriction built
into the pipe.
 Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection,
is the nuclear switch. Composed of a radioactive source material and a
radiation detector, the two are mounted across the diameter of a storage
vessel for either solid or liquid material. Any height of material beyond the

level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength of

radiation reaching the detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector
can be used to trigger a relay mechanism to provide a switch contact for
measurement, alarm point, or even control of the vessel level.
Both source and detector are outside of the

vessel, with no intrusion at all except the radiation
flux itself. The radioactive sources used are fairly
weak and pose no immediate health threat to
operations or maintenance personnel.
As usual, there is usually more than one

way to implement a switch to monitor a physical
process or serve as an operator control. There is
usually no single "perfect" switch for any
application, although some obviously exhibit
certain advantages over others. Switches must be
intelligently matched to the task for efficient and
reliable operation.
2.1.4 Simple Switch Ladder Implementation
If we use standard binary notation for the status of the switches and lamp
(0 for unactuated or de-energized; 1 for actuated or energized), a truth table can
be made to show how the logic works:
2.1.4.1 OR
Now, the lamp will come on if
either contact A or contact B is
actuated, because all it takes
for the lamp to be energized is
to have at least one path for
current from wire L1 to wire 1.
What we have is a simple OR
logic function, implemented
with nothing more than
contacts and a lamp.
2.1.4.2 AND
We can mimic the AND logic
function by wiring the two
contacts in series instead of
parallel. Now, the lamp energizes
only if contact A and contact B
are simultaneously actuated. A
path exists for current from wire
L1 to the lamp (wire 2) if and only
if both switch contacts are closed

2.1.4.3 NOT
The logical inversion, or NOT, function can be performed on a contact input

simply by using a normally-closed contact instead of a normally-open contact.
Now, the lamp energizes if the contact is not actuated, and de-energizes when the
contact is actuated
2.1.4.4 NAND
If we take our OR function and invert each "input" through the use of normally-
closed contacts, we will end up with a NAND function. In a special branch of mathematics
known as Boolean algebra, this effect of gate function identity changing with the inversion
of input signals.The lamp will be energized if either contact is unactuated. It will go out
only if both contacts are actuated simultaneously.
2.1.4.5 NOR
Likewise, if we take our AND function and invert each "input" through the use of
normally-closed contacts, we will end up with a NOR function:
A pattern quickly reveals itself when ladder circuits are compared with their logic
gate counterparts:
Parallel contacts are equivalent to an OR gate.

Series contacts are equivalent to an AND gate.
Normally-closed contacts are equivalent to a NOT gate (inverter).

2.1.4.6 Exclusive-OR
We can build combinational logic functions by grouping contacts in series-parallel

arrangements, as well. In the following example, we have an Exclusive-OR function built
from a combination of AND, OR, and inverter (NOT) gates:
NOTE: To put label just double click

the component. Same labels
interact with the same label even if
it is a different component symbol
The top rung (NC contact A in series with NO contact B) is the equivalent of the
top NOT/AND gate combination. The bottom rung (NO contact A in series with NC contact
B) is the equivalent of the bottom NOT/AND gate combination. The parallel connection
between the two rungs at wire number 2 forms the equivalent of the OR gate, in allowing
either rung 1 or rung 2 to energize the lamp.
To make the Exclusive-OR function, we had to use two contacts per input: one for
direct input and the other for "inverted" input. The two "A" contacts are physically
actuated by the same mechanism, as are the two "B" contacts. The common association
between contacts is denoted by the label of the contact. There is no limit to how many
contacts per switch can be represented in a ladder diagram, as each new contact on any
switch or relay (either normally-open or normally-closed) used in the diagram is simply
marked with the same label.
2.2 Relays
Long before microprocessors, transistors, or even, vacuum tubes, there were relays. These
electromechanical devices were in use long before World War II in a variety of applications as
control and switching elements. Their only real drawback as compared to solid-state
semiconductors is speed and current consumption.
While a transistor can turn on and off millions of times per second a relay will only achieve
operation cycles in the hundreds per second. And when a transistor is on, its power consumption is
nothing (< 1 mA) compared to its load, a relay will typically draw an additional 50-100mA for the
coil. But they are quite simple and provide the safest isolation when supply voltages of the relays
and the load have different levels of voltages or if the load voltage requirement is an AC voltage.
Many of today’s logic circuits have their roots in equivalent relay circuits.
Relays, which are also called as auxiliary contactors, are only able to control small powers.
For higher power applications, contactors are utilized.
The most spool nominal voltages are 6, 12, 24, 60 volts DC and 24, 100, 220, 240 volts
AC.The circuit currents lie between 0.5 to 3 amperes and the circuit power lies between 10 to 500
watts.

A1 I2 13
A2 I1
I1 A2 A1 I3 I2
A relay is composed of a magnetic spool with an iron core. It has an anchor that is fixed in
the output position because of a return spring. The anchor is fitted with a movable isolated contact
part. The other parts are the contact terminals and the coil terminals.
If a voltage is placed on the connectors of the spool (A1 and A2), the iron core becomes
magnetic and it then pulls the anchor causing the contact is switched over.
If the voltage on the spool is interrupted again, the magnetic force field breaks down again
and it then releases the anchor to assume its original output position due to the return spring
causing the contacts to switch-over again.
2.2.1 Relays Basics
De-spiking Diode Relays - A diode in the reverse-biased position is connected in

parallel with the relay coil. As there is no flow of current due to such a connection, an open
circuit of the relay will cause the current to stop flowing through the coil. This will have
effect on the magnetic field. The magnetic field will be decreased instantly. This will cause
the rise of an opposite voltage with very high reverse polarity to be induced. This is mainly
caused because of the magnetic lines of force that cut the armature coil due to the open
circuit. Thus the opposite voltage rises until the diode reaches 0.7 volts. As soon as this
cut-off voltage is achieved, the diode becomes forward-biased. This causes a closed circuit
in the relay, causing the entire voltage to pass through the load. The current thus
produced will be flowing through the circuit for a very long time. As soon as the voltage is
completely drained, this current flow will also stop. Take a look at the figure given below.
De-spiking Resistor Relays - A resistor is almost efficient as that of a diode. It can

not only suppress the voltage spikes efficiently, but also allows the entire current to flow
through it when the relay is in the on position. Thus the current flow through it will also be
very high. To reduce this, the value of the resistance should be as high as 1 Kilo Ohm. But,
as the value of the resistors increases the voltage spiking capability of the relay decreases.
Take a look at the circuit diagram below to understand more.
De-spiking Diode Relays De-spiking Resistor Relays

2.2.2 Types of Relay
1. Latching Relay - Latching relays are also called impulse relays. They work in
the bi-stable mode, and thus have two relaxing states. They are also called
keep relays or stay relays because as soon as the current towards this relay is
switched off, the relay continues the process that it was doing in the last state.
This can be achieved only with a solenoid which is operating in a ratchet and
cam mechanism. It can also be done by an over-centre spring mechanism or a
permanent magnet mechanism in which, when the coil is kept in the relaxed
point, the over-centre spring holds the armature and the contacts in the right
spot. This can also be done with the help of a remanent core.
2. Reed Relay - These types of relays have been given more importance in the
contacts. In order to protect them from atmospheric protection they are safely
kept inside a vacuum or inert gas. Though these types of relays have a very
low switching current and voltage ratings, they are famous for their switching
speeds.
3. Polarized Relay - This type of relay has been given more importance on its
sensitivity. These relays have been used since the invention of telephones.
They played very important roles in early telephone exchanges and also in
detecting telegraphic distortion. The sensitivity of these relays are very easy to
adjust as the armature of the relay is placed between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
4. Buchholz Relay - This relay is actually used as a safety device. They are used
for knowing the amount of gas present in large oil-filled transformers. They are
designed in such a way that they produce a warning if it senses either the slow
production of gas or fast production of gas in the transformer oil.
5. Overload protection Relay - As the name implies, these relays are used to
prevent the electric motors from damage by over current and short circuits.
For this the heating element is kept in series with the motor. Thus when over
heat occurs the bi-metallic strip connected to the motor heats up and in turn
releases a spring to operate the contacts of the relay.
6. Mercury Wetted Relay - This relay is almost similar to the reed relay explained
earlier. The only difference is that instead of inert gases, the contacts are
wetted with mercury. This makes them more position sensitive and also
expensive. They have to be vertically mounted for any operation. They have
very low contact resistance and so can be used for timing applications. Due to
these factors, this relay is not used frequently.
7. Machine Tool Relay - This is one of the most famous industrial relay. They are
mainly used for the controlling of all kinds of machines. They have a number of
contacts with easily replaceable coils. This enables them to be easily converted
from NO contact to NC contact. Many types of these relays can easily be setup
in a control panel. Though they are very useful in industrial applications, the
invention of PLC has made them farther away from industries.
8. Contactor Relay - This is one of the most heavy load relay ever used. They are
mainly used in switching electric motors. They have a wide range of current
ratings from a few amps to hundreds. The contacts of these relays are usually
made with alloys containing a small percentage of silver. This is done so as to
avoid the hazardous effects of arcing. These type of relays are mainly
categorized in the rough use areas. So, they produce loud noises while
operated and hence cannot be used in places where noise is a problem.
9. Solid State relay - SSR relays, as its name implies are designed with the help
of solid state components. As they do not have any moving objects in their
design they are known for their high reliability.
10. Solid State Contactor Relay - These relays combine both the features of solid
state relays and contactor relays. As a result they have a number of
advantages. They have a very good heat sink and can be designed for the
correct on-off cycles. They are mainly controlled with the help of PLC, micro-
processors or microcontrollers.

2.2.3 Some Basic Application
We can have simulation test to the project that we want to acquire before the
actual test started. The followings are some common application.
2.2.3.1 Contactors
Contactors are useful in commercial and industrial applications, particularly
for controlling large lighting loads and motors. One of their hallmarks is reliability.
However, like any other device, they are not infallible. In most cases, the contactor
does not simply wear out from normal use. Usually, the reason for contactor failure
is misapplication.
When someone uses a lighting contactor in a motor application, that's a

misapplication. The same is true when someone uses a "normal operation" motor
contactor for motor jogging duty. Contactors have specific designs for specific
purposes. The figure below shows an example application of contactor.
Contactors typically have multiple contacts as shown in the figure above, and
those contacts are usually (but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is
shut off when the coil is de-energized Perhaps the most common industrial use for
contactors is the control of electric motors. When a relay is used to switch a large amount
of electrical power through its contacts, it is designated by a special name: contactor,
likewise we are using now.
2.2.3.2 Circuit Breaker
It is a contactor which reopens automatically if there is an overload. All but

the largest are manually closed against a spring opening force, are mechanically
latched, and unlatched by an overload sensor and actuator. An overload may be a
short circuit with current hundreds of times more than the normal, so the
interrupting capacity must be correspondingly high.
The overload sensor is either EM

or thermal. It may have time delay so it is
insensitive to harmless transient
overloads. Utility size circuit breakers are
closed by air or hydraulic cylinders. They
may be automatically reclosed several
times so that the transient’s faults like
lightning strikes do not cause more than
very brief power interruptions.

The figure shows a simple yet concise connection, which uses a circuit
breaker, a 220 AC volt supply, a load and a specified wire. The current flows from
the supply which passes through the wire in which it must be of different type
accordingly. Each has its specific use to accommodate the load and conditions it is
exposed to. As the load tends to be short circuited the circuit breaker detects a
fault condition and interrupts current flow. It can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes depending on its usage.
2.2.3.3 Timer Delay Relay
It is a combination of an electromechanical output relay and a control

circuit. The control circuit is comprised of solid state components and timing
circuits that control operation of the relay and timing range. Time delay relays
have a broad choice of timing ranges from less than one second to many days.
There are many choices of timing adjustments from calibrated external knobs, DIP
switches, thumbwheel switches, or recessed potentiometer. The output contacts on
the electromechanical output relay are direct wired to the output terminals. The
contact load ratings are specified for each specific type of time delay relay.
Typically, time delay relays are initiated or triggered by one of two methods:
1. Start (On or Pull) Timer Delay Relay - An on delay timer refers to the
condition in which the timer activates. These timers begin timing when power
is applied to the unit. The output contacts transfer at the end of the timing
period (an on delay timer resets during a power failure). The figure below
shows the simple application/illustration of a start timer delay relay.
The sample application comprises of a load (buzzer), a detent switch (make) or

a normally open switch, a relay (start timer delay relay) and a load. When the
switch is closed, input voltage P is applied, timing t delay begins. Relay R
contacts change state after time delay is complete. Contacts return to their
shelf state when power is removed. Control switch is not used in this mode.
2. Stop (Off or Drop) Timer Delay Relay - An off delay timer begins timing when
power is removed from the control input. The figure below shows the simple
application of a stop timer delay relay. The sample application in start and stop
timer delay relay is more likely the same except that they only differ to the
relay and switch used. In stop timer delay relay the detent switch used must
be normally closed (break) and the input voltage P, must be applied
continuously. When control S is closed, relay contacts R return to their shelf
state. If signal S is closed before time delay t is complete, then the time is
reset, the delay begins again, and relay contacts remain in their energized
state. If input voltage P is removed, relay contact R return to their shelf state.

2.2.4 Simple Relay Ladder Implementation
Their two types of relay in FluidSim, chose the relay(ladder) and Make
Switch(Ladder) in the component library to make the circuit and Label each
component as “R1” by double clicking each component.
2.2.3.1 Direct Circuit (NO push button)
Notice that as you change

the label of the make switch
(ladder) it changes it symbol
like a capacitor symbol.

2.2.3.2 Inverse Circuit (NC push button)
2.2.3.3 Latching Circuit
Notice that even if the push

button is no more in contact
the relay and lamp is still on
its “ON” state, this event is
called latching.
2.2.3.4 Unlatching Circuit
A. Reset Priority B. Set Priority

By opening the contacts of the Reset button it de-energizes the

relay coil unlatching the circuit.
Their Difference is the location of the reset button. Connecting the

reset button next to the relay coil will require the close connection first of
the reset before the activation of the relay, does making it RESET priority.
While connecting the reset button next to the contact were it bypass the
button for latching will able you to activate the relay coil even if the reset
button is open but will not latch the relay.
2.2.3.5 Interlock Circuit
A device mechanism that prevents a

component from functioning when
another component is functioning or
situated in a particular way
Even if the button for R2 is activated it

will not energize the coil because of the
R1 connection

Even if the button for R1 is

activated it will not energize
the coil because of the R2
connection

MECHATRONICS SERVICING NATIONAL CERTIFICATE LEVEL II
PNEUMATICS
It is a branch of physics that deals with the study of gases especially air, its mechanical
properties and applications at pressures higher (compressed) or lower (vacuum) than the
atmospheric pressure.
It comes from the Greek word “Pneuma” meaning breath.
It is the industrial implementation and application of air powered actuators (cylinders and
motors) and their control devices (valves) needed in their operations.
Recall:
Pressure = Force / Area Pneumatic pressures
Newton / meter2 = Pascal = 4 to 6 Bars (normal)
= 10 Bars (maximum)
Conversions:
Force < 3 tons for Pneumatics
1 Bar  100 kPa = 14.5 psi Force > 3 tons for Hydraulics
1 Atmospheric Pressure
= 1.01325 Bar
= 14.7 psi
3.1 History
The earliest pneumatic transmission dates from 1700, when the French physicist Denis
Papin used power from a waterwheel to compress air that was transmitted through tubes.
About a century later the British inventor George Medhurst received a patent to use
compressed air to drive a motor, although credit for the first practical application was given to the
British inventor George Law, who in 1865 devised the rock drill, in which an air-driven piston
operated a hammer tool. The rock drill was widely adopted and used in the drilling of the Mont
Cenis railroad tunnel in the Swiss Alps, which opened in 1871, and for the Hoosac tunnel in
western Massachusetts, which opened in 1875.
Another significant advance was the invention of the pneumatic railroad air brake by the
American inventor, engineer, and industrialist George Westinghouse about 1868.
APPLICATIONS
1. Transportation 1. Turning 5. Handling

2. Feeder 2. Stamping 6. Assembly
3. Supply 3. Bending 7. Measuring
4. Positioning 4. Hole boring 8. Service life testing
5. Clamping
3.2 Design and Structure of a Pneumatic Control
Pneumatic controls are designed and represented in the form of control loops. The
two basic forms of representation or basic functional groups for pneumatic controls are:
1. Signal-flow representation 2. Energy Flow representation
SIGNAL INPUT SIGNAL SIGNAL OUTPUT

PROCESSING
•Sensory Analysis •Processor •Actuator

Techniques Engineering
Signal-flow representation

ENERGY
Pneumatic /
Drive CONVERSION Mechanical
Element
Energy Transfer
Actuator
Output
Controlling ENERGY
Element CONTROL Pneumatic
Signal
Input
Practical Signal-Flow Pneumatic Setup

Signaling Energy Transfer
Element
ENERGY
Mechanical /
CONVERSION
Pneumatic
DRIVE ELEMENT
CONTROL ENERGY WORKING ENERGY
( Pneumatic or Electrical ) ( Electrical ) Cylinder
Energy- Flow Diagram
CONTROL
ELEMENT
SIGNALING
Directional
ELEMENT
Control Valve
Push-button
Practical Energyl-Flow Pneumatic Setup Pressure
Line
Compressed air is generated and
Pilot Line
conditioned in a central compressed-air
unit and is then distributed in the
installation through the compressed-air Air
network. Compressor
Electric
Motor

3.2.1 Pneumatic Power Supply
Pneumatic systems are powered with compressed air. The source of compressed
air is the central compressed-air unit also known as pneumatic power supply. The main
devices included in the pneumatic power supply are:
• Compressor(s) • Pressure switch

• Suction Filter • Pressure relief valve
• Check Valve • Pressure gauges
• Cooler • Thermometers
• Filter with water trap • Hand-slide valve
• Reservoir
3.2.2 Compresor
The device that generates compressed air is the compressor. It converts

mechanical energy to pneumatic energy of the compressed air. Different types of
compressors are known, depending on their construction, as follows:
• Piston compressors • Membrane compressors

(single/two stages) • Sliding-Vane rotary compressors
• Screw-type (worm) • Helical compressors
compressors • Root compressors
 Diaphragm-type • Turbo (axial or radial flow) compressors
compressors
The most frequently used compressors are piston compressors and screw-
type compressors and both operate according to the displacement principle. They
are suitable for pneumatic systems, where low, middle or high air pressure is
needed. Both compressor types are designed for maximum delivery quantities
(volumetric flow) in the range from approximately 30,000 to 40,000 m3 / h
The piston compressor generates pressure up to a maximum of 1000 bar.
The screw-type compressor generates pressure of about 25 bars.
Flow-type compressors convert the kinetic energy of flowing air into

pressure energy.
Diaphragm-type compressors are highly suitable for small-size installations

and mobile applications and they deliver oil-free air.
Suction Compressor head, Compressor head,
Filter first stage second stage
Compressor Cooler Check Valve

Block
Typical picture of a Piston Compressor

Suction Pressure
Suction Valve Valve Pressure
Port Port
Cooling Piston Compressor

Piston Ribs
(Standardized Symbol according to DIN ISO
Crank Shaft Compressor 1219)
Mechanism Block
Cross-sectional view of the component’s construction
3.2.3 Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator (known also as pressure reducing valve) is a

component having two ports - an inlet and an outlet port. It maintains s constant
pressure at the outlet port, which is lower than the pressure at the inlet port. It
reduces the main pressure to a given (adjustable) operating pressure, and
maintains it at this level even when the loads and mains pressure fluctuate.
The outlet pressure does not depend on the inlet pressure, as well as on
the air flow rate. The outlet pressure depends only on the setting of the pressure
regulator. Additionally, in cases of overloading of the outlet line by external
sources of energy, the pressure regulator limits the value of the outlet pressure
Adjustment Pressure Regulator Adjustment Big Spring

Knob Housing Knob
Diaphragm
Gap 2
Inlet Outlet
Pressure Pressure Port
Inlet
Port
Pressure Port
Outlet Small Spring

Pressure Gap 1
Pressure
Gauge Valve Housing
Port
Cross-sectional view of the component’s
Typical picture of a Pressure Regulator
construction
Pressure Regulator

3.2.4 PRESSURE GAUGE OF THE PRESSURE REGULATOR
A typical pressure regulator is normally fitted with a pressure gauge to

indicate the operating pressure at the outlet port.
3.3 Drive Elements
Pneumatic drive elements convert the energy in the compressed air into force and motion.
The pneumatic drive elements can move in a linear, reciprocating or rotating motion.
3.3.1 Single – Acting Cylinders
The single-acting cylinder converts the compressed air energy into mechanical
energy in the form of force and linear movement in one direction only.
The cylinder has two ports - a pressure inlet port and an exhaust port. The annular
area (shaped like or forming a ring) of the cylinder is connected to the atmosphere
The compressed air is applied only on the bottom side of the piston that is why the
cylinder can move loads or perform mechanical work in a forward motion only and that the
effective force is reduced by the return spring.
Single-acting cylinders are used in the assembling and packing automated lines to
move, lift, feed, eject, press or push objects or to clamp parts. Practically, they are
suitable for oil-free operation.
Types of Single-Acting Cylinders
1. Piston cylinders - note that a piston is a metal cylinder that slides up and down
inside a tubular housing, receiving pressure from or exerting pressure on a
fluid. Typically, the piston can have diameters of as much as 100 mm. The
working speed is in the range of 50 to 500 mm/s. Cylinder forces are about 4
kN.
2. Short-stroke Cylinders - note that the length of stroke is the actual working
movement. The shorter stroke enables the cylinder to lift heavy loads. They
can also be equipped with an anti-rotation anchor, external guidance and a
magnetic ring for triggering non-contact signaling elements.
3. Bellows-type Cylinders - Note that bellows is a device or piece of equipment

with a compressible chamber with flexible sides that can be expanded to draw
air in and compressed to force the air out. Diaphragm or bellows-type cylinders
can have diameters of up to 710 mm. They can generate forces of up to 190
kN at pressures of 7 bars.
Typical picture of a Single-Acting Cylinder
Cross-sectional view of the component’s construction

Single-Acting Cylinder, Spring Return

3.3.2 Double – Acting Cylinders
The double-acting cylinder converts the compressed air energy into mechanical
energy in the form of force and linear movement in both directions.
This type of cylinder has two ports. The compressed air is applied at one of the
working ports while the other working port is vented. They are used when the piston rod
must perform work during its return stroke and when longer strokes are needed. When
large loads are moved, double–acting cylinders with adjustable stroke cushioning are to be
used in order to avoid shocks at the cylinder bottom or cover. Such cylinders have two
plungers (part of the device that thrusts or drops downward) on both sides of the piston.
By means of two damping pistons and cap seals, an air cushion are formed which is then
exhausted through the adjustable throttle. The air which flows in quickly becomes effective
due to the fact that the caps seals open up.
Double acting cylinders are used for moving, pressing and lifting in pneumatic
manipulators and automatic packaging machines.
Types of Double-Acting Cylinders
1. Piston cylinders - Stroke lengths are up to 500 mm. The working speed is in the
range of 30 to 2000 mm/s. Cylinder forces are about 40 kN.
2. Short-stroke Cylinders - Short-stroke cylinders are used when short strokes are
required together with high forces.
Typical picture of a Double-Acting Cylinder Typical picture of Short-stroke Cylinders
Double-Acting Cylinder with Adjustable Stroke Cushioning
Cross-sectional view of the component’s construction Double-Acting Cylinder
3.3.3 Rotary Actuators
The rotary actuators transform the power of compressed air that generates linear
piston movement into a reversible rotary movement. The piston rod of the actuator is
designed in the form of a toothed rack with two pistons connected at each end.
The linear motion created by introducing an air pressure to the piston/rack

assembly is transmitted through a pinion (small gear wheel that engages with a larger
gear or with a rack) to create a rotary motion. The rotation angle could reach and even
overcome 360° depending on the cylinder stroke and on the gear ratio. The chamber
between the two pistons is connected to the atmosphere, to avoid any trapped air from

impeding any motion of the actuator. Available torque at the shaft is directly proportional
to the difference in air pressure between the input and output ports.
Rotary actuators are used for turning details, bending pipes and bars, or for driving
butterfly valves in pneumatic control systems
Typical picture of a Rotary Actuator Cross-sectional view of the component’s construction
Rotary Actuator
Mode of Operation
When the left piston area is connected to the pressure line and the right
one is connected to the atmosphere the two pistons with the rack move to the
right and the rack turns the pinion clockwise.
Again, when the left piston area is connected to the atmosphere and the
right one is connected to the pressure line the two pistons with the rack move to
the left and the rack turns the pinion counter clockwise.
3.4 Actuators, Controlling Elements and Signal Elements
Valves are devices that controls the flow or movements of fluids like liquids or gases
through piping or other passages by opening or closing ports and channels
3.4.1 Direction Control Valves
In pneumatic controls, directional control valves determine the flow of air between
its ports by opening, closing or changing its internal connections. They are used as
signaling elements, controlling elements and actuators to perform functions like:
 stopping the flow of compressed air

 controlling the through-flow of air
 controlling the direction of flow of air
3.4.2 Classification of Directional Control Valves
 type of control
 type of the distributing element
 number of pneumatic connections or ports
 condition at neutral position whether normally closed and normally open valve
3.4.3 Representation of Directional Control Valves
Pneumatic elements are shown as

standardized symbols as stipulated
in DIN ISO 1219.

 Direct Exhausts are called open-air exit but it does not accept any connection to a
distributor.
 Exhausts are called restricted-air exit The exhaust acts as a pressure reducer and
are inserted in the circuit wherever there is an exhaust port. It allows the evacuation
of compressed air so that pressure will be null in all the parts of the circuit to which
they are attached.
 Switching positions and their respective control methods can be identified using lower
case letters.
a b a 0 b
 Normal Position of the valve is defined as the switching

position assumed by the valve when it is not
operated, say for instance due to the force of the spring.
 Initial Position of the valve is defined as the switching

position assumed by the valve for instance to
mechanical detent or due to the switching-in of
supply energy.
3.4.4 Port or Connection Designation of Directional Control Valves
PORT DESIGNATION
LETTERS ISO 5599
INPUTS (Supply) P 1
OUTPUTS (Working Ports) A, B 4, 2
VENTS (Exhaust Ports) R, S 5, 3
PILOT (Control Ports) Z, Y 12, 10
For 3/2 DCVs
PILOT (Control Ports) Z, Y 14, 12
For 4/2 and 5/2 DCVs
3.4.5 Designation of Directional Control Valves
2/2 way On/Off DCV 5/2 way DCV (12) with

without exhaust separate exhausts
2/2 way Normally Open DCV 3/3 way DCV with a

closed-center position
3/2 way Normally Closed

DCV 4/3 way DCV with an
open-center position
3/2 way Normally Open DCV

5/3 way DCV with
an open-center
4/2 way DCV (14) with a position
common exhaust
5/3 way DCV with a

4/2 way DCV (12) with a closed-center position
common exhaust
5/3 way DCV with a

5/2 way DCV (14) with pressurized-center
separate exhausts position
 The 1st digit = Number of Ports

 The 2nd digit = Number of Switching Positions

3.4.6 Control or Actuation Methods of Directional Control Valves
The control or actuation methods are used to switch-over between the valves various
switching positions. They are drawn directly at the side of the square as it represents the
directional control valve’s switching position to which it applies. The following are the common
valve operators:
1. MANUAL / MUSCULAR CONTROL - Generally obtained by attaching an operator head,

suitable for manual control, onto a mechanically-operated valve. Manually-operated,
monostable valves (spring return valves) are generally used for starting, stopping and
otherwise controlling a pneumatic circuit. In circumstances where it is more convenient
if the valve maintains its position, manually-operated bistable valves (with detent or
impulse) should be used.
2. MECHANICAL CONTROL - On an automated machine, these valves can detect moving

machine parts to provide signals for the automatic control of the working cycle.
3. PNEUMATIC / PRESSURE CONTROL - Normally, air-operated valves are the main

valves which are located close to a cylinder or other actuator, and are switched by
remote control from signal input valves or switches. A monostable air-piloted valve is
switched by air pressure acting on a piston and returned to its normal position by an
air-spring, mechanical spring, or a combination of both, when the signal pressure is
removed.
4. ELECTRICAL CONTROL - The electrical operation is effected by a solenoid and a

plunger, and therefore the units are generally known as solenoid valves. Direct acting
solenoid valves rely on the electromagnetic force of the solenoid valve to move a
poppet or spool. To limit the size of the solenoid, larger valves have indirect solenoid
pilot operation.
3.4.6.1 3/2 Manually Operated directional Control
The 3/2 directional control valve (DCV), manually operated, is used to control the
direction of the air flow in a single line of a pneumatic system. It connects the outlet port
of the valve to its pressure inlet or exhaust port. 3/2 DCV allows manual or mechanical
control of the pneumatic air flow in the circuit.
They are used to provide input control of power signals given by an operator or by
moving mechanisms of the system.
The 3/2 directional control valves are also used for the direct for the direct
actuation of single-acting cylinders.
. 3/2 way Normally Closed

Directional Control Valve,
Typical picture of a 3/2 way Push-button Actuated,
Normally Closed Directional Spring Return
Control Valve, Push-button
Actuated, Spring Return Cross-sectional view of the
component’s construction

3.4.6.2 5/2 Pneumatically Operated Directional Control Valves
Basically, the 5/2 directional control valve functions the same as the 4/2 version.
The only difference being that due to its design as a spool valve, the 5/2 has an additional
exhaust port (5). In practically all applications, it is just as suitable as the 4/2 version but
because of its outstanding features in terms of size, easy actuation and air passage being
possible in both directions, the 5/2 is sometimes actually preferable to the 4/2 version.
The principles of operation of the pneumatically operated 5/2 directional control

valve is dependent upon the movement of the spool inside the valve. The component shifts
the connection between two outlet ports with a pressure inlet port and an exhaust port. By
this means, pneumatic control of the system is achieved. In such valves, normally outlet
ports are indicated as 2 and 4, pressure port 1, and exhaust ports 3 and 5.
The position of the valve spool is retained until a short pneumatic control signal is
applied to any of the control ports.
The 5/2 directional control valve, operated by pneumatic impulse, is applied in

various practical solutions such as pushing off details, applying tools for performing
operations, opening/closing doors and windows, stretch/bend robot/manipulator arms.
Typical picture of a 5/2 way

Directional Control Valve, 5/2 way Pneumatic Impulse Cross-sectional view of the
Pneumatically Actuated Both Ways Valve component’s construction
3.4.6.3 5/2 Electrically Operated Directional Control Valves
The principles of operation of the electrically operated 5/2 directional control valve
is dependent upon the movement of the spool inside the valve. The component shifts the
connection between two outlet ports with a pressure inlet port and an exhaust port using
an electric control signal. By this means electric control of the pneumatic system is
achieved. In such valves normally outlet ports are indicated as 2 and 4, pressure port 1,
and exhaust ports 3 and 5. The position of the valve spool is retained until a subsequent
electric control signal is applied to any of the control solenoids.
The solenoid-controlled impulse valves are controlled by electrical pulses and are
normally provided with pneumatic pilot control at both ends.
Usually, these valves are equipped with manual override at each end so that the
valve can be switched even without electrical energy, say for instance during servicing and
trouble-shooting.
Electrically operated directional control valves are used in electro-pneumatic

systems included in material-handling systems, assembly process, opening and closing
doors and windows; stretching and retracting robot arms.

Typical picture of a 5/2 way Directional Control Valve,

Electrically Actuated Both Ways
Cross-sectional view of the component’s
construction
5/2 way Solenoid-Controlled

Impulse Valve

ELECTROPNEUMATICS
Electro-pneumatics is the industrial control technology that utilizes both pneumatic and
electrical energy for generating straight line work motions, swiveling and reciprocating motions of
pneumatically driven elements through a series of electrical switches and contacts.
4.1 Sensors
Sensors are devices that are used to detect, and often to measure, the magnitude of
something. They basically operate by converting mechanical, magnetic, thermal, optical, and
chemical variations into electric voltages and currents. Sensors are usually categorized by what
they measure, and play an important role in modern manufacturing process control.
The following sensors to be discussed are some important devices in electro-pneumatics

such as Proximity sensors (Capacitive and Inductive), Photoelectric Sensor, and Magnetic Sensor.
4.1.1 Proximity sensors
Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object (usually called the target)
without physical contact. Detection of the presence of solids such as metal, glass, and
plastics, as well as most liquids, is achieved by means of a sensing magnetic or
electrostatic field. These electronic sensors are completely encapsulated to protect against
excessive vibration, liquids, chemicals, and corrosive agents found in the industrial
environment.
4.1.1.1 Inductive Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensors operate on different principles, depending on the type of

matter being detected. When an application calls for noncontact metallic target
sensing, an inductive-type proximity sensor is used. Inductive proximity sensors
are used to detect both ferrous metals (containing iron) and nonferrous metals
(such as copper, aluminum, and brass). Inductive proximity sensors operate under
the electrical principle of inductance, where a fluctuating current induces an
electromotive force (emf) in a target object.
4.1.1.2 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive proximity sensors.

The main differences between the two types are that capacitive proximity sensors
produce an electrostatic field instead of an electromagnetic field and are actuated
by both conductive and nonconductive materials. Capacitive sensors contain a high
frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface formed by two metal electrodes.

4.1.2 Photoelectric Sensor
A photoelectric sensor is an optical control device that operates by detecting a

visible or invisible beam of light, and responding to a change in the received light intensity.
Photoelectric sensors are composed of two basic components: a transmitter (light source)
and a receiver (sensor).
4.1.2.1 CNY 70
The CNY70 is a Photoelectric/Reflective sensor that includes an infrared

emitter and phototransistor in a leaded package which blocks visible light. CNY70
applications are Optoelectronic scanning and switching devices i.e, index sensing,
coded disk scanning, etc.
4.1.3 Magnetic Sensor
Magnetic Sensors are used for speed, rotational speed, linear position, linear angle
and position measurement in automotive, industrial and consumer applications.
4.1.3.1 Reed Switch
Reed Switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field.

An example of a reed switch’s application is to detect the opening of a door, when
used as a proximity switch for a burglar alarm.

4.2 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
A digitally-operating electronic system, designed for use in an industrial environment,

which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of user-oriented instructions for
implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to
control through digital or analog inputs and outputs, various types of machines and processes.
PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then
downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in
the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single
PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based
programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is
available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram
Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as the
contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control
systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured text (ST; similar to the
Pascal programming language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language) and sequential
function chart (SFC).These techniques emphasize logical organization of operations.
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers,
differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs
are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line
of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.
There are five basic components in a PLC system:

1. The PLC processor, or controller
2. I/O (Input /Output) modules
3. Chassis or backplane
4. Power supply
5. Programming software that runs in a PC
In addition to these 5, most PLCs also have network interface
Input modules convert many different types of electrical signals such as 120VAC, 24VDC,
or 4-20mA, to signals which the controller can understand. Since there are different types of input
devices, there is a wide variety of input modules available, including both digital and analog
modules.
Discrete modules use only a single bit to represent the state of the device. For example, a
switch is either open or closed. Therefore, the bit is either a 0 (switch is open) or a 1 (switch is
closed). Discrete modules are also known as Digital modules.
Analog modules use words to represent the state of a device. An analog signal represents
a value.. For example, the temperature could be 5, 9, 20, 100, etc degrees. Analog modules use a
value, such as 52, rather than a 0 or 1 to represent the state of the device.

4.2.1 Siemens LOGO!
LOGO! Represents the universal Siemens logic module.

LOGO! Integrates
 Controls
 An operating and display unit
 Power supply
 Interface for expansion modules
 An interface for program modules and a PC cable
 Ready–to–use basic functions that is often required in day–to–day operation, e.g.
functions for on/off delays, current impulse relays and Softkey
 Time switch
 Binary markers
 Inputs and outputs according to the device type
4.2.1.1 LOGO! I/O s
4.2.1.2 Getting Started With Logo.
LOGO!Soft Comfort V7.0 the program available as a programming package for the PC. This
software includes the following features:
 Offline program generation for your application
 Simulation of your circuit (or program) on the computer
 Generation and printing of a block diagram
 Saving the program to the hard disk or other storagemedia
 Program transfer from the LOGO! to the PC
 Reading the operating hours counter
To create a diagram, press ctrl+N or click New in the menu bar.

After press ctrl+N

Basic Tools and Command
Constants/Connectors (F6) Special Functions (F8)
Basic Functions (F7) Data Log Profile
This tool must be selected if you want to place input blocks, output blocks, flags or
constants (high, low) on the programming interface. The specific type of block to be
inserted is selected from an additional toolbar that pops up when you select the
Constants and Connectors tool.
Sub-Functions:
This tool has to be selected if you want to place standard Boolean logic blocks on
the programming interface. The specific type of block is selected from this group
from an additional toolbar that is opened when you select the basic functions tool.

This tool has to be selected if you want to place additional retentive or time-related
function blocks on the programming interface. The specific type of block is selected
from an additional toolbar that opens when you select the SFB tool.

For digital I/O and memory, you must log data in groups of eight bits, for example, I1 to
I8, Q9 to Q16, M17 to M24. For analog data, you select one value to be logged, for
example, AI1, AQ2, or AM1. You configure function block values in groups of eight bits or
single values, depending on the value type (digital or non-digital).
You can log a maximum of 32 items (analog values or eight-bit digital groups) in the Data
Log.

Transferring the Data Log
After configuring the Data Log, you can download the circuit program into the
LOGO! 0BA7/0BA6 devices where the Data Log is stored in the internal EEPROM.
You can transfer the Data Log to your PC or an SD card in .CSV format. To upload
the Data Log from the internal EEPROM to your PC, use the menu command "Tools ->
Transfer -> Upload Data Log", and the LOGO! 0BA7 devices must be in STOP mode.
4.2.1.3 Making your own Program: Function Block Diagram (FBD)
Drag a desired block in the tool bar

to the program interface.

To connect two blocks, just point

the input ends of the block. A blue
box indicates that it is ready to
connect to the other block
You can also connect blocks by right

click or you can also use F5.
Connection between two blocks

Example of complete connection

of blocks, this example is called
off delay circuit.
Running a Program:
Successful running program

4.2.1.4 Making your own Program: Ladder Diagram
To change the program interface into ladder, just

click the Convert to LAD at the Menu bar.

The vertical line indicates the power source. When you put a Make Contact or
other blocks, it needs to be initialized or if this blocks needs a co- partner.
Connection of a block
into the power line.

This shows how to partner

two or more blocks.
Complete Ladder program of a Off-

Delay Circuit

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CARAGA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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GETTING STRATED WITH FESTO FLUIDSIM® 3.6

1.1 Technical Requirements

The minimum requirement for a processor is a Pentium processor that runswith an

1.2 Basic Parts ofFESTO FluidSim® 3.6

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1.3 Simulating and Creating Circuits

1.3.1 Basic Simulation

The switching of a component is only possible when a simulation is running ( () or

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Real-time-proportionality guarantees the following property:

 If in reality cylinder moves twice as fast as another one, the relationship

1.3.2 Creating Circuits

1. Create an empty drawing area by clicking on .

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Arrange the components in the following manner:

Description of the dialog box:

 Left/Right Actuation - For both sides the actuation modes of the

 Valve Body - A conﬁgurable valve has at most four positions. For

 Initial Position - This button deﬁnes the valve’s initial position

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8. Move the mouse cursor over the left cylinder connection.

In Edit Mode, the mouse cursor changes to a cross-wires pointerwhen it is above a

11. Release the mouse button.

Immediately a line appears between the two chosen connections:

12. Move the mouse cursor to a line.

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1.4 Hands-On Training Kit

1.4.1 General Instruction

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Multiposition switches can be either break-before-make (most common) or make-before-

1.1.1 Hand Switch

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 Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more

 Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that

2.1.2 Limit Switches

Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a

 These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand

 Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by

Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light

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2.1.3 Process Switches

In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical

 These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal

 Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that

 An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the "bimetallic strip:" a

 A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the

Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid

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level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength of

Both source and detector are outside of the

As usual, there is usually more than one

2.1.4 Simple Switch Ladder Implementation

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The logical inversion, or NOT, function can be performed on a contact input

Parallel contacts are equivalent to an OR gate.

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We can build combinational logic functions by grouping contacts in series-parallel

NOTE: To put label just double click

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