3rd Livestock Research Activities Proceeding PDF

Proceedings of the 3rd Annual
Regional Conference on Completed

Livestock Research Activities
1 to 4 September, 2008
Amhara Regional Agricultural Research

Institute (ARARI)
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Editors:
Solomon Gizaw, Fisseha Moges & Halima

Hassen
Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Regional Conference on Completed Livestock Research
[ARARI 2008] Activities
Proceedings of the 3rd Annual

Regional Conference on Completed
Livestock Research Activities
1 to 4 September, 2008
Amhara Regional Agricultural Research

Institute (ARARI)
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Editors:
Solomon Gizaw, Fisseha Moges & Halima
Hassen
i
Contents
Identified indigenous feed resources and their nutritive value in
Menz-Gera district of Amhara region...................................... 1
Likawent Yeheyis, Aschalew Tsegahun, Ameha Sebsibe, Tefera
Mekonen, Nake Ziku & Agraw Amane
Adaptation of cow pea varieties as livestock feed in North
Gondar of Amhara region ................................................... 11
Surafel Melaku, Tesfaye Tsegaye, Yeshambel Tesfa and Solomon
Abegaze
Evaluation of solar tent and drying rack methods for the
production of quality dried fish in Lake Tana area ................. 15
Assefa Tessem1, Sewmohon Demssie1, Goraw Goshu1, Behailu Bekele2
Admasu Fantahun2 and Belay Bezabeih3
Effectiveness of Newcastle disease vaccinations applied on
chickens in Amhara Region, North West Ethiopia .................. 27
Hailu Mazengia*
Physicochemical properties of honey collected from Western

Amhara Region, Ethiopia .................................................... 34
Kerealem Ejigu* and Adebabay Kebede
On-Farm evaluation of mixtures of perennial grasses and

legumes for adaptation and yield performance in Bahir Dar
Zuria woreda ..................................................................... 40
Yihalem Denekew
Growth of Washera ram lambs fed on Napier (P.purpureum)

and Sesbania (S.sesban ) mixture at different levels of
combination ...................................................................... 49
Mengistie Taye
On-farm Evaluation of Urea Treated finger millet straw and
Concentrate feed supplementation for sheep fattening in Bahir
Dar Zuria woreda ............................................................... 56
Wude Tsega*, Tekeba Eshetie*, Girma Abebe@, Habetemariam
Asefa*, Shigdafe Mekuriaw* and imegnew Tamir*
ii
Forward
The annual regional conference on completed research activities has three

main purposes. Compiling results of completed research activities by
researchers without being critically evaluated for proper data analyses and
interpretation and without ensuring validity of the findings has significant
negative impact on the quality of the information to be delivered to the users.
Hence, this annual forum is primarily important to monitor and evaluate
research outputs and ensure its validity. Secondly, the research output
critically evaluated and sieved in this way will help to update technology
manuals regularly based on proven technologies published in the
proceedings. Hence, beyond publishing the proceeding it is important to
extract appropriate recommendations or research outputs from the proceeding
and update the technology manuals so that the information will be utilized by
the extension. Researchers are therefore expected to take prompt action in
this regard and prepare manuals regularly in Amharic for further
dissemination of the findings to development agents working down at Kebele
level. In this way the interface between research and extension can also be
expressed in a better way if the output from the forum is properly utilized.
Another benefit of this annual forum is experience sharing among researchers
regardless of seniority and its benefit can not be substituted by any form of
training. Therefore, it is a good opportunity for live interaction among
researchers and it is the responsibility of all to keep its continuity.
Fentahun Mengistu (PhD)
Director General
Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute
iii
Instructions to Authors
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iv
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(1979) .
References should be listed according to the following format. Note: names

of Ethiopian authors are written fully.
Journal Article
Mabbayad, M.O. and Moody,K. (1985). Improving butachlor selectivity and
weed control in wet -seeded rice. Journal of Plant Protection in the
Tropics 2(2): 117-124.
Beyene Chichaibellu, Coppock, C.E. and McDowell R.E.(1977). Laboratory

evaluation and estimation of nutritive values of some Ethiopia feedstuffs.
J. Assoc. Adv. Agric. Sci Africa 4(2):9-23.
Book
Quinn, G.P., and Keough M.J (2002). Experimental design and data analysis
for biologists. Cambridge university press, Cambridge.
Edited works (Chapter in a book or paper in a proceeding)

Loegering, William Q. (1984). Title of the chapter/paper. P. 165-192. In
William R. Bushnell and Alan P. Roelfs (eds.) title of the book/the
proceedings, Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.
Un Published reports
Huxley, P.A.(1986) Rationalizing research on hedgerow intercropping: an
overview. ICRAF Working Paper 40. Nairobi:ICRAF. P66-75
v
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(personal communication).
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vi
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vii
Identified indigenous feed resources and their

nutritive value in Menz-Gera district of Amhara
region
Likawent Yeheyis, Aschalew Tsegahun, Ameha Sebsibe, Tefera Mekonen,
Nake Ziku & Agraw Amane
Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 112, Debre Birhan,
Ethiopia
Abstract
A study was conducted to identify indigenous feed resources in Gera Keya
wereda of northern Shoa, assess their utilization and evaluate their nutritive
value. Two representative peasant associations in Gera Keya district, namely
Gumer and Dargegne, were studied. Forty-five feed types were identified
and collected. Twenty-four and 21 of the feeds were collected during the
Mehere and the dry season, respectively. The feeds are classified into
browse, herbaceous, grass and non-conventional feeds. Some of the feeds are
used as the dry season progresses. The feeding systems include cut and carry,
direct browsing/grazing and hay making. Sheep and goat are found to be the
most preferred species by farmers for feeding the indigenous feeds. Chemical
analysis of the feeds showed that 42 % of the feeds contained more than 10
percent crude protein (CP) while 22 % of the feeds contained below the
critical value of 7 percent CP. In vitro organic matter digestibility ranged
from 23.71 to 87.24 percent.
Introduction
The major feed resources around Gera keya wereda are natural pasture and
crop residues. Commercial concentrates and grains are beyond the economic
reach of subsistence farmers and commercial concentrates are virtually
unavailability in the rural parts of the country (Zinash and Seyoum, 1991).
Natural pasture and crop residues are poor in quality and do not last long
enough to sustain livestock production for the most part of the year,
particularly during the dry season. To cope up with the problem of dry
season feed shortage which could not even support the animals maintenance
requirements, farmers traditionally resort to drought tolerant indigenous
browse, herbaceous and unconventional feeds. However, there is no
information on the abundance, supplemental value and nutritive value of
1
these feeds. This study was conducted to identify potential indigenous feed
resources in Menz-Gera wereda of north Shoa, assess their utilization and
evaluate their nutritive value.
Material and Methods

Sampling and identification
The study was conducted in Menz-Gera district. An informal survey of the
district was conducted prior to the actual study. Based on representativeness
and tradition of using indigenous plant resources as animal feed, Menz-Gera
Gumer and Dargegn peasant associations (PA) were purposively selected for
the study. Farmers within each PA and the feed samples were picked
randomly.
Sampling was done in November and April - May for the wet and dry season,
respectively. Samples were collected with the assistance of the farmers and
the Bureau of Agriculture and rural development staff. Each sampled feed
was characterized by the cutting period, cutting stage, feeding system (i.e.
how it is fed to animals) and type of animals fed. Identification of the species
of the feeds was made on the spot. Field identification was further confirmed
by Addis Ababa University.
Nutritive value analysis

Collected samples were dried in a forced-draught oven at 650C for 72 hours
to constant weight, ground to pass through a 1 mm sieve and stored in an air
tight container at room temperature until chemical analysis. Dry matter
(DM), ash and nitrogen contents of the feeds were analyzed according to
AOAC (1990). Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF)
were determined according to the methods outlined by Gorieng and Vansoest
(1970).
Results and Discussion

Identified indigenous feed resources and their utilization
The identified indigenous feed resources’ common names, species scientific
name, cutting time, feeding system and livestock species feeding on them are
presented in Tables 1 and 2 for Gumer and Dargegne PAs, respectively. The
feed resources are classified into browses, herbaceous plants, grasses and
non-conventional feeds.
Farmers do not plant any of the indigenous feeds for their feeding value. The
feeds are found mostly around fences, waste and abandoned lands. The
2
feeding system in Gumer PA is cut-and-carry for herbs, grasses and non-

conventional plants, while most of the browses are browsed by the animals.
In Dargegne, all the feeds are directly grazed or browsed by the animals. It
was observed during sampling that Anfar, Kukucho male and female have a
better leaf biomass than other feed types.
Livestock species utilizing the feed resources in order of farmers’ preferences

are sheep, goats and cattle. This might be because sheep are the most
important livestock in the area in supporting farmers livelihood compared to
other livestock species. Farmers attach a particular value to some feed types.
They believe feeding the Gishrit roots to cows in the morning increases milk
yield. Gudign (Geranium arabicum) and Yemidir kosso (Parochatus
communis) are the only feed types offered to equines in Dargegne peasant
association, with the belief that feeding Gudign to sheep causes Faciolosis
which is locally known as “Kuakult” or “Maule”. Among all the indigenous
feeds of the two peasant associations Jibbra (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) is the
only indigenous feed type reported to have a medicinal value for sheep.
Seasonal availability
The feed types Ameja (Hypericum quartinanum) and Asta (Erica arborea)
are the only browses that remain green throughout the year, and are preferred
mainly by sheep and goats. Most of the feeds are harvested during April to
May (dry season) and October to November (Meher season). It was reported
that Abta-areg, Muja, Teseri, Serdo, Gaya Sar and Gicha are Meher season
feeds. Gotti (Andropogen distachyos), Serdo (Cynodon dactylon), Shahare,
Gaya sar (Andropogen amethystinus), Tikur sar, Sama (Urtica simensis) are
harvested in October and November. The herbaceous tree Getin
(Haplocarpha schimperi) is harvested two times in a year, the root between
Januarys to May and the leaf between September and November. Tult
(Rumer steudneri) is also harvested two times per year, February to March
and September-October after the short and main rainy seasons respectively.
Nutritive value
Results of the laboratory chemical analysis of indigenous feed resources in
Gumer and Dargegne Pas are presented in Table 3. Among the collected feed
types, 13.3 percent of the feeds have the potential to be used as a protein
supplement as they contain more than 20.0 percent protein (CP). Sama
(Urtica simensis) contains the highest protein of 27.1%, which is nearly
comparable to Alfalfa. Yemidir kosso and kuckucho female are also
comparable to vetch in quality. In general, 42.22 percent of the feeds contain
3
above 10% CP, while 22.22 percent of the feeds contain less than the critical
value of 7 percent CP required for optimizing rumen fermentation and
maintaining a positive N balance (Minson, 1971; Van Soest, 1982).
Generally feeds sampled during the Meher season had higher CP as

compared to the dry season. The implication is that farmers need to be
advised to harvest these feeds at the appropriate time and conserve for dry
season use. The information generated from the study is encouraging in the
context of the limited quality feed available in the area and require further
evaluation in terms of agronomic and animal performance.
The dry matter (DM) contents of the feeds ranges from 82.65% for the non-
conventional feed Gishret to 91.6% for Asta, both collected in the Meher
season. These ranges are in agreement with previous findings (Alemu, 1981;
Seyoum and Zinash, 1989). The ash value varies from 1.79 to 33.98% with a
mean of 12.06, and is comparable with the value reported by Seyoum and
Zinash(1989).
A large variation was obtained in digestibility (IVOMD) of the feeds, ranging

from 23.71% in Kuakucho male to 87.24% in Lit. Feeds having 50-55
percent digestibility could supply sufficient energy to meet the maintenance
requirement of sheep (Pearce, 1982) and draught animal (Reed and Gore,
1989). In general the recommendation of McDowell (1988) states that 42-45
percent of apparent digestibility is taken as optimum to support maintenance.
Based on the proceeding recommendations, 85.19 & 77.78 percent of the
feeds in Gumer & Dargegne respectively fall within and above the range.
The CP value of feeds collected from Gumer ranges from 3.53 for Eret to
22.32%for Azo-areg with a mean of 9.08. High CP values are obtained from
Mesirich (19.14), Anfare (21.3) and Azo-areg (22.32). It was found that
almost one-third of the feed collected from Dargegne peasant association are
low in their CP content. Hence, animals that capitalize on these feeds cannot
sustain the nitrogen balance because of the low N and high cell wall content
and slow digestion (Seyoum and Derge, 2000) resulting in low performance.
Half of the feeds collected from Dargegne and 66.7 percent from Gumer
contain NDF value of above 45 percent. The mean NDF value of the feeds in
Dargenge and Gumer is 47.28 and 53.34% respectively. High NDF value
indicates poor quality, which is attributed to high structural components
resulting to low digestion, low rate of passage and limited voluntary intake
(McDowell, 1988). The NDF values obtained in the current study are in
agreement with previous studies (Alemu, 1987, Seyom and Zinash, 1989).
4
Conclusion and Recommendations

Lit and Sama have high CP (21.5 and 27%) and IVOMD (66 and 82%)
values and low fiber content. Yemdir kosso and Kukucho female are medium
in quality. Anfar, Kukucho male and female were visually observed to have a
better leaf biomass. Samples of Meher season had higher crude protein as
opposed to the dry season ones. The nineteen indigenous forage species that
had crude protein content of 10 percent and higher are selected for further
agronomic and animal evaluation.
5
References
Alemu Yami. 1981. Laboratory evaluation and estimation of nutritive value
of some feed stuffs produced in the Alemaya District. MSc Thesis
Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
AOAC (Association of Analytical Chemists). 1990. Official Methods of
Analysis. 15th ed. AOAC. Inc., Arlington, Virginia.
Gorieng, H. and P.J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analysis (apparatus,
reagents, procedures and some applications). Agr. Handbook No.
379, USDA, Washington D.C.
Mc Dowell, R.E. 1988. Importance of crop residues for feeding livestock in
smallholder farming systems, pp. 3-28. In J.D. Reed, B.S. Capper
and P.J.H. Neate (eds). Proceedings of the Workshop held at ILCA,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 7-10 December, 1987. ILCA Addis Ababa.
Minson, D.J. 1971. The nutritive value of tropical pastures. J. Aust. Inst,
Agric. Sc. 37:255-263.
Pearce, G.R. 1982. Cell wall structure and the effects of pretreatments on the
digestibility of fibrous residues. FAO. Animal Production and
Health Paper, 32. FAO, Rome.
Reed, J.D. and M.R.Gore. 1989. Estimating the nutritive value of crop
residues, Implications for developing feeding standards for draught
animals. Pp. 2-9. ILCA Bulletin 34.
Seyoum Bediye and Fekadu Dereje. 2000. Potential of tef straw as livestock
feed, pp.245-254. In Hailu Tefera, Getachew Belay and M.
Sorrelism (eds). Narrowing the rift. Tef research and Development.
In Proceedings of the International Workshop Tef Genetics and
Improvement, 16-19 October 2000. Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.
Seyoum Bediye and Zinash Sileshi. 1989. The composition of Ethiopian
feedstuffs. Pp. 179-185. In Proceedings of the 2nd National
Livestock Improvement conference. 24-26 February, 1988. Institute
of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. O and B books
Corvallis, Oregon.
Zinash Sileshi and Seyoum Bediye. 1991. Utilization of feeds resources and
feeding systems in the central zone of Ethiopia. Pp. 129-132.
Proceedings of 3rd National Livestock Improvement Conference, 24-
26 May 1989. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
6
Table 1. Indigenous feeds of Gumer and their utilization.

Common name Scientific name Cutting time Feeding system Livestock species
1- Browse
Girar Acacia spp Apr — May Cut & carry Sheep & goat
Kega Rosa abyssinica Feb---- Apr Direct browsing Sheep & goat
Agam Carissa edulis Feb----May Direct browsing Goat
Anfare Buddleja polystachya Apr---- May Cut & carry Sheep goat & cattle
Keret Osyris quadripartite Sep----Oct Direct browsing Goat
Tedo Rhamnus staddo Sep----Oct Direct browsing Sheep & goat
Kuakucho(female) Crotalaria rosenii --------- ------------------- --------------
Kuakucho(male) Colutea abyssinica ---------- -------------------- ---------------
2- Herbaceous
Azo areg Clematis hirsute Dec----Jan Cut & carry as green Sheep & goat
Abta areg Jasminum abbyssinicum --------------- Cut & carry as green Sheep & goat
Buhe areg Stepharia abbysinica Apr---- May Cut & carry as green Sheep, goat & cattle
3- Grass
Muja Snowdeni polystachya Oct-----Nov Cut &carry as green &hay Sheep & Cattle
Serdo Cynadon dactylon Oct-----Nov Cut &carry as green &hay Sheep & Cattle
Gaya sar Andropogen amethystinus Oct-----Nov Cut &carry as green &hay Sheep & Cattle
Gicha Cyperus rotundus Oct-----Nov Cut &carry as green &hay Sheep & Cattle
Teseri -------- ----------- Oct-----Nov Cut &carry as green &hay Sheep & Cattle
4-Non-coventional
Eret Aloe berhana Apr---- May Chopped root as fresh feed Cattle
Gishrit Impations rothii August Chopped root as fresh feed Cattle
7
Table-2. Indigenous feeds of Dargegn and their utilization

Common name Scientific name Cutting time Feeding system Livestock Spp
1-Browse
Ameja Hypericum quartinanum Ever green Direct browsing Sheep & goat
Asta Erica arborea Ever green Direct browsing Sheep & goat
Jibbra Lobelia rhynchopetalum Jan----May Direct browsing/cut &carry Sheep & goat
Sama Urtica simensis Oct---Nov Hay Cattle
2-Herbacious
Gudign Geranium arabicum Jan----May Direct grazing as green Equine
Getin Haplocarpha schimperi Jan—May (root) Direct grazing& uprooting the Cattle, sheep & goat
Sep---Nov (leaf) root
Tult Rumer steudneri Feb-March(belg) Direct grazing as green Cattle
Sep--Oct
Yemidircosso Parochatus communis ----- -------- Direct grazing as green Cattle & equine
Tossign Thymus serrulatus ------ ---------- Direct grazing as green Cattle, sheep & goat
Lut Malva verticilata ------- ---------- Direct grazing as green Cattle
3-Grass
Guassa Festuca macrohpyla ------- ---------- Direct grazing as green Cattle
Guddaro ---------- ---------- ------- ---------- Direct grazing as green Cattle
Gotti Andropogen distachyos Oct---Nov Hay Cattle
Serdo Cynodon dactylon ------ -------- Direct grazing as green Cattle
Shahare ---------- ---------- Oct---Nov Direct grazing as green Cattle
Gaya sar Andropogen amethystinus Oct---Nov Hay & Direct grazing as green Cattle, sheep & goat
Tikur sar ---------- ----------- Oct---Nov Hay & Direct grazing as green Cattle
8
Table 3. Chemical composition of indigenous feed resources at Gummer and Dargegne peasant associations in Menz-Gra district.
Part Ash CP ADF ADL IVOMD CT
Local name Location Season DM % NDF % ST %
of plant % % % % % (abs/gm)
Eret Gummer Meher Root 87.89 12.68 3.53 44.7 41.58 7.89 65.77 6.21 3.73
geten Dargegne Meher Root 90.41 28.49 4.22 26.32 25.8 8.78 78.93 7.21 7.15
Eret Gummer Dry Period Root 90.12 13.31 4.53 57.75 54.71 10.59 51.65 9.81 2.03
Gishret(root) Gummer Meher Root 82.65 8.16 5.17 22.88 22.84 9.28 84.92 146.09 8.09
Gishret Gummer Dry Period Root 87.77 21.18 5.96 40.75 42.15 20.05 57.06 154.05 4.72
Tedo Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.07 4.05 6.33 61.8 51.42 17.81 50.14 57.54 11.98
Keret Gummer Dry Period Branch 91.18 8.98 6.44 26.22 28.43 15.35 80.16 81.84 35.34
Gishret Gummer Meher Root 84.51 14.83 6.51 19.18 19.75 7.12 87.24 74.22 9.02
Tossign Dargegne Dry Period Branch 90.54 10.1 6.7 58.82 56.12 23.7 43.14 12.79 2.72
Agam Gummer Meher Branch 90.02 7.79 6.92 61.3 62 34.32 47.73 181.67 8.47
Kuakucho
male Gummer Meher Branch 91.18 1.79 7.11 86.89 70.67 20.46 23.71 5.99 3.03
Geten Dargegne Dry Period Root 90.82 33.98 7.32 23.57 34.75 12.35 74.32 7.97 2.87
Tedo Gummer Meher Branch 90.03 4.41 7.49 69.42 54.38 17.6 43.87 60.12 2.31
Agam Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.47 5.9 7.56 60.61 62.17 35.39 50.99 159.91 10.81
Kega Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.61 7.9 7.85 48.54 38.67 13.24 61.76 40.96 13.49
Keret Gummer Meher Branch 90.38 7.48 8.18 35.71 38.1 20.13 70.67 109.51 39.69
Asta Dargegne Dry Period Branch 91.52 3.83 8.26 66.35 73.14 46.48 41.53 162.37 9.58
Azo-areg Gummer Dry Period Whole t 89.14 10.68 9.08 36.65 35.7 8.55 73.82 8.49 7.65
Tossign Dargegne Meher Branch 88.08 9.12 9.18 61.71 67.11 25.99 49.14 17.75 3.82
Asta Dargegne Meher Branch 91.6 4.02 9.29 66.99 60.47 41.94 37.69 147.8 9.91
Abeta-areg Gummer Dry Period Whole 91.55 6.84 10.15 49.8 41.06 17.12 55.49 6.59 12.97
8
Jibra Dargegne Dry Period Leaf 88.99 11.2 11.57 32.48 33.05 5.61 85.42 4.84 11.91
Kuakucho-
female Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.67 4.95 11.61 64.76 50.46 7.57 53.76 4.82 2.27
Yemider
kosso Dargegne Dry Period Whole 88.2 9.91 11.68 30.89 32.22 8.18 69.86 18.92 16.76
Anfare Gummer Dry Period Branch 89.9 5.99 11.84 56.82 51.87 21.17 44.71 24.62 6.01
Kega Gummer Meher Branch 88.87 6.93 11.9 44.95 31.6 12.18 63.3 38.12 20.23
Ameja Dargegne Dry Period Branch 89.65 3.37 12.73 70.91 67.39 39.14 33.2 187.89 6.76
Buhe-areg Gummer Dry Period Whole 88.96 18.18 12.76 42.56 51.87 16.81 60.83 32.84 4.07
Geten Dargegne Meher Leaf 89.59 30.41 14.4 45.23 42.8 14.31 66.2 13.76 4.01
Jibra Dargegne Meher Leaf 86.31 11.42 15.16 34.84 35.01 7.23 85.63 7.72 10.8
9
Table 3 cont’d
Lute Dargegne Dry Period Whole 89.03 10.87 15.53 59.18 44.68 9.93 55.46 6.63 4.9
Girar Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.45 5.56 15.9 68.54 60.04 26.42 42.75 57.93 8.48
Kuakucho-
Male Gummer Dry Period Branch 90.59 5.26 16.1 62.45 50.12 10.98 48.33 5.07 1.37
Girar Gummer Meher Branch 89.6 5.82 16.22 76.53 63.42 33.2 34.75 36.57 3.62
Ameja Dargegne Meher Branch 87.93 4.51 16.94 74.12 67.56 38.83 40.08 174.76 4.51
Yemider
kosso Dargegne Meher Whole 87.66 11.22 17.38 29.66 28.01 4.99 71.29 11.75 16.38
Kuakucho
female Gummer Meher Branch 89.51 5.71 17.74 60.11 50.18 7.93 66.33 5.36 5.31
Buhe-areg Gummer Meher Whole 88.93 21.57 17.86 62.65 57.7 25.62 35.79 25.16 1.45
Mesirich Gummer Meher Branch 88.92 9.63 19.14 45.88 45.69 21.59 59.14 29.07 7.6
Anfare Gummer Meher Branch 88.95 8.84 21.3 69.07 60.65 32.49 35.6 33.61 4.38
Whole
Lit Dargegne Meher Plant 87.23 18.55 21.5 38.48 33.04 6.02 82.43 5.7 7.82
Tult Dargegne Meher Leaf 87.66 15.7 22.28 63.05 59.26 36.39 43.88 73.8 2.45
Azo-areg Gummer Meher Branch 88.5 10.71 22.32 63.72 54.03 18.01 53.65 11.87 4.55
Sama Dargegne Dry Period Branch 89.23 28.11 25.76 30.92 30.09 11.16 75.56 19.53 2.72
Sama Dargegne Meher Branch 88.97 29.25 27.1 37.52 32.4 14.02 65.61 24.41 3.48
10
Adaptation of cow pea varieties as livestock feed in

North Gondar of Amhara region
Surafel Melaku, Tesfaye Tsegaye, Yeshambel Tesfa and Solomon Abegaze
Gondar Agricultural Research Center P.O.Box 1337, Gondar, Ethiopia
Abstract
There is a shortage of feed both in terms of quality and quantity in North
Gondar zone. To alleviate this sever problem it is important to introduce and
evaluate the adaptability of suitable improved forage species. Six varieties of
cow pea were tested for adaptation in 2007 at Belessa district. Maturity dates
of the six cow pea varieties are statistically similar with mean value of 65.33
days. The dry matter yield (DMY) at 50% flowering was the highest for the
variety Var-85 (3.24 t/ha), but differences between Var-85, TVX and White
wonder is not statistically significant. The Haulm DMY from White wonder
and MM was similar and the highest (0.51t/ha). There was no difference
between the six varieties in grain production. The varieties Var-85, TVX and
White wonder can be recommended for forage production from cow pea.
Harvesting these varieties at 50% flowering is more beneficial for forage
production since DMY at 50% flowering is higher than haulm DMY.
However, if the objective is to produce both grain and forage as haulm,
varieties, White wonder and MM are to be recommended. A further study is
required to evaluate the comparative advantage of producing forage at 50%
flowering and both forage as haulm and grain. Furthermore, it is
recommended that feeding trial using the recommended varieties need to be
conducted to evaluate the economic importance of the recommended cow pea
varieties.
Introduction
The predominant farming system in North Gondar zone is predominantly
mixed crop-livestock production (ILDP, and ORD/Agriculture Desk).
However, there is repeated crop production failure due to short rainy season,
erratic rainfall, erosion, and poor soil fertility, among other factors. There is
also limited land availability for crop production. Thus livestock production
can play a vital role in the livelihood the farmers not only during bad
production years, but also during normal years. However, livestock
production in the area is constrained by feed shortage both in terms of quality
and quantity. A reason for feed shortage is that livestock production,
11
particularly feed development, is given a second priority to crop production.

This is reflected in the bias towards food crop production by the extension
system and farmers reluctance to devote land and labor for forage production.
The major supplemental feed to grazing is crop residue. Farmers in North

Gondar are mostly dependent on the crop residue for the long dry season.
Crop residues are poor in protein and vitamin content, and digestibility.
Supplementing crop residues with legume feed sources has got an advantage
in meeting the protein and vitamin needs of the animals and improves the
digestibility of the crop residue.
There are promising improved forage crop species identified for various
agro-ecologies, with particular emphasis on cultivated forage crops. But, the
adoption rate for improved forage crops has been very low and less
sustainable. The area occupied by improved forage crops in North Gondar is
insignificant and contributes little to the annual feed budget. Therefore, this
work was conducted to strengthen the existing limited forage development
activities and to recommend adaptive varieties of cow pea for Belessa area in
North Gondar and similar agro-ecologies.
Objective
To identify and recommend best adaptable and productive cow pea varieties
for Belesa area in North Gondar and similar agro-ecologies.

Six cow pea varieties (Black eye bean, White wonder, TVX, Var-85, TVU
and MM) were tested for adaptation in 2007 at Belessa district employing
RCBD design with five replications. Fertilizer rate applied was 100 Kg
DAP/ha. Spacing between plots and between replications was 1m. Spacing
between rows and among plants was 75cm and 25cm respectively.
The parameters used to evaluate the adaptability of the cowpea varieties were
Maturity Date, Fresh weight (t/ha), Dry Matter Percentage (DM %) and Dry
Matter Yield (DMY) (t/ha) at 50% flowering period, Haulm dry matter yield,
height (cm) and grain yield (qt/ha).
The data were analyzed employing General Linear Model (GLM) using SAS
statistical software.
12
Result and Discussion

Sampling for forage yield evaluation at 50% flowering was done after 60
days from planting. Haulm yield data was collected after 90 days from
planting date. Maturity dates of the six cow pea varieties were statistically
similar with mean value of 65.33. Among the six varieties of cowpea MM
was the tallest (height = 82.62 cm) and var-85 was the shortest (height =
54.75cm). The mean height of all varieties was 69.8cm.
The DMY at 50% flowering was the highest for Var-85 (3.24 t/ha), but
differences between Var-85, TVX and White wonder is not statistically
significant. TVU gave the lowest DMY at 50% flowering (1.75t/ha). The
mean DMY at 50% flowering was 2.67t/ha. The Haulm DMY from White
wonder and MM was similar and the highest (0.51t/ha).
Var-85, which gave highest DMY at 50% flowering, gave lower haulm DMY
than White wonder and MM varieties. Black eye bean gave the lowest haulm
DMY (0.18t/ha). Mean haulm DMY was 0.37t/ha.
Grain yield of all the six varieties is found statistically similar with mean
value 3.4 qt/ha.
There was Blister beetle infestation at the flowering stage of the cow pea and
expected to be the cause of reduction in grain yield.
Table 1: Mean values of Agronomic parameters for cow pea varieties tested at Belessa District in
2007.
DMY at 50%
Varieties of Cow Maturity Height Haulm DMY Grain Yield
flowering
pea Date (cm) (t/ha) (qt/ha)
(t/ha)
Black eye bean 65.0 73.04ab 2.34ab 0.18b 2.9
White wonder 65.0 81.96 a
2.94 a
0.51 a
3.4
TVX 65.0 66.52bc 3.06a 0.35ab 3.9
Var-85 67.0 54.75 d
3.24 a
0.26 b
3.1
TVU 64.0 59.88cd 1.75b 0.35ab 3.8
MM 66.0 82.62 a
2.69 ab
0.51 a
3.3
Means 65.33 69.8 2.67 0.37 3.4
CV 3.54 11.8 27.7 35.55 25.38
LSD 3.05 10.86 0.98 0.2 1.14
Means followed by different letters are significantly different (P< 0.05).
13
Conclusion and Recommendation

The varieties Var-85, TVX and White wonder gave statistically similar and
the highest DMY at 50% flowering. These varieties can be recommended for
forage production from cow pea. Harvesting these varieties at 50% flowering
is more beneficial for forage production since DMY at 50% flowering is
higher than haulm DMY. These varieties can be harvested at around 65.3
days after planting for forage production.
However, if the objective is to produce both grain and forage as haulm,

varieties White wonder and MM are to be recommended. This is because
these two varieties gave the highest haulm dry matter yield and there is no
difference in grain yield between all varieties. All varieties can be
recommended for grain production.
A further study is required to evaluate the comparative advantage of

producing forage at 50% flowering and both forage as haulms and grain.
Furthermore, it is recommended that feeding trial using the recommended
varieties need to be conducted to evaluate the economic importance of the
recommended cow pea varieties.
References
ARARI.2006. Proceedings of the first annual regional conference on
completed Livestock Research Activities. August 2006. Bahirdar.
Alemayehu Mengistu. 2002. Forage production in Ethiopia: A case study

with implications for Livestock production. Ethiopian society of
Animal Production (ESAP). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
14
Evaluation of solar tent and drying rack methods

for the production of quality dried fish in Lake Tana
area
Assefa Tessem1, Sewmohon Demssie1, Goraw Goshu1, Behailu Bekele2
Admasu Fantahun2 and Belay Bezabeih3
1BahirDar Fishery and Other Aquatic Life Research Center 2Bahir Dar
University , Department of Food Science and Technology 3Bahir Dar
Regional Animal Health laboratory
Abstract
A study was conducted at Bahir Dar Fish and Other Aquatic Life Research
Centre to evaluate solar tent and drying rack methods of fish drying. Three
different fish types (Labeo barbus, Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis
niloticus) were sampled from Lake Tana during the period May 2006 to April
2008. The sampled fish were filleted and dried either in solar tent dryer
(made of wood and plastic) or in the open air on a drying rack. Solar tent
dried the fish in filleted form with better product quality. The moisture
content of the product decreased to less than 25% and as a result it had a
longer shelf life. Duration of drying was significantly shorter with solar tent
(1-2 days) than with drying rack (3-5 days). Duration of drying was also
shorter during the pre-rainy and dry season (1-2 days) than the main rainy
and post rainy season (3-5 days). Clarias gariepinus dried in solar tent had
higher moisture content than Labeo barbus and Oreochromis niloticus, but
the moisture content was within the recommended range. Calculated weight
loss showed statically significant difference with respect to both dryer types
and seasons (p<0.0 5). Quantification of bacterial load, qualitative analysis
and biochemical test showed that the bacterial load had pooled median
abundance of log 3.64ACC per gram of fish and t ranged from log 1.9 to log
6.04. The bacterial load increased after six months of storage. There was no
salmonella detected in the stored dried fish. There was significant difference
in hedonic scale values in dryer type (P<0.05). A further study on microbial
load of dried filleted fish should be done in order to observe seasonal and
species variation in microbial load.
Key words: Solar tent, drying rack, Microbial load
15
Introduction
Fish is an important food item that has significant socioeconomic
contribution as a source of income, employment and cheap protein for
marginal people in developing countries including Ethiopia. Lake Tana is one
of the major fisheries in Ethiopia. There are many fishermen that fish from
the lake, tributary rivers of the lake and seasonal ponds.
Fish from Lake Tana is provided to the market in different forms such as
fresh whole fish, fresh gutted and washed, frozen gutted and filleted using
traditional and improved ways. Production and sale of quality product is
required to increase income of the producers and to provide healthy cheap
protein source to the consumers. However, fish spoil very quickly. In the
high ambient temperature of the tropics, fish will spoil within 12 hours
(Brigitte et al, 2004).
Spoilage of fish can be prevented using different preservation methods

including freezing, smoking, drying, salting and fermentation. Preservation
slows down or prevents spoilage by micro organisms. Preservation has two
effects: retention of the original quality and properties of the foods and
prevention of radical change which results in new product with completely
different qualities and properties.
Fisher men far from markets either has to sell their fish fresh at low price or
use drying to preserve their fish harvest into less perishable product and sell
it for a better price. Dried fish trade is a very important seasonal source of
livelihood for many people including women and is well adapted to relatively
remote places (Anngorden et al. 2006).
Fish can be dried using open air (rack drying) or solar tent dryer. Open air
sun drying has many limitations. Long periods of sun shine without rain are
required, drying rate is low in areas of high humidity and thus it is often
difficult to dry the fish sufficiently. The quality of open air ( Rack) dried fish
is likely to be low due to slow drying, insect damage and contamination
from air born micro organisms and dust and it is difficult to obtain a
uniform product (Trim and Curran,1983). Thus as an alternative to
traditional open-air sun drying method, improved solar tent drying has been
suggested. It is the simplest and cheaper way of solar dryer. Solar tent works
by concentrating solar radiation resulting in increased temperature in the tent
and in turn lower humidity. With solar tent, the drying rate can be increased
and lower moisture content can be attained and the product quality is higher.
Solar tent dryer are less susceptible to variation in weather, although the
drying rate is slower during bad weather (low temperature, high humidity and
16
low wind speed). Solar tent prevents entry of rain and contamination from
pests, dust and air-borne organisms. It is possible to attain temperature as
high as 45 degree centigrade in side solar dryer and it has been suggested that
this relatively high temperature offers some protection against attack by flies,
beetles and other vermin’s (FAO, 1992; Trim and Curran, 1983).
The objective of the current study was to evaluate the solar tent dryer and
rack (open air) fish drying methods for their appropriateness for quality fish
production under the conditions of the Lake Tana region.
Materials and Methods

Study area
The study was conducted at Bihar Dar Fishery and Other Aquatic Lifes
Research Center (11°.4 N and 37°.3´E). The minimum and maximum
temperature is 22oc and 30o respectively with annual rain fall of 1300 mm.
The fish were sampled from Lake Tana. Lake Tana is the largest (3150 km2)
and most elevated (1830 m) lake in Ethiopia with a maximum depth of 14 m
and average depth of 9 m (Tesfaye Wudineh, 1998). There are four distinct
seasons of the year around lake Tana, dry season ( Nov-April), pre-rainy
season (May-June), main rainy season ( July –August), and post rainy
season (September-October) (Eshete Dejen,2003).
Fishing and drying

Samples of the fish species Oreochromis niloticus (tilapia), Labeo barbus
(large barbus) and Clarias gariepinus (catfish) were fished using gillnet of
mesh size 6cm-14cm every month from May 2006 to April 2008. The fish
were filleted using knife, weighed, and soaked in salt solution (6% brine
solution, 60 gram salt dissolved in one liter of water). They were then dried
both on drying rack and in solar tent. Weight after drying has been taken to
obtain the calculated weight losses. This activity was conducted at the Bihar
Dar Fishery research centre.
Moisture content analysis

Moisture content analysis was done at Bahir Dar University (Poly Campus).
Ten grams of dried fish from the three fish species (Lebeo barbus,
Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias garapinus) dried by the two drying
methods (solar tent and drying rack) were sampled. The samples were
covered with aluminum foil and put in oven. The weight change of the
samples was observed and kept in the oven until the weight change became
constant. The moisture content was then calculated as a difference between
the initial and final weights.
17
Organoleptic test
Organoleptic test was done at Bahir Dar Fishery Research Centre. Five men
from Bahir Dar Fishery and Other Aquatic Life Research Center were
selected and trained on how to identify good quality dried fish, using
organoleptic method (texture, color, odor and fragility). Representative dried
fish samples dried by rack and solar tent, from each fish type (Clarias
gariepinus ,Oreochromis niloticus and Labeo barbus), and stored for 1
month, 3 months, 6months, 9months, 12 months and 15 months in plastic bag
at room temperature were labeled with letters and given to the five men to
test the quality using organoleptic methods. The test was done based on
Hedonic scale of 5 based on the methods of Doe and Olley (1990).
Assessment and Quantification of Bacterial load

Representative samples were taken from different treatment groups
aseptically. The treatments were raw fish, filleted fish after 1hr salting, 1
month, 3 months, 6months, 9months, 12 months and 15 months shelf life
stored at ambient temperature. Plate count agar (OXID) for standard
heterotrophic plate count was used. Media were prepared according to
manufacturers’ instructions. Ten gm of fish from each treatment was taken
and mixed with 90 ml of 1% peptone diluents (PW)(1%) and digested in
seaward stomacher (Model 400). 1N HCl and 1N NaOH were added as
buffer to maintain the pH of the solution. Litmus papers which were capable
of distinguishing pH units with a range of 5.0 to 8.0 were used. Pour plate
technique was employed.
A portion of the product blended with (PW)(1%) is mixed with a specified

agar medium. Those plates used to enumerate mesophilic bacteria were
incubated at 37 0C for 18-24 hours aerobically. Aerobic colony counts were
determined for plate count (PC). Single dominant colony was isolated from
each countable representative PC plates and incubated at the above specified
temperature for further microscopy and biochemical tests. Macckonkey
media was used for salmonellosis tests. Under the microscope;
morphology/shape, presence/absence of spores and gram reactions were
investigated. The biochemical tests included KOH and gram reactions.
Supplementary data
Meteorological data including; wind speed, humidity, temperature and rain
fall were collected from Metrological Agency, Bhir Dar branch.
18
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics and univariate one way ANOVA was used to analyze
the data. Statistical package SPSS version 12 was used for the analysis.

Moisture content and drying rate
Moisture content of catfish, tilapia and barbus fish samples dried in solar tent
and drying rack in different seasons of the year is presented in Table 1. The
moisture content of the fish samples dried in solar tents was lower than those
dried in drying rack for all the three fish species and in all the four seasons.
Moisture content is an important factor determining the shelf life of dried
fish. The less the moisture content the longer is the shelf life of dried fish
products.
Season of the year had a significant effect on the moisture content of the
dried fish samples. The moisture content was highest in the main rainy
season (low wind speed, low temperature and high humidity) and lowest in
the pre-rainy season and dry season (low humidity, high wind speed, and
high temperature) for fish samples dried on drying rack. However, effect of
season on moisture content is not clear for samples dried in solar tent. There
is inconsistency across fish species.
Table1. Moisture content of catfish, tilapia and barbus fish samples dried in solar tent and drying
rack in different seasons of the year.
Average Moisture content in tent and drying rack

Fish type Season
Tent Drying rack
Dry season 7 20
Pre rainy season 6.5 15
Tilapia
Post rainy season 9 18
Main rainy season 9 25
Dry season 11 22
Pre rainy season 7 15
Barbus
Post rainy season 10 24
Main rainy season 8 26
Dry season 16.5 22
Pre rainy season 9.5 18
Catfish
Post rainy season 12.5 26
Main rainy season 11.5 30
There was significant differences among the four seasons in weather

elements (Table 2; P<0.05). The effect of season on moisture content,
particularly for fish samples dried on drying rack, is consistent with the
differences in weather elements (temperature, wind speed and humidity)
19
among the four seasons (see Table 2). The lowest moisture contents were
found in samples dried during the dry and pre-rainy season, which had the
highest temperature, highest wind speed and lowest humidity). It is known
that fish dry quickly in conditions with low humidity, high wind speed and
high temperature (Clucas, 1996).
Table 2. Mean value of weather elements in the four seasons of the year
Mean and SE value
Weather elements Season
Mean log value SE
Dry season log 1.686 0.006
Pre rainy season log 1.797 0.01
Humidity
Post rainy season log 1.800 0.01
Main rainy season log 1.905 0.01
- - -
Dry season log1.434 0.03
Temperature Pre rainy season log1.435 0.06
Post rainy season log 1.408 0.006
Main rainy season log 1.379 0.006
Dry season 1.167 0.018
Pre rainy season 1.425 0.032
Wind speed
Post rainy season 1.025 0.032
Main rainy season 1.025 0.032
Fish weight loss (drying rate) is expressed as the difference between the fresh
and dried fish weight, and calculated as (Wi-Wf)/Wi *100). Weight loss is
affected by factors such as season and dryer type. Table 3 presents calculated
weight loss in fish dried in different seasons of the year. The calculated
weight loss was significantly (P<0.05) higher in dry and pre-rainy season due
to low humidity and high wind speed. The high rate of drying in pre-rainy
and dry seasons for fish samples dried on drying rack is consistent with the
low final moisture content of these samples. Although the final moisture
content of the fish samples dried in solar tents was not consistent across
species, the drying rate or the weight loss was higher in solar tent.
Table . 3. Effect of season on calculated weight loss

Season Mean calculated weight loss ±SE
Dry season 0.822±0.005a
Main rain season 0.797±0.005b
Post -rainy season 0.801±0.009b
Pre-rainy season 0.828± 0.009a
Table 4 shows effect of fish drying method or fish dryer type on calculated
weight loss. Fish samples dried in solar tent lost more weight than those dried
on drying racks. This result is consistent with the lower final moisture
content of fish samples dried in solar tent (see Table 1). The higher calculated
weight loss solar tent dried fish means a better drying rate than drying rack.
20
Dry and pre-rainy season and winter were better seasons for drying, because
they had low humidity, high wind speed and high temperature.
Table 4. Effect of fish dryer on calculated weight loss
Dryer type Mean Calculated weight loss
Drying rack 0.828

Tent 0.877
Fish drying time (duration) vary considerably depending on the thickness of

the fish, weather or season and dryer type (conventional or improved method)
(FAO, 1981). Table 5 shows duration of drying as affected by drying
method (dryer type). Differences in duration of drying in the two dryer types
was statistically significant (p<0.05). Filleted fish dried within shorter period
of time (1-2 days) in solar tent than on drying rack.(2-3 days).
Table 5. Mean duration of drying in solar tent and drying rack.

Dryer type Mean duration of drying in days
Drying rack 4
Tent 2
Table 6 shows duration of drying as affected by season of the year. Solar tent
took shorter duration for drying in all seasons compared to drying rack.
Drying fish in the main rainy season took significantly longer (P<0.05) time
than the other seasons.
Table 6. Duration of drying with in different season of the year both in solar tent and drying
rack.
Season duration of drying in days
Solar tent Drying rack
Dry season 1-2 3-4
Main rainy season 2-3 4-5
Post- rainy season 1-2 3-4
Pre-rainy season 1-2 3-4
How long fish must dry depends on the type of fish, its size and the weather
condition. The final moisture content must be less than 25% to prevent
microbial spoilage (Maas et al., 2004). Solar tent dryer is low cost (see Table
7). The fish dried in solar tent is also free from any contamination while in
the process of drying since it has plastic cover. Fish dried in solar tent dryer
had moisture content less than 25% in all seasons and in the three fish
species. As a result the dried product had long shelf life (12 months), and
hence the dried product was of high quality as tested with organoleptic test.
21
The cost of solar tent dryer is low (see Table 7). Solar tent can be made from
locally available wood materials (Bamboo, and other cheap wood for frame),
plastic material, nail and mesh either from wire or fiber net. The tent
constructed can be used for more than a year if properly used. However, the
plastic cover is not durable.
Table 7. Estimated cost of materials for construction of a unit solar tent in 2008
Materials unit Amount unit price in Total cost
birr
Plastic meter 10 6 60
Bamboo frame unit 12 3 36
nail package 1 12 12
mesh (fiber net) meter 1 20 20
On the other hand drying rack took long duration of drying and the dried
product had moisture content greater than 25% in main rainy season which
made the product to be spoiled. Further more, fish dried in drying rack were
highly exposed to insect larvae and other contaminants. Thus fish product
dried on drying rack is of low quality. Drying rack can not also be used in all
seasons of the year.
There are also other factors that determine the type of fish preservation
process that can be used. These include geographical location, socioeconomic
factors and the food habit of local people and the demand abroad (FAO,
1992).
Best drying result can be achieved by combining salting with drying. Salting
the fish before drying is strongly recommended because it ensures among
other things that during drying the microorganisms at the surface are
inhibited and other insects and vermin are kept away. Thus spoilage of the
material is slowed. More over, salting gives stable dried product with longer
shelf life (IJ Clucas.1996).
Organoleptic assessment
The quality of fermented fish was assessed subjectively by visual and/or
organoleptic inspection method. The main quality parameters used in
organoleptic inspection usually are texture, color, odour and fragility (FAO,
1992). Properly dried fish was difficult to bend (texture). If the fish did not
dry properly it tend to break up easily during storage and packing
(fragility).Properly dried fish has nice odour (Maas etal, 2004). The color of
dried fish varies depending on the type of fish species. Properly dried
Oreochromis niloticus and Labeo barbus had light yellow color and nice
odor where as Clarias gariepinus had dark red color and the odor was not as
22
nice as Oreochromis niloticus and Labeo barbus. There is significant

different in color, test odor and fragility between fish dried in solar tent and
drying rack (P<0.05). The shelf-life of fermented fish is an important quality
characteristic. At high moisture content or low salt levels, insects tend to lay
eggs on the product which eventually develop into maggots and destroy the
fish. Very dry fermented fish without salt is easily infested by dermestes
species. Dry fish can be stored for nearly six months, but the soft or semi-dry
ones have a shelf life of up to three months.
Microbiological assessment
Microscopic investigation and biochemical characterization of the pinpointed
dominant colonies indicated that the bacterial load ranged from log1.9 to log
6.04 ACC (aerobic colony counts) per gram of fish (Fig. 1). The bacterial
load had pooled median abundance of log 3.64. The non pathogenic bacteria
load increased as shelf life prolonged, especially to six month. The microbial
assessment did not consider season.
Log ACC(CFU per gm
7.0
6.0
5.0
Fish)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
F 0 1 3 6 9 12
Shelf life(Months)
Fig 1. Log transformed Aerobic Colony Counts (ACC) of bacteria per gram
of tilapia fish (O.niloticus) having different shelf life stored at ambient
temperature. Key: F-fresh filleted.0- just after 1hr salting, 1-1month shelf
life, 3-3months, 6-6 months, 9-9 months and 12-12 month’s shelf life.
Natural salt has its own bacterial load, as the result the bacterial load
increased after salting especially after six months.
No salmonella were detected in any of the fish samples. All the bacterial load
observed are gram positive which are non pathogenic (see Table 8).
23
Table 8 .Microscopic and biochemical test results of pinpointed dominant ACC of bacteria
colonies per gram of Tilapia fish(O.niloticus) having different shelf life stored at ambient
temperature. See the key in Fig 1 above.
Treatments Gram reaction KOH tests Morphology

F Gram + + Staphylococci
0 Gram + + Staphylococci
1 Gram + + Diplococcic, rod shape
3 Gram + + Staphylococci
6 Gram + + Long rods with spores
9 Gram + + Rod, cocci
12 Gram + + Staphylococcus. long rod shape
Bacillus
In a study conducted by Nerquaye-Tetteh et al. (1978) to isolate various

micro-organisms, no Salmonella spp. were isolated from samples of
fermented fishery products obtained from the open markets in Ghana. The
absence of Salmonella spp from fermented fishery products could be
attributed to the high salt level and low water activity of the products. These
conditions do not favor the growth of salmonella. Solar tent dryer can attain
about 45-55oC that can kill salmonella together with the salt.
Bacterial load in fish dried on racks had much more mold than solar tent
dried fish. Moulds are able to grow under dry conditions better than bacteria.
For this reason, moulds are often associated with dried fermented fishery
products. Spores of moulds which are often present in the air and soil
contaminate fish during processing. Insects and mites are also known to
cause mould contamination by carrying the spores on their bodies. The
moulds commonly associated with dried cured fish in storage are Aspergillus
halophillus; A. restrictus; Wallemia sebi; A. glaucus group; A. candidus; A.
ochraceus; A. flavus and Penicillum spp. (Christensen and Kaufmann, 1974).
Conclusion and Recommendation

Although traditional fishing and drying process is a low cost option for many
small fishermen around Lake Tana, there is a large loss in term of wasted
fish. Solar tent dryer is a low cost improved drying material solar tent can be
used to produce high quality dried fish product with long shelf life. The
microbial load assessment showed the presence of only non pathogenic gram
positive bacteria, and no Salmonella was detected. Therefore the heat
concentrated in solar tent may have the capacity to kill salmonella. The
microbiological study did not consider seasonal variation and the tests were
limited. Therefore further study that considers seasonal variation and
different fish types should be done.
24
Dried filleted fish production can be an option to preserve excess fish when
the fish production is in excess and the market for fresh fish is absent.
Filleted dried fish is an accepted form of dried fish in Ethiopia. However,
different forms of fish products should be assessed to meet demands of other
markets, such as Sudanese markets which require whole dried fish. In
addition a further study on the nutritional content of dried fish in solar tent is
required.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Miss Barbrara Gamperl for her voluble comment and
continuous support, Ato Endale from Amhara Region Bureau of
Agriculture and Rural Development for his valuable comment, Bahir Dar
university food technology department staff members for permitting
laboratory facility and all staff of fishery research center for their comments
and support during data collection
References
Brigiet, M. B, Berkel, B. and Corlin, H. 2004. Preservation of fish and
Meat.Agrodok12 Wagenigen, the Netherlands.
Christensen, C.M. and H.H. Kaufmann, 1974. Micro-flora. In Storage of
cereal grains and their products. C.M. Christensen (ed.). Monograph
Series Am. Assoc . Cereal Chem., 5 rev. edition, pp. 158-92.
Clucas, I.J., Word,A.R.,1996. Post harvest fisheries development: A Guide
to handling, preservation, processing and quality. Natural resource
Institute,Uk.
Doe, P. and Olley, J.( 1990) Drying and dried fish product .In seafood :
Resources, Nutriritional composition and Preservation.CRC Press
Boca Ranton Florida.
Eshete Dejen,2003. Ecology and potential for fishery of small barbus
(Cyprinidea,teleostie) of lake Tana Ethiopia Ph.D. thesis,
Experimental zoological group Wagenigen ,The Netherlands.
Chapter 8, pp:125-146.
Gorden,A, Sewmehon Demssie, Melaku Tadesse, 2007..Marketing system
for fish from lake Tana, Ethiopia, opportunities for improved
marketing and livelihoods working paper2 ILIRI, Nairobi, Kenia.
FAO. 1981. The prevention of losses in cured fish.Technical paper
219.Italy.Rome
FAO. 1992. Fish utilization and marketing. Technical paper 329.Italy. Rome.
Nerquaye-Tetteh, G., K.K. Eyeson and Tette-Marmon, 1978.
Studies on "Bomone" - A Ghanaian fermented fish product. Accra,
Ghana, Food Research Institute (CSIR)
25
Senas,S, Deselva,U, Amarasinghe,A. and Thuy T.T (2006) Better practice

approach On culture based fisheries development in Asia.The
market context. ACIAR Monograph no 120,96p.
Trim, D.S. and C.A Curran, 1983. A comparative study of solar and sun
drying of fish Ecuador .Rep.Trop.Prod.Inst.London,166,pp:38
Tesfaye Wudineh, 1998..Biology and management of fish stock in Bahir Dar
Gulf, Lake Tana, Ethiopia, ph.D.thesis, Wagenigen Agricultural
university.p.1-36.
26
Effectiveness of Newcastle disease vaccinations

applied on chickens in Amhara Region, North West
Ethiopia
Hailu Mazengia*
* Animal Health Research Division, Andassa Livestock Research Center
P.O.Box, 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. E-mail: hailumakida@yahoo.com
Abstract
Sero-prevalence study was conducted from September to February 2005 on
chickens distributed as day-old chicks to three districts in Amahara Region to
evaluate the effectiveness of Newcastle disease vaccination. Questionnaire
survey was conducted on the history and frequency of vaccination. From the
total sampled chickens, 160 (44.4%) of them were found to be vaccinated
three times at 1st, 21st and 60 th day of age, and 148 (41.1%) of them were
vaccinated at 1st and 21st day of age. The remaining 52 (14.4%) chickens
were vaccinated only at 1st day of age. The overall antibody titre of Newcastle
disease in vaccinated chicks (≥1:8) was 71.1%. There was a statistically
significant (p=0.001, df=2, 2 =13.3) difference among districts in
seroprevalence of Newcastle disease antibody titre. It was 80.4%, 73.3% and
63.3 % in Dangila, Bahir Dar and Farta districts respectively. The
seroprevalence ND antibody titre in LOHW breed (70.6%) was higher than
that in RIR breed (72.5%), but the difference between the breeds was not
significant (p>0.60, df =1, 2 =0.27). There was significant difference
(p=0.017, df=2, 2 =8.2) in antibody titres of Newcastle disease among
different Newcastle vaccination frequencies. Higher seroprevalence of ND
(≥1:8) was found in chickens vaccinated at the 1st, 21st and 60th day of age
(78.8%) than chickens vaccinated at 1st & 21st (64.9%) and only at 1st
(65.4%) day of age. It is of paramount importance that the Newcastle
vaccination strategy should be redesigned and continues to be applied both
on commercial and village chickens to decrease the mortality due to
Newcastle disease.
Keywords: Chickens, Ethiopia, Newcastle disease vaccination
Introduction
Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the major constraints to production of
village chickens in many developing countries (Alexander 2001, Sprabrow,
27
1988). The disease causes great losses in most scavenger and commercial
flocks (Smith, 1992). Recently, the highly infectious ND is reported to have
caused nearly 100% mortality in some African countries: the United Republic
of Tanzania, Ethiopia and the Gambia (Kitalyi, 1997).
ND is mentioned as one of the disease problems in farms and backyard

chickens in most parts of Ethiopia. It has many different local names in
different areas and the most common one is “Fengile’” (Nasser, 1998;
Ashenafi, 2000, Tadelle and Ogle, 2001), which, means sudden dorsal
prostration and signifies the acuteness and severity of the disease. It is
unlikely that currently there are low risk areas for ND in Ethiopia. The
disease has already become endemic in village poultry population and thus it
recurs every year inflicting heavy losses (Tadelle and Jobre, 2004).
Vaccination is the most important method of disease control particularly to

decrease mortality from ND. Vaccination results in a quite significant
increase in chick survival from 30% to 60% (Udo, 1997). Hence, Bureau of
Agriculture and Rural Development of Amhara region started a Newcastle
disease vaccination program which was launched starting from 2003 onwards
on day-old chicks distributed to farmers in different districts. However, the
effectiveness of ND vaccinations under the conditions of Amhara region has
not been evaluated. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to evaluate the
effectiveness of Newcastle disease vaccination applied on chickens
distributed to farmers.

Study areas
The present study was conducted in threes districts of Amhara region. The
districts were Bahir Dar Zuria, Dangila and Farta districts.
Animals and their management

The chickens were distributed when day-old to farmers and they were of two
breeds, Lohman White (LOHW) and Rhode Island Red (RIR). The chickens
were vaccinated against Newcastle disease in Andassa poultry multiplication
center when they are day-old. They were distributed to farmers with
formulated feed and Newcastle disease vaccine.
28
Survey on sero-prevalence of Newcastle disease

Sampling method and sample size:- The sampling method employed was
two-stage cluster sampling. The primary units were peasant associations and
secondary units were farmers engaged in rearing day-old chicks.
Accordingly, districts and peasant associations were selected purposively and
the farmers and chickens were sampled randomly. A total 12 farmers (10% of
the total involved in rearing day-old chicks), i.e. six from Farta and three
from Bahir Dar and Dangla districts each were selected. Farmers having 50
chicks were considered in the study. From each farmer, 30 chicks were
sampled randomly.
The sample size was determined using cluster sample formula (Young et al.,
2001).
n* = ____n________
[1+ n/N]
n is the sample size based on an infinite population and obtained using the
formula:
n= 4 x P x (1-P)/L x L (Cannon and Roe, 1982), where P = the expected
prevalence (the expected prevalence is for vaccination to be protective is
considered 80%), L= desired precision (+/- 10%),
n = (4 x 80 x 20)
(10 x10)
= 64
Hence, the numbers of birds to be sampled from of 50 chickens in each
farmer were obtained using the formula,
n* = ____n________
[1+ n/N]
n*= _64______
[1+64/50]
n*= ~30 x 12
n* =360 chickens,
Where n*= the total sample size required, n= the sample size for infinite
population and N= the population in each farmer. Hence, a total of 360
chicken sera were collected from chickens raised by 12 farmers engaged in
day-old chick rearing practices in three districts of Amhara region.
Questionnaire survey:- A questionnaire was designed and instituted to

chicken owners and veterinary professionals selected as study units from
29
each district to obtain relevant data on the history and frequency of

Newcastle disease vaccination.
Sera collection and testing:- About 3-4 ml bloods was collected from the
humeral region of the wing vein with non-heparinzed vacutainer tube of 5ml
and 23G (0.65X 32 mm). The tube with blood was kept in slanting position
until the blood clotted. After clotting the tube was returned in vertical
position overnight to permit the serum to ooze out. The separated serum was
transferred into eppendorf tubes, labeled and stored at -200C until the serum
testes were conducted.
Haemagglutination-Inhibition (HAI) test:- HAI test was done according to

the procedures of Beared (1989) and OIE (2000). The test was conducted in
National Veterinary Institute (NVI). The test was carried out by running two
fold dilutions of equal volumes (0.025 ml) of Phosphate Buffered Saline
(PBS) and test serum (0.025 ml) in V-bottomed micro titer plates. 4
haemagglutinating units of (HAU) of virus/antigen were added to each well
and the plates were left at room temperature for a minimum of 30 minutes.
Finally 0.025 ml of 1% (v/v) chicken RBCs was added to each well and, after
gentle mixing, the RBCs were allowed to settle for about 40 minutes at room
temperature. The HI titer was read from the highest dilution of serum causing
complete inhibition of 4 HAU of antigen. The agglutination was assessed by
tilting the plates. Only those wells in which the RBCs stream at the same rate
as the control wells (containing 0.025 ml RBCs and 0.05 ml PBS only) were
considered to show inhibition. A titer greater than or equal to 1:8 was taken
as positive.
Data analysis
The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square test was
used for comparison of seroprevalence across the three districts, breeds and
vaccination frequencies.

Frequency of vaccinations
From the total sampled chickens, 160 (44.4%) of the chickens were found to
be vaccinated three times at 1st, 21st and 60 th day of age. Another 148
(41.1%) chickens were vaccinated at 1st and 21st day of age. The remaining52
(14.4%) chickens were vaccinated only at 1st day of age.
30
The seroprevalence of Newcastle disease in vaccinated chickens

There was significant difference (p=0.017, df=2, 2 =8.2) in antibody titres of
Newcastle disease among different Newcastle vaccination frequencies.
Higher seroprevalence of ND (≥1:8) was found in chickens vaccinated three
times at the 1st, 21st and 60th day of age (78.8%) than chickens vaccinated
twice at 1st & 21st (64.9%) and only once at 1st (65.4%) day of age (Table 1).
The highest number of protected population in chicks vaccinated three times
is due to the fact that booster dose vaccination of ND was applied on chicks
(Chauhan &Roy, 1998) (Table 2).
Table 1. Seroprevalence of Newcastle disease in vaccinated chicks across different vaccination

frequencies
Frequency of Vaccination
Antibody titer st 1st & 21st day 1st, 21st & 60th Overall
1 day (n=52)
(n=148) (n=160) (n=360)
Positive (≥1:8) 34(65.4%) 96(64.9%) 126(78.8%) 256(71.1%)
Negative (<1:8) 18(34.6%) 52(35.1%) 34(21.2%) 104(28.9%)
The overall antibody titre of Newcastle disease in vaccinated chicks (≥1:8)

was 71.1% (Table 2). Significant difference (p=0.001, df=2, 2 =13.3) in
seroprevalence of Newcastle disease antibody titre was found among the
three districts. The higher populations with protective antibody titre were in
Dangila (84.4%) and Bahir Dar (73.3%) districts compared to Farta (63.3%)
district (Table 2). This could be attributed to the accomplishment of more
booster ND vaccination frequencies in Dangila and Bahir Dar than Farta
district. The overall population with protective antibody titre (≥1:8) in all the
study districts which was above 70% indicated that vaccinated day-old chicks
have protective immunity against Newcastle disease. This is in line with the
epidemic theory which suggests that if 70% of the population is immune, the
disease outbreak is unlikely to occur because there are not enough susceptible
individuals to propagate an epidemic (Young et al, 2001; Thrusfield, 2005).
The seroprevalence ND antibody titre in LOHW breeds (70.6%) was higher
than that of RIR breeds (72.5%), but no significant difference was detected
between breeds (p>0.60, df =1, 2 =0.27) (Table 2).
Table 2. Antibody titre of Newcastle disease in vaccinated chickens of two breeds across three
districts of Amhara region.
Breed District
Antibody titer RIR LOHW Bahir Dar Dangila Farta Overall
(n=91) (n=269) Zuria (n=90) (n=90) (n=180) (n=360)
Positive (≥1:8) 66 190 66 76 114 256
(72.5%) (70.6%) (73.3%) (84.4%) (63.3%) (71.1%)
Negative (<1:8) 25 79 24 14 66 104
(27.5%) (29.4%) (26.7%) (15.6%) (36.7%) (28.9%)
31
Conclusions and Recommendations

The results of this seroprevalence survey suggests that vaccination of
chickens against ND using locally produced vaccines is effective and it is
very crucial to vaccinate chickens against ND vaccines in order to keep
protected population. Moreover, the present study indicates that the chickens
distributed in Bahir Dar and Dangila districts were found to be protected. The
higher protective antibody detected in this study in chickens vaccinated three
times than those vaccinated twice and only once indicates that booster
vaccination of chickens against Newcastle disease creates significant
protective antibody titre.
Hence, it is of paramount importance that the Newcastle vaccination strategy

should be redesigned and continues to be applied both on commercial and
village chickens to decrease the mortality of chickens due to Newcastle
disease.
Acknowledgements
My great appreciation goes to Amhara Regional Agricultural Research
Institute (ARARI) for funding the project and the National Veterinary
Institute for serological tests. I would like to thank the farmers engaged in
day-old chicken rearing practices for providing poultry serum. I also like to
thank Eyaya Mola, Ayana Dinberu and Lakemariam Teshome for their
technical assistance.
References
Alexander, D. (2001).Newcastle Disease. In: Newcastle Disease Vaccines for
Rural Africa. Rweyemamu, M.M., Palya, V., Win, T.and Sylla, D.,
(edn). Debre Zeit Ethiopia, Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Center,
7-45.
Ashenafi, H. (2000). Survey of identification of major diseases of local
chickens in three- selected agro climatic zones in central
Ethiopia. Faculty of veterinary medicine, Addis Ababa University,
DVM thesis.
Beard, C, W., (1989).In H.G.Purchase, L.H.Arp., C.H. Domermuth and J.E
Pearson (ed.).A Laboratory manual for the isolation and
identification of avian pathogens,3rd ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company, Dubuque, Iowa. Serologic procedure,192-200
Cannon, R., and Roe, R. (1982).Livestock disease surveys: a field manual for
veterinarians. Australian Bureau of Animal Health, Department of
32
Primary Industry. Australian Government Publishing Service,

Canberra.
Chuahan, H.V., and Roy, S.Y. (1998). Poultry disease diagnosis, prevention
and control. 7th ed. India: W.B.Saunders, 1-420.
Kitalyi, A.J. (1997):Village chicken production systems in developing
countries. What does the future hold? World Animal Review, 89: 48-
53.
Nasser, M. (1998): Oral Newcastle disease vaccination trials and studies of
Newcastle disease in Ethiopia, M.Sc Thesis, Freie Universität.
Odu, H. (1997). Relevance of farmyard animals to rural development.
Outlook on Agriculture, 26:25-28.
OIE, 2000. Manual of Standards for diagnostic tests and vaccines. Office
International des Epizooties, 4 th ed., Paris, France.
Smith, A.J., 1992. Integration of poultry production into agricultural systems
in the tropics. Centre for tropical veterinary medicine University of
Edinburgh. The Tropical Agriculturalist.
Spradbrow, P.B. (1988): Geographical distribution. In: Alexander, D.J.
Newcastle disease, Boston, (edn). Kluwer Academic Publishers,
247-255.
Tadelle D. and Jobre Y. (2004): A review of the importance and control of
Newcastle disease in Ethiopia. International livestock research
institute (ILRI), Ethiopian veterinary journal, and 1:71-81.
Tadelle, D., and Ogle, B. (2001). Village poultry production systems in the
central highlands of Ethiopia. Tropical animal Health Production,
33: 521-537.
Thrusfield, M.V (2005). Veterinary Epidemiology, 2ndedition. Black Wall
Science, Great Britain, Pp.183.
Young, M., Alders ,R., Grimes, S., Spradbrow ,P.,Dials, P., da Silva, A., and
Lobo, Q.,(2002).Controlling Newcastle disease in Village chickens.
A laboratory Manual. Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Monograph, 87:9-142.
33
Physicochemical properties of honey collected from

Western Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Kerealem Ejigu* and Adebabay Kebede
Andassa Livestock Research Center, P.O.Box 27, Bahir Dar
*Corresponding author, E-mail: e_kerealem@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was carried out to assess some of the physicochemical properties
of honey in Western Amhara Region. A total of 71 honey samples were
collected from farm gates and local markets from December 29, 2006 to
January 14, 2007. Properties assessed include moisture content, acidity and
mineral contents. Results were compared to Ethiopian and Codex
Alimentarius honey standards. The results of this study revealed that more
than 82% of the honey samples from Western Amhara region meet the
national and world honey standards in terms of physicochemical components
evaluated in the current study. Training of beekeepers in beekeeping
practices is suggested to improve the quality disparities of Amhara region
honey.
Key words: Honey quality, physicochemical composition, western Amhara

region
Introduction
Honey honeybees contains a complex mixture of carbohydrates, mainly
glucose and fructose; other sugars are present as traces, depending on floral
origin. It also contains small quantities of organic acids, lactones, amino
acids, minerals, vitamins, enzymes, phenolic compounds, volatile
compounds, pollen, wax and pigments (Crane, 1980). The contents of these
components in honey are the most important quality criteria of honey and
indicate some important deterministic quality properties of the honey
(Sahinler and Gul, 2004).
Chemical composition of honey mainly depends on the vegetation sources

from which it derives, though external factors like climate, harvesting
conditions and storage can also influence it (Crane, 1980). Careless handling
of honey can reduce its quality. Amongst the factors that most influence
quality are high temperatures, length of storage and moisture content greater
than 21%. They lead to fermentation, high levels of Hydroxymethylfurfural
34
(HMF), loss of enzymatic activity, changes in flavor, darkening and

microbial growth (Moguel et al, 2005).
Honey may under no circumstances contain substances in such quantities as

to endanger human health and has to be appealing for consumers to fetch a
higher price. Above all, availability of adequate information on the quality
state of honey encourages purchasers and motivates local investors to involve
in the collection and processing of honey.
The physical and chemical properties of Ethiopian honey were reported by
Nuru (1999). Moreover, the moisture content of Ethiopian honey was
reported by Gezahegn (2002). In these studies some samples were taken from
parts of Amhara region. Moreover, an attempt was made to get informative
test results of sample honey collected from SOS Sahel project intervention
areas of Amhara region (SOS Sahel, 2004). However, the information so far
generated concerning the honey quality state of Amhara region is not
adequate. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the
physicochemical composition of honey collected from Western Amhara
region and to provide information for honey collectors, processors,
consumers and exporters.
Honey sampling
A total of 71 honey samples from nine purposively selected potential
beekeeping districts of the western Amhara region were collected by Andassa
Livestock Research Center in the year 2006/07. Prior to the actual work
information were gathered from Bureau of Agriculture and Rural
Development and Bureau of Finance and Economic Development regarding
potential beekeeping districts.
From each selected district 3 Peasant Associations and major market places
were considered and 2kg (1kg from beekeepers and 1kg from traders) of
honey samples were collected from farm gates and marketing points. Fresh
honey samples were collected during the peak honey harvest season
(November to December). In farm gates, samples were collected from
traditional, top bar and movable frame hives.
Physicochemical analysis
Physical composition (moisture content) and chemical compositions (pH,
acidity and mineral content) of the honey samples were determined according
to the Harmonized Methods of the International Honey Commission
35
(Bogdanov, 2002) and Geremew (2005). The physical and chemical analyses
were done at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia.
Moisture:- Five to ten gram of honey samples were taken in porcelain

crucibles in tetrad and oven-dried at 1300 C for 1 hour (Geremew, 2005).
Percent moisture content was calculated according to the following formula:
I–F
Moisture % = ------ x 100
I
Where I = Initial weight of honey and F = Final weight of honey
PH and free acidity:- Ten gram of the honey samples were dissolved in 75 ml
of carbon dioxide-free water (distilled water) in a 250 ml beaker and stirred
with the magnetic stirrer. Then the pH was measured with pH meter (Inolab,
Germany), calibrated at pH 4.0 and 7.0. The solution was further titrated with
0.1M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution to pH 8.30 (a steady reading was
obtained within 2 minutes of starting the titration). For precision the reading
to the nearest 0.2ml using a 10 ml burette was recorded.
Free acidity, expressed as milliequivalents or millimoles of acid/kg honey =

ml of 0.1M NaOH x 10, and the result expressed to one place of decimals.
Mineral (ash):- Ash content was determined after the sample was burnt in an
electric muffle furnace (Lenton Thermal Designs, England). First the ash dish
was heated in the electrical furnace at ashing temperature, subsequently
cooled in a desicator to room temperature and weighed to 0.001g (M2). Then,
5 to 10 gram of honey sample was weighed to the nearest 0. 001g (M0) and
put in the prepared ash dish and two drops of olive oil was added to prevent
frothing. Then water was removed and ashing commenced without loss (by
foaming and overflowing) at a low heat rising to 350 - 400 0C by using
electrical device. Hot plate was used to char the sample before inserting into
the furnace. After the preliminary ashing with hot plate, the dish was placed
in the preheated muffle furnace (at a 5500 C) and heated for 1 hour. The ash
dish cooled in the desicator and weighted. The ashing procedure was
continued until constant weight is reached (M1).
Percent ash in g/100g honey is calculated using the following formula:
M1 - M2
Ash % = ----------- x 100
M0
36
Where M0 = weight of honey taken, M1 = weight of dish + ash and M2 =

weight of dish.
Others important parameters like color, reducing sugars, HMF content,

refractive index and diastase activity were not determined due to lack of
reagents and laboratory facilities.
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed employing univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
using SPSS 12.0 statistical package. Mean composition of honey from the
different districts, honey sources and hive types were compared. Means were
compared with a Least Significant Difference (LSD) method with a 5 %
significance level.

Physicochemical component values of honey according to origin (district) are
given in Table 1. The mean moisture content was 18.2 (± 0.2) %, and varied
from 14.6% to 25.0%. Maximum moisture contents were observed in Dangila
and Bahir Dar Zuria districts. These variations might be attributed to agro-
ecological differences, vegetation, beekeeping practices and handling of the
products.
Moisture content is one of the most commonly monitored parameters as

international quality standards for honey (Codex Alimentarius Commission,
2001; Ethiopian Quality Standard Authority, 2005). It is used as an indicator
of aging of honey and its capacity to keep stable during storage.
Among the honey samples analyzed in the current study, 91.5% had the
moisture content within the acceptable ranges (less than 21%). The observed
low moisture content of most of the honey samples in the region could be
attributed to the low relative humidity of the area. However, some of (8.5%)
of the samples had moisture contents beyond the acceptable limit and there is
high variability in moisture content in most of the samples. This could be
addressed by developing targeted beekeeper training and education programs
in beekeeping in order to improve honey harvesting, processing and storing
practices. The current results of moisture contents are in agreement with
previous results for moisture contents (20.6%) of honey samples collected
from different parts of Ethiopia (Nuru, 1999) and from the SOS Sahel project
intervention areas in Amhara region (17.2%; SOS Sahel, 2004). These results
are also in agreement with Codex Alimentarius and Ethiopian standards.
37
Mean honey pH value of obtained in the current study was 3.87 (± 0.03), and
ranged between 3.38 and 4.70. Published reports indicated that acceptable
pH should be between 3.2 and 4.5 (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001).
Most of the honey samples in the current study (95.4 % of honey samples)
were within the acceptable range of 3.2 and 4.5.
The free acidity values of the honey samples ranged from 15.0 to 68.6, with
mean value of 36.5(± 1.5) meq kg-1. According to SOS Sahel (2004) and
Nuru (1999) reports, the mean acidity of honey samples in their studies were
34.9 meq kg-1 and 39.9 meq kg-1, respectively, which are in agreement with
the present results. Acidity of honey is an important quality criterion for its
anti microorganism property and honey fermentation causes an increase of
acidity. The recommended acidity of honey is 5 – 50 meq kg-1 (Bogdanov et
al, 1999) and nearly 87.4% of honey samples in this study were within this
range.
The ash or mineral content is a quality criterion for honey botanical origin.
The mean ash content of honey samples in this study was 0.32(± 0.02) %.
The minimum and maximum ash contents were 0.11 and 0.91% in Dangila
and Awabel districts respectively. Nearly 82 % of the samples were within
the accepted range of 0.25 – 1.0 % listed in the World Standards reported by
Nuru (1999). SOS Sahel (2004) and Nuru (1999) reported the mean ash
content of honey samples as 0.2% and 0.23%, respectively.
A statistical analysis was done to determine differences in composition of

honey between districts. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in
moisture content and ash content of honey samples from the different
districts (Table 1). These variations might be due to vegetation sources,
harvesting practices and storage conditions. However, no significant
differences (p > 0.05) were found in pH and acidity of honeys sampled from
different districts. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were also observed
between sources of honey (farm gates and markets) and types of hives
(traditional, top bar and frame hives) from which the honeys were harvested
(Table 2). Nuru (1999) reported that honey from traditional hive consist
higher moisture content than improved hives but this was not observed in this
study.
38
Table 1. Physicochemical component values of honey samples by districts in the year 2007
Moisture (%) pH Acidity (meq kg-1) Ash (%)

District N
Range Mean (± SE)S Range Mean (± SE)NS Range Mean (± SE)NS Range Mean (± SE)S
Denbia 7 14.7-18.7 16.6(± 0.5)a 3.38-4.56 3.74(± 0.15) 17.3-42.7 32.5(± 3.2) 0.16-0.34 0.24(± 0.02)a
Gondar Zuria 7 14.6-22.1 18.8(± 0.9) bc
3.60-4.39 3.89(± 0.09) 22.0-48.7 35.1(± 3.8) 0.14-0.56 0.28(± 0.07) abc
Ebenat 6 14.8-18.9 16.6(± 0.6)ab 3.64-3.94 3.76(± 0.04) 25.7-56.0 37.8(± 4.5) 0.11-0.52 0.26(± 0.07) abc
Fogera 6 16.4-19.8 17.9(± 0.5)abc
3.55-4.40 3.79(± 0.13) 28.7-60.3 44.3(± 5.3) 0.13-0.57 0.32(± 0.06) abc
Gozamin 9 15.5-20.2 17.8(± 0.5)abc 3.55-4.19 3.94(± 0.08) 26.0-40.7 32.6(± 1.6) 0.15-0.55 0.32(± 0.04) abc
Awabel 7 16.0-19.7 18.1(± 0.5)abc
3.70-4.60 4.06(± 0.14) 28.7-62.3 41.4(± 5.0) 0.12-0.91 0.42(± 0.10)b
Yilmanadensa 8 14.9-21.1 18.3(± 0.9)abc 3.51-4.70 3.95(± 0.16) 17.3-66.0 37.7(± 6.0) 0.23-0.58 0.43(± 0.05)c
B/Dar Zuria 10 16.7-25.0 19.6(± 0.7) c
3.56-4.30 3.83(± 0.08) 15.0-68.6 32.1(± 5.1) 0.14-0.57 0.30(± 0.04) abc
Dangila 11 15.7-23.8 19.0(± 0.7)c 3.51-4.29 3.84(± 0.07) 23.3-67.4 38.5(± 4.0) 0.11-0.54 0.33(± 0.05) abc
Overall 71 14.6-25.0 18.2(± 0.2) 3.38-4.70 3.87(± 0.03) 15.0-68.6 36.5(± 1.5) 0.11-0.91 0.32(± 0.02)
N = Number of cases, SE = Standard error of mean, meq = Milliequivalent, S = Significant, NS = Non significant (p > 0.05)
Within column means followed by the different letter(s) differ significantly (p < 0.05)
39
Table 2. Physicochemical component values of honey samples by honey sources and hive types
Moisture (%) pH Acidity (meq kg-1) Ash (%)

Variable N
Mean Mean Mean Mean
(± SE)NS (± SE)NS (± SE) NS
Range Range Range Range
(± SE) NS
Honey source
Beekeepers 50 14.7-23.9 18.2(± 0.3) 3.38-4.70 3.85(± 0.04) 17.3-68.6 37.2(± 1.5) 0.11-0.58 0.33(± 0.02)
Market 21 14.6-25.0 18.2(± 0.5) 3.51-4.60 3.91(± 0.07) 15.0-66.0 35.0(± 3.5) 0.14-0.91 0.32(± 0.04)
Overall 71 14.6-25.0 18.2(± 0.2) 3.38-4.70 3.87 (± 0.03) 15.0-68.6 36.5(± 1.5) 0.11-0.91 0.32(± 0.02)
Hive type
Local hive 30 16.5-25.0 19.1(± 0.8) 3.42-4.70 3.85(± 0.06) 15.0-67.4 35.4(± 2.3) 0.12-0.91 0.42(± 0.10)
Top bar hive 17 15.1-22.1 18.0(± 0.5) 3.55-4.19 3.84(± 0.04) 20.1-53.3 35.0(± 2.5) 0.23-0.58 0.43(± 0.05)
Frame hive 24 14.6-21.5 17.9(± 0.4) 3.38-4.53 3.92(± 0.06) 19.6-68.6 39.0(± 2.8) 0.14-0.57 0.30(± 0.04)
Overall 71 14.6-25.0 18.2(± 0.2) 3.38-4.70 3.87(± 0.03) 15.0-68.6 36.5(± 1.5) 0.11-0.91 0.32(± 0.02)
NS = Non significant (p > 0.05)
40
Table 3 presents honey composition from the current study and world and
Ethiopian standards. The test results of this study meet world standards with
the exception of 9.2% of moisture content, 9% acidity value and 3% mineral
content which exceeded the limits.
Table 3. Comparison of honey composition between the study results, World and Ethiopian
Standards (ES 1202:2005)
Moisture Reducing Acidity HMF
content % sugars % meq kg-1 mg
Country/Orig Sucrose % Ash %
(Maximum** (Minimum) (Maximum) kg-1
in (Minimum) (Maximum)
) (Maxi
mum)
Ethiopia 17.5 - 21.0 65.0 10.0 40.0 0.25 – 1.00 40
Test results 14.6 - 25.0 - - 15.0 – 68.6 0.11 – 0.91 -
European 21.0 65.0 5 .0 40 .0 1.00 40
Union
Codex
21.0 - 23.0 65.0 5.0 -10.0 5.0 - 50 .0 0.60 - 1.00 80
Alimentarius
U.S.A 13.4 - 22.9 60.0 0.2 - 7 .6 0.17 - 1.17 0.17 -
Canada 20.0 60 .0 8.0 - 0.20 - 5 .00 -
Latin 20.0 - 8.0 54.0 0.80 -
America
Argentina 20.0 - 8 .0 54 .0 0.80 40
Mexico - 63.9 9 .0 8.0 – 52.0 0.40 -
**
Moisture content %, max Grade A 17.5%, Grade B 19.1-20%, Grade C 21%
†
Test results of this study
Table 4 shows correlation between the different physicochemical properties

in the current study. There is a highly significant correlation between acidity
and ash content.
Table 4. Correlations of physicochemical parameters of honey samples
Parameter Moisture content Ash content pH Acidity

Moisture content 1.000
Ash content 0.025 1.000
pH -0.058 0.269* 1.000
Acidity 0.247 *
0.424** -0.208 1.000
* **
Significant at the 0.05 level Significant at the 0.01 level
37
Conclusions
This study recorded some of the physicochemical properties of honey in
Western Amhara Region. The results of the study confirm that there are
significant differences in moisture content and ash content of honey samples
from different districts. These variations might be due to vegetation sources,
harvesting practices and storage conditions. This study has shown that honey
samples collected from both farm gates (beekeepers) and local markets were
of good quality and the physicochemical properties observed (like moisture
content , free acidity and mineral levels are acceptable to world markets as
they are in agreement with European Union, Codex Alimentarius and
Ethiopian quality standards. However, important criteria which were not
evaluated in this study such as sugar content of honey and freshness
indicators like HMF level and diastase activity need to be studied. The
quality inconsistency observed in the region can be improved by developing
training and education programs in current beekeeping practices.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Wondimeneh Mekonen for his participation in honey
samples collection and technical assistance during this work. Our sincere
thanks are also extended to Bahir Dar University, Food and Biochemical
Technology Department in particular to Tadele Andargie and Biresaw
Demelash for their major contribution in laboratory analysis of honey
samples.
References
Bogdanov S. 2002. Harmonized Methods of the International Honey
Commission. Swiss Bee Research Centre FAM, Liebefeld, CH-3003
Bern, Switzerland.
Bogdanov S., Lüllmann C., Martin P., and 18 Others, 1999. Honey Quality
and International Regulatory Standards: Review of the International
Honey Commission. Swiss Bee Research Centre FAM, Liebefeld,
CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland.
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001. Revised Codex Standard for Honey.
Codex Standard 12-1981, Rev.1 (1987), Rev.2 (2001). Joint
FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. 24th Session, FAO
Headquarters, Rome, Italy.
Crane E, 1980. A book of honey. International Bee Research Association,
Oxford University Press, Great Britain.
Ethiopian Quality Standard Authority, 2005. Ethiopian honey quality and
standard (ES 1202:2005), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
38
Geremew Bultosa, 2005. Food chemistry laboratory manual. Department of

food science and post harvest technology, Alemaya University,
Ethiopia.
Gezahegn Tadesse, 2002. Moisture content of Ethiopian honey. Ethiopian
Beekeepers Association Newsletter, Volume 3(1):1
Moguel O., Carlos Echazarreta Gonzalez and Rosalva Mora Escobedo.
Physicochemical quality of honey from honeybees Apis mellifera
produced in the State of Yucatan during stages of the production
process and blossoms.Téc Pecu Méx 2005; 43(3):323-334.
Available at: http://www.tecnicapecuaria.org.mx/trabajos/200510
202266.pdf (Accessed on May 16, 2008).
Nuru Adgaba, 1999. Quality state and grading of Ethiopian honey. pp. 74-82.
Proceedings of the first National Conference of Ethiopian
Beekeepers Association (EBA), June 7-8, 1999, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Sahinler, N and Aziz Gul, 2004. Biochemical composition honey from
sunflower, cotton orange and pine produced in Turkey. Mustafa
Kemal University, Faculity of Agriculture, Hatay/Turkey. Available
at:
http://web.uniud.it/eurbee/Proceedings/FullPapers/Sunflowerhoney.
pdf (Accessed on May 16, 2008).
SOS Sahel, 2004. (Save Our Soul, International, U.K.). Test results of sample
honey collected from the SOS Sahel project intervention areas in
Amhara region. SOS Sahel, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), 2003. SPSS User’s Guide
12.0, (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).
39
On-Farm evaluation of mixtures of perennial

grasses and legumes for adaptation and yield
performance in Bahir Dar Zuria woreda
Yihalem Denekew
Andassa livestock Research Center, P.O.Box 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Abstract
A study was conducted at Bahir Dar Zuria Woreda Andassa /Huletu Yigoma
Kebele/ during the rainy season of 2006 and 2007 to evaluate the
productivity of grass-legume mixed pastures. Two experiments were
conducted. In the first experiment the grass species Panicum coloratum (PC)
was mixed with herbaceous legume Stylosanthes guianensis and hamata. In
the second experiment, the grass Chloris gayana (CG) with the two legumes
was used. The composition of the mixed pasture was achieved by sowing
seeds of the grass species and the legume species at the rate of 75 % grass
and 25 % legume for mixtures. The pure stands of the two grass species were
included for comparison and the base seed rate used for grass was 15 kg/ha.
The trial was conducted for two years and one harvest was taken per year.
The parameters considered include herbage DM yield and botanical
composition of the grass and legume components in each growing year. The
percentage contribution to the total DM yield of the grass component was
higher except the second year harvesting of Panicum coloratum (PC) +
Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) at Andassa Kebele in experiment I. Since
experiment I was located in irrigated area, during the dry period there was
regrowth of the mixed pastures and more seed of SG was spread over the
plot. Due to this effect during rainy season the legume SG indicated more
DMY and botanical composition than the grass. Overall, Stylosanthes
guianensis appeared to be most compatible with Panicum coloratum &
Chloris gayana grass than SH, and the incorporation of Stylosanthes
guianensis into Panicum coloratum & Chloris gayana grass stand resulted in
some improvements in total dry matter yield and botanical composition of the
forage, without the detrimental suppression of Panicum coloratum & Chloris
gayana grass.
40
Introduction
Inadequate feed in terms of quality and quantity is a major constraint to
realizing increased ruminant production in Ethiopia. Grass-legume mixtures
have long been recognized as a means of providing adequate forage for
ruminant livestock (Ezenwa and Akenova, 1998). It was also reported that
mixtures provide uniform seasonal production and higher forage dry matter
(DM) yields than pure grass or legume stands and there is a saving in
inorganic nitrogen needed to obtain similar levels from pure grass stands.
Higher live weight gains of animals are also obtained from grass-legume
mixtures than from pure grass stands because of better forage quality
(Akinyem and Onayinka, 1982). Mixtures also improves the physical
conditions of the soil, check soil erosion, resist encroachment of weeds and
withstand the vagaries of weather better than pure stands. Bloat is a concern
with some legumes, but including grasses in the mix and proper grazing
management can reduce bloat incidence.
Forage improvement efforts in many parts of Ethiopia have resulted in the

identification of productive grass and legume species with superior forage
DM yields in pure stands. There is little information on the forage
productivity of the different grass and legumes when used in mixture in
North Western Ethiopia. Few studies have been conducted so far on the
mixture of Oat and Vetch (Tekleyohannes, et al. 2003), Panicum and
Stylosanthes (Diriba, 2000) and Rhodes and Panicum with Desmodium
unicenatum mixtures (Deriba, et al. 2004). This study was conducted in Bahir
Dar Zuria woreda to evaluate the adaptation and performance of some
suitable mixtures of grasses and legumes.
Objectives:
To know the botanical composition and dry matter yield of grass and legume
mixtures
Location
The study was conducted at Bahir Dar Zuria Woreda in Sebatmit and
Andassa/Huletu Yigoma Kebeles. The area is located about 564 km north-
west of Addis Ababa. The location covers an area of 151,119 ha. The altitude
in the area ranges from 1700-2300 meters above sea level. The average
annual rainfall ranges from about 820 to 1250 mm, the minimum and
maximum daily temperatures are 10 and 32°c, respectively (DOA, 2000a).
The major crops grown in the area are wheat, barley, millet, teff and maize
(DOA, 2000a).
41
Experimental procedure and field operations

Two experiments were conducted:
Experiment I:- This experiment was conducted at Andassa kebele. The grass
species used was Panicum coloratum. The treatments were: Panicum
coloratum only, Pancum coloratum + Stylosanthes hamata and Panicum
coloratum + Stylosanthes guianensis
Experiment II :-This experiment was conducted at Sebatimit kebele. The

grass species used was Chloris gayana. The treatments were: Chloris gayana
only, Chloris gayana + Stylosanthes hamata and Chloris gayana +
Stylosanthes guianensis
The seedbed was cultivated before the onset of rain and at planting to prepare
a fine seedbed. Seeds of Chloris gayana and Panicum coloratum were mixed
with different herbaceous legume seeds at the rate of 75 % grass and 25 %
legume for mixtures. The pure stands of the two grass species were included
for comparison and the base seed rate used for both grass and legume were
15 kg/ha. The mixed seeds of the two species were sown on plots of 5 m x 4
m (20 m2) area in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
replications. The spacing between replication/blocks was 1.5 meters. Each
replication had three plots (treatments). The spacing between plots was 1
meter. The total area of each experiment was 15 m x 17 m (255 m2).
Botanical composition and dry matter yield were determined using dry
weight rank (DWR) method of Tothill et al. (1978), which involves cutting
and sorting by hand. Fresh weight of each component of mixed pasture
(grasses and legumes) were taken just after cutting in the field and sorting
was done by hand, and then they were air dried until constant weight.
Herbage samples from each treatment were weighed fresh as well as on dry
basis of respective classes by analytical balance before percentage
proportions were computed. Finally, the percentage contributions of the
components were determined by dividing the DMY of each of the
components by the total DMY obtained for each treatment. The following
formula (Tothill et al., 1978) was adopted for computing percentage
proportion of each group:
42
Where, TFW = Total fresh weight of individual species, SFW= Sub-sample

fresh weight, TDW = Total dry weight, SDW = Sub-sample dry weight and
GTDW = Grand total dry weight.
Results
Experiment I
Dry matter yields, levels of significance and coefficients of variance for the
grass species Panicum coloratum (PC), and legumes Stylosanthes guianensis
(SG) and Staylosanthes hamata (SH) and their mixture during first and
second year harvest are summarized in Table 1. There was no statistically
significant differences in dry matter yield between PC as pure stand and
mixed with the legumes, and between the legumes in the first year harvest.
There was also no difference in total dry matter yield between the mixed
pastures. In the second year harvest, there was no difference in dry matter
yield between panicum as pure stand and mixed with the legumes. However,
a highly significant total DM yield (P<0.001) difference was observed
between different mixed pastures. The mean total DMY of the first year
harvest was higher than the second year, but the difference was not
significant.
Table1. Dry matter yield (ton/ha) of Panicum coloratum as pure stand and panicum coloratum
mixed withStaylosanthes spp. at Andassa.
2006 2007
Treatments Grass Legume Total Grass Legume Total
PC 6.87±0.81ns - 6.87±0.66ns 2.24±0..25ns - 2.24±0.59b
ns ns ns ns
PC + SH 6.63±0.81 0.4±0.26 6.83±0.66 2.00±0.25 0.65±0.51b 2.65±0.59b
ns ns ns ns
PC+SG 6.72±0.81 0.89±0.26 7.80±0.66 2.03±0.25 6.32±0.51a 8.58±0.59a
LSD (0.05) 2.81 0.89 2.29 0.85 1.78 2.03
CV (%) 20.85 35.46 15.98 20.41 38.28 22.62
Means with different superscripts within columns are significantly different at P  0.05
PC= Panicum coloratum, SH= Stylosanthes hamata, SG= Staylosanthes guanensis
The botanical composition of the component species are given in Table 2.

The grass species PC was dominant in all mixtures and years except for the
second year in PC+SG mixture. In all mixed pastures SG was more dominant
than SH. The proportion of SG and SH increased from 14.79% and 6.37% at
first year harvest to 73.50% and 25.25% at second year harvest. High
proportion of legumes in the pasture would be of paramount importance to
maintain an optimum percentage of CP for better animal performance.
43
Table2. Botanical proportion (%) of improved pastures (Panicum coloratum vs. stylo. spp) at
Andassa
Treatments 2006 2007

Grass Legume Total Grass Legume Total
PC 100±3.58a - 100 100±7.29a - 100
PC + SH 93.63±3.58ab 6.37±3.58a 100 74.75±7.29b 25.25±7.29a 100
PC+SG 85.21±3.58b 14.79±3.58ab 100 26.50±7.29c 73.50±7.29b 100
LSD (0.05) 12.40 12.40 - 25.22 25.22 -
CV (%) 6.68 28.01 - 18.82 38.35 -
PC= Panicum coloratum, SH= Stylosanthes hamata, SG= Staylosanthes guanensis
Experiment II
Dry matter yields, levels of significance and coefficients of variance for the
grass species Chloris gayana (CG), and legumes Stylosanthes guianensis
(SG) and Staylosanthes hamata (SH) and their mixture during first and
second year harvest are summarized in Table 3.. In the first year harvest, a
significant mean total DM yield (P<0.05) difference was observed between
different mixed pastures. The mean total DMY of first year ranged from 5.00
to 7.27 ton/ha with overall mean of 6.01ton/ha and the second year ranged
from 3.12 to5.16 ton/ha with overall mean of 4.04 ton/ha. There was no
statistically significant difference in total dry matter yield between the mixed
pastures in the second year.
Table3. Improved mixed pasture DM productivity ton/ha (Rhodes vs. stylo. spp) at Sebatamit.
2006 2007
Treatments
CG 7.27±0.53a - 7.27±0.51a 3.12±0.48ns - 3.12±0.69ns
CG + SH 5.97±0.53ab 0.20±0.02a 6.00±0.51ab 3.75±0.48ns 0.08±0.23ab 3.83±0.69ns
CG+SG 4.80±0.53b 0.03±0.02b 5.00±0.51b 4.29±0.22ns 0.87±0.23a 5.16±0.69ns
LSD (0.05) 1.82 0.06 1.78 1.68 0.80 2.38
CV (%) 15.21 38.49 14.62 22.57 24.83 29.48
CG= Chloris gayana, SH= Stylosanthes hamata, SG= Staylosanthes guanensis
The botanical composition of the component species are given in Table 4.

The grass species CG was dominant in all mixtures and years. In all mixed
pastures SG was more dominant than SH. The proportion of SG and SH
increased from 4.31% and 0.6% at first year harvest to 15.38% and 2.20% at
second year harvest. High proportion of legumes in the pasture would be of
paramount importance to maintain an optimum percentage of CP for better
animal performance.
44
Table4. Botanical proportion (%) of improved pastures (Rhodes vs. stylo. spp) at Sebatamit
2006 2007
Treatments
CG 100±0.65a - 100 100±2.24a - 100
CG + SH 99.40±0.65a 0.60±0.65b 100 97.80±2.24a 2.20±2.24b 100
CG+SG 95.69±0.65b 4.31±0.60a 100 84.62±2.24b 15.38±2.24a 100
LSD (0.05) 2.23 2.23 - 7.75 7.75 -
CV (%) 1.14 8.41 - 4.12 6.17 -
CG= Chloris gayana, SH= Stylosanthes hamata, SG= Staylosanthes guanensis
Discussion
The percentage contribution to the total DM yield of the grass component
was higher indicating the dominance of the grass in the mixtures in the two
experiments in 2006 (first year growing period). Considering the percentage
contribution to total forage yield of the two species and overall total yield, the
treatment in which the grass and the legume contributed 92.95 and 7.05
percent in 2006 while in 2007/second year growing period 67.08 and 32.92
percent in the total mixed pasture, respectively resulted in optimal forage
yield in experiment I. Similarly in experiment II the percentage contribution
to total forage yield of the two species and overall total yield, the treatment in
which the grass and the legume contributed 98.37 and 1.63 percent in first
year while in the second year 94.14 and 5.86 percent in the total mixed
pasture, respectively resulted in optimal forage yield.
The overall proportion of legumes at first and second year harvest were less
than ten percent while botanical compositions values greater than twenty
were obtained from the treatments of SG and SH in second year harvesting at
experiment I and the SG had higher botanical proportion and DMY than the
grass component. This may be due to interspecies competition and location
effect. From the observations made during the experimental period, it was
clear that the grass component was highly aggressive and had a fast growth
rate as compared to the legume component at the first year growing period.
Even though the grass had higher proportion than legumes in both growing
periods, in 2007, legume proportion increased as compared to 2006 legume
proportion. Results reported by Yihalem (2004) at Andass Livestock
Research Center showed that grass-clover mixed stands of natural pasture do
also agree with this result. A vast number of studies on grass legume
mixtures (Kidane, 1993; Adane, 2003) have revealed that the fast growth rate
and aggresivity of the grasses do result in yield reduction of the legume. The
important factor in most of the reported cases was the change in the light
environment particularly at the canopy level of the legumes (Thomson and
Harper, 1988) which might have resulted in reduced photosynthesis. Even
45
though the legume percentage composition was low, but it shows increased
trend from year one to year two in its dry matter yield production.
The major advantages which legumes have over grasses in mixed pastures
include the ability to fix nitrogen from the air, higher protein content, higher
intake potential, drought tolerance, and a slower decline in maturity. Other
research reports indicated that legumes increase the protein content and
digestibility of mixed forage (Schultz and Stubbendieck, 1983). Livestock
performance can be improved when legume components in pastures are
increased (Fairey and Lefkovitch, 1990). Maintaining legumes in
grass/legume mixed pastures is important, since legumes increase the
nutritional quality and long term sustainability of mixed species swards
(Turner et al., 1998). The incorporation of legumes into a grass sward can
benefit producers by increasing soil and water conservation and reducing
weeds, because of increased ground coverage (Casler and Walgenbach,
1990). Also, grass/legume mixtures have the potential to have higher yields
than monocultures of either component (Casler and Walgenbach, 1990).
Conclusion
Stylosanthes guianensis appeared to be most compatible with Panicum

coloratum & Chloris gayana grass, and the incorporation of Stylosanthes
guianensis into Panicum coloratum & Chloris gayana grass stand resulted in
some improvements in total dry matter yield and botanical composition of the
forage, without the detrimental suppression of Panicum coloratum & Chloris
gayana grass.
Thus, the mixed pastures of Panicum coloratum, Chloris gayana with

Stylosanthes guianensis species can be introduced in to the farm widely for
developing a balanced mixed pasture. It optimizes nutritive value and
sustainability of mixed species swards for increased production. Overall, SG
was more competitive than SH with grass components to obtain better
legume proportion and DMY to improve nutritive quality of the pasture for
animal production. However, additional research to investigate the capacity
of legumes to withstand grazing is required.
46
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Yihalem D. 2004. Effect of stage of harvesting on Botanical Composition of
Selected Natural Pasture for Optimum Hay production at Andassa,
North Western Ethiopia. M. Sc. thesis. Alemaya University,
Ethiopia. pp. 87.
48
Growth of Washera ram lambs fed on Napier

(P.purpureum) and Sesbania (S.sesban ) mixture at
different levels of combination
Mengistie Taye
E-mail mengistietaye@yahoo.com
Andassa livestock research center, P.O.Box 830, Bahirdar, Ethiopia
Abstract
An experiment to evaluate the growth of Washera ram lambs fed on different
combinations of Sesbania (S. sesban) and Napier grass (P.purpureum) and to
determine the appropriate level of combination for maximum growth was
conducted at Andassa Livestock Research Center. Average initial body
weight (23.11 kg) was not different between feeding treatment groups. Final
body weight and average daily body weight gain was significantly different
(p<0.05) between treatments. The group fed on grazing plus concentrate
supplement (400 gm, 45:55 maize- grass pea mixtures) had better final
weight and average daily body weight gain. Average daily dry matter (DM)
intake was calculated only for those groups fed indoor because of the
difficulty of determining feed intake in grazing animals. The groups fed on
55:45 and 70:30 Napier-Sesbania mixtures had higher daily DM intake while
those fed on 85:15 and sole Napier had better feed conversion efficiency. The
results indicate the possibility of increasing sheep production in areas where
grazing land is a problem while the production of these forage species is
possible. For a fattening practice, these forage feeds should be supplemented
with concentrate feed for which the level of supplementation needs to be set.
In addition the economics should be seen under the farmer’s condition.
Key words: Washera ram lambs; feed conversion efficiency; Napier;

Sesbania
Introduction
Sheep production is an integral component of the mixed crop-livestock

production systems in Ethiopia. Sheep contribute as a source of cash income,
food, manure and fiber for smallholder farmers, Sheep production in the
mixed crop-livestock production system is based on communal grazing land
which is shrinking due to cropping encroachment and gully erosion (Benin et
49
al., 2002; Mengistie, 2007). There is therefore a need for an alternative

feeding strategy which could alleviate livestock feed problem.
The use of cut and carry system is a key principle for the successful
integration of livestock and cropping systems to control grazing of stock
exclusion and cropping areas and to preserve uplands, catchments and
recharge areas essential for sustainable water supplies (Alemayehu, 2003).
Napier grass is being adopted owing to its high dry matter, palatability and
suitability to cut and carry system. Napier grass has a mean CP level of 5.9-
13.8 % (Kahindi et al., 2007; Kanyama et al., 1995). However, this level is
below the ARC (1980) recommended dietary CP levels of growing lambs
(167 gm CP/kg DM). S. sesban is one of the exotic multipurpose fodder tree
species that have been introduced in the Ethiopian highlands to alleviate feed
shortages, maintain soil fertility and prevent land degradation. Sesbania is a
potential source of protein having 24.0 - 31.9 % CP (Mekoya, 2008;
Kanyama et al., 1995). The objective of the current experiment was to
evaluate the growth of Washera ram lambs fed on different combinations of
Sesbania and Napier grass and develop Napier grass based feeding strategy
for cut and carry system.

Study area
The experiment was conducted at Andassa Livestock research center. The
center is located between 11Ï 29’N latitude and 37Ï29’E longitude, 20 km
south west of Bahir dDar on the way to Tissisat fall. The altitude is 1750 m
a.s.l. and the mean annual rainfall is 1496 mm (Yihalem, 2003).
Forage production and management

Napier grass (Acc. Number 19383) and Sesbania (S. sesban) were planted at
Andassa livestock research center. It was irrigated in 7-15 days interval when
the soil gets dry. Poultry litter and cow dung was applied in addition to Urea
and di-ammonium phosphate (DAP).
Animals and experimental design

Fifty-four Washera ram lambs aged approximately 7 months were purchased
from Adet market and stayed for two months at the center before getting to
the trial. They had an average initial body weight of 23.6±2.2 kg. They were
all treated for internal and external parasites and vaccinated for pasteurellosis
and sheep pox.
50
The experimental design employed was a Completely Randomized Design.

Experimental animals were grouped in to nine groups (six animals in each
group) according to their body weight. The animals were then randomly
distributed into six feeding treatments by allocating one animal from each of
the nine weight groups. Therefore, each treatment had a total of nine animals.
There were three replications (pens) in each treatment with three animals per
replication.
The treatments were:

Treatment 1 = 55:45 Napier-Sesbania Mixture
Treatment 4 = Sole Napier
Treatment 5 = Grazing + 400 gm Concentrate (45:55 maize-grass pea grain
mix.)
Treatment 6 = Grazing alone
Feeding management
Treatment groups 5 (Grazing + 400gm concentrate supplement) and
treatment 6 (Grazing only) graze during the day for about 8 hours.
Supplementation of concentrate feed for treatment 5 was half in the morning
before they get out to grazing and half in the afternoon after they get into
their pen. Treatment groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 were fed fresh Napier-Sesbania
mixtures at different combinations indoor. Napier grass and Sesbania were
chopped, weighted and mixed according to the percent proportion (treatment)
and offered ad libitum. Napier-Sesbania combination was based on the dry
matter content. Average DM content of Napier grass was 22% and that of
Sesbania was 26%. Water and salt was provided for all animals ad libitum.
Data collection and analysis

Body weight was taken every fifteen days interval with a Salter balance (50
kg capacity of 200 gm precision). Feed offer and refusal were collected and
weighed daily. Data were analyzed using the general linear model procedure
of SAS (SAS 9.0).

Growth
The overall mean final weight, total weight gain and average daily weight
gain (ADG) were 28.28 kg, 5.17 kg and 49.27 gm, respectively (Table 1).
51
Final weight, total weight gain and ADG were significantly (p<0.05)
different between treatments. Ram lambs fed on grazing plus concentrate
feed supplementation performed better than other treatment groups while
those with grazing alone had the least average daily body weight gain
(33.23±6.71 gm per day). There was no significant difference in final weight
and average daily weight gain between the Napier-Sesbania treatment groups.
However, Kanyama et al. (1995) found out that goats fed on above 30%
Sesbania lost weight which might be related to the protein binding effect of
tannins in the Sesbania.
Table 1 Initial Weight, Final Weight, Total Weight Gain and Average Daily weight Gain of
Washera ram lambs
Treatment Initial Weight Final Weight (kg) Total Weight Average Daily
(kg) Gain (kg) Weight Gain (gm)
Overall 23.11±0.13 28.28±0.31 5.17±0.29 49.27±2.77
Treat 1 23.04±0.32 28.00±0.81b 4.99±0.74bc 47.57±6.71bc
Treat 2 23.20±0.32 27.76±0.76b 4.56±0.70bc 43.37±6.71bc
Treat 3 23.09±0.32 27.87±0.76b 4.78±0.70bc 45.50±6.71bc
Treat 4 23.11±0.32 28.31±0.76b 5.20±0.70b 49.52±6.71b
Treat 5 23.02±0.32 31.04±0.76a 8.02±0.70a 76.40±6.71a
b c
Treat 6 23.20±0.32 26.69±0.76 3.48±0.70 33.23±6.71c
Figures in a column with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05
As can be seen in Figure 1 below, the Napier-Sesbania treatment groups lies

between the concentrate fed group (which is a positive control) and the
grazing group (negative control). The weight gains attained in all Napier-
Sesbania fed groups were well below the potential of Washera sheep for
growth and fattening. The expected weight gain for a profitable fattening
should be around the weight gains achieved from concentrate feeding in this
experiment (Treatment 5). However, Napier-Sesbania feeding could be
comparatively economical feeding and fattening strategy compared to
concentrate feeding. Moreover, Napier-Sesbania feeding results indicate the
possibility of increasing sheep production in areas where grazing land is a
problem, in stock exclusion areas, and in areas where there is irrigation.
Inclusion of a certain amount of concentrate in Napier-Sesbania based
fattening rations may improve fattening practices based on these forage
feeds.
52
35.00
30.00
Treat 1
25.00
Treat 2
20.00 Treat 3
Treat 4
15.00
Treat 5
10.00 Treat 6
5.00
0.00
Wt1 Wt2 Wt3 Wt4 Wt5 Wt6 Wt7
Figure 1 Mean live weight (kg) changes of Washera ram lambs fed on different levels of Napier
grass and S. sesban
Feed intake
Average dry matter intake and feed conversion efficiency were calculated for
indoor fed treatment groups only and are presented in Table 2. There was
significant difference (p<0.05) in average daily dry matter intake between the
treatments, treatment groups fed on 55:45 and 70:30 Napier-Sesbania
mixtures had higher DM intake. This might partly be due to the higher
Sesbania content in the mixture which might be liked by the sheep. Mekoya
(2008) found out that Sesbania increased total DM intake.
Treatments with higher Sesbania percentage had higher DM intake, but lower
average daily body weight gain. This may partly be due to the deleterious
effect of Sesbania on growth of sheep when fed in a large proportion
(Mekoya, 2008). In addition, though data were not collected, there was an
observation of bloating in the treatment groups with high Sesbania proportion
(treatments 1 and 2). This could be because the feed was offered fresh.
53
Table 2 Average DM intake (kg) and feed conversion efficiency (gram body weight gain per kg
feed intake) of Washera ram lambs
Treatment Feed Conversion Efficiency
Av. Daily DM intake (Kg)
s (Gain (gm)/ Feed (kg)
Treat 1 1.27±0.12a 35.32±5.27b
a
Treat 2 1.26±0.09 35.48±6.33b
b
Treat 3 1.11±0.14 40.68±6.25a
Treat 4 1.06±0.11b 42.10±6.25a
Treat 5 Not calculated Not calculated
Treat 6 Not calculated Not calculated
Figures in a column with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05.
Feed conversion efficiency calculated as gram body weight gain per kg feed
was significantly higher for treatment groups fed on sole Napier and 85:15
Napier-Sesbania mixtures (see Table 2 above). That is animals fed on higher
proportion of Napier and thus lower proportion of Sesbania had higher
conversion efficiency. This is in agreement with the above discussion that
higher level of Sesbania (though it has higher proten content) depresses feed
utilization because of its higher alkaloid content.
Conclusion
The experiment indicated that feeding of Napier-Sesbania mixtures for sheep
can overcome the problem of feed shortage in areas where production of
these forage plants is possible and where grazing is limited. From the Napier-
Sesbania combinations, the sole Napier grass and 85:15 Napier-Sesbania
combinations respectively, had better feed conversion efficiency. To
recommend to a larger scale adoption, the economics of the result need to be
seen under the farmers’ condition.
Acknowledgements
The financial assistance provided by the Andassa Livestock Research Center
is gratefully acknowledged.
54
References
Alemayehu Mengistu (2003). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles,
Ethiopia. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/ Ethiopia/
Ethiopia. httm (Accessed on Feb. 2007)
ARC, Agricultural research council (1980). The nutrient requirements of
ruminant livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural bureaux, Farnham
Royal, UK. 351 p.
Benin, S, Ehui S and Pender J. (2002). Policies for livestock development in
the Ethiopian highlands. Socioeconomics and Policy research working
paper 41. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. 29 p.
Kahindi, R K, Abdulrazak S A and Muinga R W. (2007). Effect of
supplementing Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) with Madras
thorn (Pithecellobium dulce) on intake, digestibility and live weight
gains of growing goats. Small Ruminant Research 69: 83–87.
Kanyama Phiri, G Y, Powell C, and Gill M. (1995). The effect of levels of
supplementation with Sesbania sesban foliage on intake and live weight
changes in goats. African Feed Resources Network. pp. 117-121.
Mekoya, A K. (2008). Multipurpose fodder trees in Ethiopia; Farmers’
perception, constraints to adoption and effects of long-term
supplementation on sheep performance. PhD thesis, Wageningen
University, Wageningen, the Netherlands. 220 p.
Mengistie Taye (2008). On-farm performances of Washera sheep at
Yilmanadensa and Quarit districts of the Amhara National Regional
State. M. Sc. Thesis. Hawassa University, Awassa. 133 p.
SAS (2003), SAS User’s Guide: Statistics. Ver. 9.0. Cary, NC: Statistical
Analysis System Inc.
Yihalem Denekew (2003). Effect of stage of harvesting on botanical
composition of selected natural pasture for optimum hay production at
Andassa, North Western Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Alemaya University,
Dire-dawa. 90 p.
55
On-farm Evaluation of Urea Treated finger millet

straw and Concentrate feed supplementation for
sheep fattening in Bahir Dar Zuria woreda
Wude Tsega*, Tekeba Eshetie*, Girma Abebe@, Habetemariam Asefa*,
Shigdafe Mekuriaw* and Simegnew Tamir*
* Andassa Livestock Research Centre
P.O. BOX 27, Bahir Dar, E-mail:- wude2007@yahoo. Com
@ Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program
Abstract
A study was undertaken to evaluate the cost effectiveness of urea treated
finger millet straw and concentrate supplementation in Washera sheep
fattening practice. The study was undertaken in five kebeles (Gombate, Robit,
Yebabe, Wogelsa and yegoma huletu) of Bahir Dar zuria woreda. The
participants in the study were women interested in sheep fattening.
Approximately one year old Washera sheep were purchased and managed in
groups of 2 to 3 animals in each of the participants’ houses. Millet straw was
urea treated using 5% urea, 10% molasses and 80 litre of water in a pit dug
within the premises of the participants’ compound. Treated straw was opened
after two weeks of treatment. The concentrate supplementary feed consisted
of 49.5% noug cake, 49.5% wheat bran and 1% salt. The treatments were
300g DM conc. + grazing + untreated millet straw (T1) and 300g DM conc.
+ grazing + treated millet straw (T2). Initial weight of experimental animals
was 21.17±.59 and 21.66 ± .63 kg in T1 and T2 respectively. Average Daily
Gain (ADG) and final weight attained were 81.10 ± 5.12 g and 28.74 ±.64
respectively for T1, and 90.94 ± 5.45 g and 29.99 ±.65 kg for T2 respectively.
Differences in daily weight gain and final weight between treatments were
not statistically significant (P>0.05). There was also no significant
differences in the net profit from the two treatments (86.29 ± 9.12 and 79.80
± 9.33 Birr from T1 and T2, respectively. These on-farm results indicate that
urea treatment of finger millet straw does not give significant extra benefits.
Both rations in T1 and T2 can be equally profitably used for fattening
Washera sheep. However, the effect of urea-molasses treated straw on body
weight gain, mutton quality, quantity and detail economic profitability should
be evaluated under well controlled and designed on-station experiment.
Key words: Bahir Dar zuria woreda, millet straw, molasses, Urea and
washera sheep breed
56
Introduction
Animal agriculture in Ethiopia is an integral part of the farming system in
almost all agro-ecological zones of the country. According to Sisay (2002)
there are 5.3 million sheep in Amhara region. Despite such huge resources,
the production and productivity from this resource is not satisfactory. The
major reason for low return from these animals is shortage of feeds and lack
of knowledge for efficient utilization of the available feeds.
Crop residues are the major feed resource for livestock during the dry season
(Yenesew, 2006, unpublished data). In Bahir Dar Zuria worda, Teff, finger
millet, Barley straws and maize stalk, and noug cake and wheat bran are the
major available crop residues and industrial by- product. In this woreda,
during dry season the available degraded natural pasture and low quality crop
residues can not fulfill the maintenance requirement of the animals. As a
result, farmers get low benefit from selling animals that are in poor body
condition. Furthermore, consumers do not normally get good quality meat
from these animals. Hence, introducing fattening practices that increase
efficient utilization of available feeds could improve body condition, increase
meat yield and consequently increase income of farmers.
Sheep and goat fattening using concentrate rations have been found to be
economical (Mieso et al. 2004;Solomon, et al., 1991; Solomon et al.,2005).
However, currently feeds high in protein are expensive. Urea is a cheap NPN
source and treatment of straw by urea improved the sheep DM intake of
straw from 1.2 to 2% of body weight and increase digestibility from 39 to
54% (Pond et al., 1995). On the other study, feed intake of sheep was greater
when teff straw was supplemented with molasses-urea than molasses only or
urea only (Nuwanyakpa and Butterwoth, 1987). So, the current study was
initiated with the objective of evaluating the cost effectiveness of urea treated
finger millet straw and concentrates supplementation in sheep fattening
practice.
Location, Selection of farmer and training

The study was undertaken on-farm in five kebeles (Gombate, Robit, Yebabe,
Wogelsa and yegoma huletu) of Bahir Dar zuria woreda. Participants in the
project were women. The selection of participating women was done in close
collaboration with the woreda BoARD experts and Development Agents
(DAs). The participating women were trained on advantages of sheep
57
fattening, feeding the experimental animals, housing, and health

management.
Animals and Management

Experimental animals were washera sheep breed of about one year of age.
The animals were bought by the farmers from the surrounding markets. The
total number of sheep included in the experiment was 89. Animals were
weighed, dewormed and vaccinated before the beginning of the feeding trial.
Feed preparation and feeding

One hundred kg of millet straw was treated with 5 kg of urea dissolved in 80
liters of water & 10 liters of molasses. The straw was laid on a plastic sheet,
sprayed & thoroughly mixed with urea-molasses solution. A pit was dug and
lined with polyethylene plastic sheets. Treated straw was put in the pit,
packed well to exclude air and covered well at the top.
The concentrate supplementary feed was formulated from 49.5% noug cake,
49.5% wheat bran and 1% salt. The treatments were:-
T1= 300g DM concentrate + grazing + untreated millet straw
T2 = 300g DM concentrate + grazing + treated millet straw
Concerning replication of experimental feeds, T1 was replicated on 16

households and T2 was replicated on 15 households. Each of the two
treatments was applied in each of the five kebeles.
The sheep were fed concentrate feeds two times a day around 7 am and 3 pm.
The urea treated as well as untreated straw and water was given adlibtum
after grazing. The straw offered and the leftover was measured every five
days. Grazing was mostly on crop aftermath. The time spent for grazing was
about 4 to 5 hours per day, in order to protect the animals from direct sunlight
farmers preferred to shorten the grazing time. The Experiment was conducted
for 90 days including 7 days of acclimatization period.
Experimental Design, Data collected and analysis

The experiment was arranged in completely randomized design by
considering one household as one observation or experimental unit. The
collected data were initial body weight, fortnightly body weight, final body
weight, straw offered and refusal, major inputs cost, initial purchased price of
sheep and final sale price of sheep. Analysis of data was undertaken using
58
one-way ANOVA using SAS software. The economic analysis was

conducted using partial budget analysis by subtracting input cost
(concentrate feed, straw, urea molasses, labour cost for urea treatment,
plastic, medicaments and sheep purchased price) from output price (sheep
sale price).

Feed Intake and Body Weight Change
Straw intake was higher in treatment 1 (untreated straw) than in treatment 2
(treated straw) (Table 1). However, the differences were not statistically
significant. This is contrary to expectation that urea and molasses treatment
increase intake of straw. It has been found that feed intake of sheep was
greater when teff straw was supplemented with molasses-urea (Nuwanyakpa
and Butterwoth, 1987). Similarly, Abdullah and Wanyoike (1987) and Pond
et al., (1995) pointed out that urea treatment improved intake of crop-
residues by cattle and sheep. On the other hand, a similar result to the current
study was found by Shehata and Nour (1986) addition of urea or urea and
molasses on rice straw in complete pelleted diets did not increased the feed
intake.
Table 1. Average feed intake of sheep fed urea-molasses treated and untreated straw and
concentrates
Treatments
Mean ±
Mean ±
Parameters G
SE (T1) Mean±
SE (T2) CV
SE LSD F-test
(%)
Number of observations
46 43 89
(N)
335.14 ± 307.37 ± 321.72 ±

Daily straw DM
intake(g) 38.67 NS 28
2.72 4.82 91.71
34.83 ± 31.91 ±
33.42 ±
Total straw intake (kg,
as feed) 1.29 1.54 3.98 NS 28
9.45
Total daily DM 635.14 ± 607.37 ± 621.72 ±
intake(g), straw + 13.52 13.98 91.7 38.67 NS 14
concentrate feed
NS = Non significance between s at P>0.05
The average initial weights, final weights and average daily weight gains are
presented in Table 2. There were no significant differences between the two
treatments in any of the parameters. Absence of significant differences in
weight gains between sheep fed urea treated straw and untreated straw was
59
not as expected. Possible explanations could be that both groups were fed
concentrate supplements which could mask the effect of urea treatment and
that the experiment was conducted under less controlled on-farm condition.
Table 2 Treatment means of sheep daily weight gain, initial and final weight
Treatments
Parameters Mean ± SE Mean ± SE G Mean ±
(T1) (T2) SE F-
LSD CV (%)
Number of test
46 43 89
observations (N)
Initial weight (kg) 21.17 ±.59 21.66 ± .63 21.40 ± 4.01 18
1.72 NS
final weight (kg) 28.74 ±.64 29.99 ±. 65 29.35 ± 4.24 14
1.81 NS
Total gain (kg)
7.30 ±.0.46 8.18 ±.0.49 7.71 ± 3.06 1.34 NS 40
daily Average
weight gain (g) 81.10 ± 90.94 ± 85.71 ±
14.88 40
5.12 5.45 34.01 NS
NS = Non significance between s at P>0.05
Economic Analyses
Feeding of 300g DM concentrate + grazing + treated millet straw (T2) for
sheep fattening has a weight advantage of 3.74% over feeding 300g DM
concentrate + grazing + untreated millet straw (T1). Partial Budget Analysis
indicated that T2 and T1 were equally economical fattening rations with net
benefit of 86.29 ± 9.12 and 79.80 ± 9.33 birr respectively (Table 3).
Table 3 Treatment means of input costs and net profit (birr)
Treatments
Mean ± SE Mean ± SE
G Mean ± SE
Parameters
(T1) (T2)
LSD F-test CV (%)
Number of
46 43 89
observations (N)
Total straw and
treatment cost(Urea, 17.53±1.15a 30.26±1.19.b 23.68 ± 7.78 1.98 * 32.83
Molasses , Plastic)
Total feed cost 69.71 ±1.14a 82.44 ±1.18b 75.85 ± 7.78 3.23 * 10.25
197 .11 ± 6.16
Initial Sheep purchased
200.14 ± 6.37
198.57±41.79 17.62 NS 21.04
price
Total input cost
283.44 ±6.18a 302..59 ± 6.40b 292.69 ± 41.98
including medication &
17.70 * 14.34
labor for urea treatment
of straw
Cost /kg weight gain 10.39 ±0.80 12.46 ± 0.85 11.36± 5.34 2.33 NS 47
377.02 ± 67.60
17..9
Final Sheep sold price 371 .89±10.07 382.40±10.31 NS
28.65 3
Net profit 86.29 ± 9.12 79.80 ± 9.33 83.12 ± 61.20 25.94 NS 73.63
NS = Non significance and * = significance difference between treatments at P> 0.05
60
Conclusion
The on-farm results indicate that urea treatment of finger millet straw does
not give significant extra benefits. Both rations with urea-treated straw (T2)
and untreated straw (T1) can be equally and profitably used for fattening
Washera sheep. However, the effect of urea-molasses treated straw on body
weight gain, mutton quality, quantity and detail economic profitability should
be evaluated under well controlled and designed on-station experiment.
References
Abdullah N. S. and Wanyoike M. M. 1987. The Prospect of Utilizing Urea

Treated Maize Stover by Smallholders in Kenya. In: - ARNAB
Mieso Guru, Hailu Dadi, Tesfaye Lema, Amsalu sisay and Esayas Asefa
2004. Growth performance of Arsi-Bale goat kids supplemented
with different levels of concentrate. P 82-86. Journal of Livestock
Extension, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Nuwanyakpa M. and Butterwoth M, 1987. Effect of Urea, Molasses, Urea –
molasses, Noug Cake and Legume Hay on the intake and
Digestibility of teff straw by Highland Sheep. In; - ARNAB
Pond W.G., Church D.C. and Pond K.R.1995 . Sheep and Goat . In: Animal
Nutrition and Feedings. 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons.New York,
Toronto. Pp 415-450.
Shapiro B.I., M.A.Mohamed-Saleem and L.Reynolds. 2006, socio-economic
constraints to strategic sheep fattening: evidence from the Ethiopia
highlands. International livestock Center for Africa. Ethiopia
Shehata M. N. and Nour A. M. 1986. Rice staw in Complete Pelleted Diets
for Sheep. In: Towards optimal Feeding of Agricultural by-products
to livestock in Africa, Proceeding of a workshop held at the
University of Alexandria, Egypt, October 1985.
Sisaye Lemma. 2002. Phenotypic classification and Description of
Indigenous sheep types in The Amhara National Regional State of
Ethiopia. MSC. Thesis, University of Natal.
Solomon Abegaz, Gemeda Duguma, Takele Kumsa, Birhanu Soboka, Dereje
Bacha, Bizunesh Mideksa, Fayo Dubiso, Ulfina Galmessa and
Birhan Feleke. 2005 On-farm verification of sheep finishing
technology in Eastern Wollega zone. Proceedings of the 12th
Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production
(ESAP) Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 12-14, 2004. ESAP 410.pp.
Solomon Gizaw, Solomon Abegaze and Asfaw negassa. 1991. Growth
response of Horo sheep to different levels maize and noug cake
supplements. P 113-117. In: Proceedings of 4th National Livestock
improvement Conference, 13-15 November 1991, Addis Abeba,
Ethiopia.
61

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Amhara Regional Agricultural Research

Solomon Gizaw, Fisseha Moges & Halima

Proceedings of the 3rd Annual

Amhara Regional Agricultural Research

Physicochemical properties of honey collected from Western

On-Farm evaluation of mixtures of perennial grasses and

Growth of Washera ram lambs fed on Napier (P.purpureum)

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Identified indigenous feed resources and their

Material and Methods

Nutritive value analysis

Results and Discussion

feeding system in Gumer PA is cut-and-carry for herbs, grasses and non-

Livestock species utilizing the feed resources in order of farmers’ preferences

Generally feeds sampled during the Meher season had higher CP as

A large variation was obtained in digestibility (IVOMD) of the feeds, ranging

Conclusion and Recommendations

Table 1. Indigenous feeds of Gumer and their utilization.

Kuakucho(male) Colutea abyssinica ---------- -------------------- ---------------

Table-2. Indigenous feeds of Dargegn and their utilization

Adaptation of cow pea varieties as livestock feed in

particularly feed development, is given a second priority to crop production.

The major supplemental feed to grazing is crop residue. Farmers in North

Material and Methods

Result and Discussion

Conclusion and Recommendation

However, if the objective is to produce both grain and forage as haulm,

A further study is required to evaluate the comparative advantage of

Alemayehu Mengistu. 2002. Forage production in Ethiopia: A case study

Evaluation of solar tent and drying rack methods

Key words: Solar tent, drying rack, Microbial load

Spoilage of fish can be prevented using different preservation methods

Materials and Methods

Fishing and drying

Moisture content analysis

Assessment and Quantification of Bacterial load

A portion of the product blended with (PW)(1%) is mixed with a specified

Result and Discussion

Average Moisture content in tent and drying rack

There was significant differences among the four seasons in weather

Table . 3. Effect of season on calculated weight loss

Table 4. Effect of fish dryer on calculated weight loss

Dryer type Mean Calculated weight loss

Drying rack 0.828

Fish drying time (duration) vary considerably depending on the thickness of