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Project Work
2018

Task: 2
The Beauty of
Geometry

Name :
Class :
Teacher :
 Index

No Index Page

1. Introduction

2. Objective

3. Specification of task

4. Solution

5. Conclusion/Further Exploration

6. Reflection

 
 Introduction 
What Is Geometry? 
Simply put, geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shape, and position of
2-dimensional shapes and 3-dimensional figures. Although ancient Greek mathematician Euclid is
typically considered the "Father of Geometry," the study of geometry arose independently in a number of
early cultures. Geometry is a word derived from Greek. In Greek, "​geo" ​means "earth" and "​metria"m
​ eans
measure.

 
 
 

 
 
 
The History of Geometry 
Geometry's origins go back to approximately 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptians used an
early stage of geometry in several ways, including the surveying of land, construction of pyramids,
and astronomy. Around 2,900 BC, ancient Egyptians began using their knowledge to construct
pyramids with four triangular faces and a square base. 

Egyptian geometry 

The ancient Egyptians knew that they could approximate the area of a circle as follows:

Area of Circle ≈ [ (Diameter) x 8/9 ]​2​.

Problem 30 of the ​Ahmes​ papyrus uses these methods to calculate the area of a circle, according to a
rule that the area is equal to the square of 8/9 of the circle's diameter. This assumes that ​π​ is 4×(8/9)² (or
3.160493...), with an error of slightly over 0.63 percent. This value was slightly less accurate than the
calculations of the ​Babylonians​ (25/8 = 3.125, within 0.53 percent), but was not otherwise surpassed until
Archimedes​' approximation of 211875/67441 = 3.14163, which had an error of just over 1 in 10,000.
Interestingly, Ahmes knew of the modern 22/7 as an approximation for π, and used it to split a hekat,
hekat x 22/x x 7/22 = hekat; however, Ahmes continued to use the traditional 256/81 value for π for
computing his hekat volume found in a cylinder.
Problem 48 involved using a square with side 9 units. This square was cut into a 3x3 grid. The diagonal of
the corner squares were used to make an irregular octagon with an area of 63 units. This gave a second
value for π of 3.111...
The two problems together indicate a range of values for π between 3.11 and 3.16.
Problem 14 in the ​Moscow Mathematical Papyrus​ gives the only ancient example finding the volume of a
frustum​ of a pyramid, describing the correct formula:

Babylonian geometry 
he Babylonians may have known the general rules for measuring areas and volumes. They
measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the
square of the circumference, which would be correct if ​π​ is estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder
was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone
or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the
bases. The Pythagorean theorem was also known to the Babylonians. Also, there was a recent
discovery in which a tablet used ​π​ as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian
mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today. This measurement for
distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun,
therefore, representing time.There have been recent discoveries showing that ancient Babylonians
may have discovered astronomical geometry nearly 1400 years before Europeans did.

 
Vedic India 
The Indian ​Vedic period​ had a tradition of geometry, mostly expressed in the construction of elaborate
altars. Early Indian texts (1st millennium BC) on this topic include the ​Satapatha Brahmana​ and the ​Śulba
Sūtras​.
According to (​Hayashi 2005​, p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of
the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians."

The diagonal rope (akṣṇayā-rajju) of an oblong (rectangle) produces both which the flank (pārśvamāni)
and the horizontal (tiryaṇmānī) <ropes> produce separately."

They contain lists of ​Pythagorean triples​,which are particular cases of ​Diophantine equations​.They also
contain statements (that with hindsight we know to be approximate) about ​squaring the circle​ and "circling
the square."
The ​Baudhayana Sulba Sutra​, the best-known and oldest of the Sulba Sutras (dated to the 8th or 7th
century BC) contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as:(3,4,5),(5,12,13), (8,15,17),
(7,24,25) and (12,35,37) as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square:
"The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the
original square."It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a
rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the
vertical and horizontal sides make together."
According to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet ​Plimpton 322​ written c. 1850 BC
"contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a
primitive triple, indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic" in
Mesopotamia in 1850 BC. "Since these tablets predate the Sulbasutras period by several centuries,
taking into account the contextual appearance of some of the triples, it is reasonable to expect that similar
understanding would have been there in India."Dani goes on to say:

"As the main objective of the Sulvasutras was to describe the constructions of altars and the geometric
principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it had been well understood may
still not have featured in the Sulvasutras. The occurrence of the triples in the Sulvasutras is comparable to
mathematics that one may encounter in an introductory book on architecture or another similar applied
area, and would not correspond directly to the overall ​knowledge on the topic at that time. Since,
unfortunately, no other contemporaneous sources have been found it may never be possible to
settle this issue satisfactorily."
In all, three ​Sulba Sutras​ were composed. The remaining two, the ​Manava Sulba Sutra​ composed
by ​Manava​ (​fl.​ 750-650 BC) and the ​Apastamba Sulba Sutra​, composed by ​Apastamba​ (c. 600 BC),
contained results similar to the ​Baudhayana Sulba Sutra​.

Classical Greek geometry

For the ancient ​Greek​ ​mathematicians​, geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a
completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained. They
expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they
changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies
"eternal forms"​, or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed
the idea of the ​"axiomatic method"​, still in use today. 

 
 

Thales and Pythagoras

Thales​ (635-543 BC) of ​Miletus​ (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in
mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs,
though his proofs have not survived. ​Pythagoras​ (582-496 BC) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by
Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to ​Babylon​ and ​Egypt​. The theorem that bears
his name may not have been his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof
of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and
together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In
addition, they made the profound discovery of ​incommensurable lengths​ and ​irrational numbers​.

Pythagorean theorem​: a​2​ + b​2​ = c​2

Plato 
Plato​ (427-347 BC) is a philosopher that is highly esteemed by the Greeks. There is a story that he
had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, "Let none ignorant of geometry enter here."
However, the story is considered to be untrue.Though he was not a mathematician himself, his
views on mathematics had great influence. Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry
should use no tools but compass and straightedge – never measuring instruments such as a marked
ruler​ or a ​protractor​, because these were a workman’s tools, not worthy of a scholar. This dictum led
to a deep study of possible ​compass and straighted ​constructions, and three classic construction
problems: how to use these tools to ​trisect an angle​, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given
cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. The proofs of the impossibility of
these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the
deep structure of the real number system. ​Aristotle​ (384-322 BC), Plato’s greatest pupil, wrote a
treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see ​Logic​) which was not substantially
improved upon until the 19th century.

 
Classical Indian Geometry 
In the ​Bakhshali manuscript​, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about
volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system
with a dot for zero."​[18]​Aryabhata​'s ​Aryabhatiya​ (499) includes the computation of areas and
volumes.
Brahmagupta​ wrote his astronomical work B ​ rāhma Sphuṭa Siddhānta in 628. Chapter 12, containing
66 ​Sanskrit​ verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions,
ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series,
plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain).​[19]​ In the latter section, he stated
his famous theorem on the diagonals of a ​cyclic quadrilateral​:[19]
​

Brahmagupta's theorem:​ If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that are ​perpendicular​ to each
other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of intersection of the diagonals to any side of
the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite side.
Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of ​Heron's
formula​), as well as a complete description of ​rational triangles​ (​i.e.​ triangles with rational sides and
rational areas).
Brahmagupta's formula:​ The area, ​A,​ of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of lengths ​a,​ ​b​, ​c,​ ​d​,
respectively, is given by

where ​s​, the ​semiperimeter​, given by:

Brahmagupta's Theorem on rational triangles:​ A triangle with rational sides (a,b,c) and rational
area is of the form:

for some rational numbers

w
Chinese Geometry 
The first definitive work (or at least oldest existent) on geometry in China was the ​Mo Jing,​ the
Mohist​ canon of the early philosopher ​Mozi​ (470-390 BC). It was compiled years after his death by
his followers around the year 330 BC.Although the ​Mo Jing​ is the oldest existent book on geometry
in China, there is the possibility that even older written material existed. However, due to the
infamous ​Burning of the Books​ in a political maneuver by the ​Qin Dynasty​ ruler ​Qin Shihuang​ (r.
221-210 BC), multitudes of written literature created before his time were purged. In addition, the ​Mo
Jing​ presents geometrical concepts in mathematics that are perhaps too advanced not to have had a
previous geometrical base or mathematic background to work upon.
The ​Mo Jing​ described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and
provided a small wealth of information on mathematics as well. It provided an 'atomic' definition of
the geometric point, stating that a line is separated into parts, and the part which has no remaining
parts (i.e. cannot be divided into smaller parts) and thus forms the extreme end of a line is a
point.Much like ​Euclid​'s first and third definitions and ​Plato​'s 'beginning of a line', the ​Mo Jing​ stated
that "a point may stand at the end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth.
(As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it."Similar to the ​atomists​ of ​Democritus​, the ​Mo Jing
stated that a point is the smallest unit, and cannot be cut in half, since 'nothing' cannot be halved.It
stated that two lines of equal length will always finish at the same place,while providing definitions
for the ​comparison of lengths​ and for ​parallels,​ along with principles of space and bounded space. It
also described the fact that planes without the quality of thickness cannot be piled up since they
cannot mutually touch.The book provided definitions for circumference, diameter, and radius, along
with the definition of volume.
The ​Han Dynasty​ (202 BC-220 AD) period of China witnessed a new flourishing of mathematics.
One of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts to present ​geometric progressions​ was the ​Suàn shù
shū​ of 186 BC, during the Western Han era. The mathematician, inventor, and astronomer ​Zhang
Heng​ (78-139 AD) used geometrical formulas to solve mathematical problems. Although rough
estimates for ​pi​ (​π​) were given in the ​Zhou Li(​ compiled in the 2nd century BC), it was Zhang Heng
who was the first to make a concerted effort at creating a more accurate formula for pi. Zhang Heng
approximated pi as 730/232 (or approx 3.1466), although he used another formula of pi in finding a
spherical volume, using the square root of 10 (or approx 3.162) instead. ​Zu Chongzhi​ (429-500 AD)
improved the accuracy of the approximation of pi to between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, with 355​
​ ⁄​113
(密率, Milü, detailed approximation) and ​⁄​7​ (约率, Yuelü, rough approximation) being the other
notable approximation.​[28]​ In comparison to later works, the formula for pi given by the French
mathematician ​Franciscus Vieta​ (1540-1603) fell halfway between Zu's approximations.

 
 
Euclid's Elements 
The next great advancement in geometry came from Euclid in 300 BC when he wrote a text titled
'Elements.' In this text, Euclid presented an ideal axiomatic form (now known as Euclidean geometry) in
which propositions could be proven through a small set of statements that are accepted as true. In fact,
Euclid was able to derive a great portion of planar geometry from just the first five postulates in
'Elements.' These postulates are listed below:

1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.

2. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.
3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be drawn having the segment as radius and one
endpoint as center.
4. All right angles are congruent.
5. If two lines are drawn which intersect a third line in such a way that the sum of the inner angles
on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other
on that side if extended infinitely.

Euclid's fifth postulate is also known as the parallel postulate.

René Descartes' Coordinate Geometry 

The next tremendous advancement in the field of geometry occurred in the 17th century when René
Descartes discovered coordinate geometry. Coordinates and equations could be used in this type of
geometry in order to illustrate proofs. The creation of coordinate geometry opened the doors to the
development of calculus and physics.

The Development of Non-Euclidean Geometry 

In the 19th century, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Nikolai Lobachevsky, and János Bolyai formally
discovered non-Euclidean geometry. In this kind of geometry, four of Euclid's first five postulates
remained consistent, but the idea that parallel lines do not meet did not stay true. This idea is a
driving force behind elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry.

What is a triangle?

A triangle is any set of three points on a plane and the lines connecting those points to each
other, as long as the three points aren’t all on the same line (that would just be a line). Or,
you could think of a triangle as the part of the plane that lies inside those line segments. A
triangle is flat – it has no thickness. But every triangle has a perimeter and an area, and
three angles.

The three angles of a triangle will always add up to 180 degrees, no matter how big or how
small the triangle is. Because of this, if you know the measurements of two angles of a
triangle, you can always figure out how big the third angle is by adding the two known
angles together and subtracting that from 180 degrees.

An equilateral triangle has all three sides the same length. An isosceles triangle has two
sides the same length. And a right triangle has one angle that is exactly 90 degrees (a right
angle), so the other two angles together add up to 90 degrees.

 
Objective: 
1. Apply mathematics to everyday situation and appreciate the importance 
and the beauty of mathematics in everyday lives. 
2. To improve problem-solving skills, thinking skills, reasoning and 
mathematical communication. 
3. To develop positive attitude and personalities and intrinsic mathematical 
values such as accuracy,confidence and systematic reasoning. 
4. To stimulate learning environment that enhances effective learning, 
inquiry-based and our team work. 
5.  
6. To develop mathematical knowledge in a way which increase our interest 
and confidence. 
7.  
8. To use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas 
precisely. 
9. To develop a positive attitude towards mathematics 
Section A

Conjecture/Prediction
1. 3 sides of the triangle can be same.
2. 3 sides of the triangle can be different.
3. 2 sides of the triangle can be same and the other being different.
4. 3 sides of any length can definitely form a triangle.

Number of Ways to Form a Triangle

⁶C₁ x ⁵C₁ x ⁴C₁
= 120

Combination A B C

Number

1 5 6 7

2 5 6 11

3 5 6 12

4 5 6 15

5 5 7 6

6 5 7 11

7 5 7 12

8 5 7 15

9 5 11 6

10 5 11 7

11 5 11 12

12 5 11 15

13 5 12 6
14 5 12 7

15 5 12 11

16 5 12 15

17 5 15 6

18 5 15 7

19 5 15 11

20 5 15 12

21 6 5 7

22 6 5 11

23 6 5 12

24 6 5 15

25 6 7 5

26 6 7 11

27 6 7 12

28 6 7 15

29 6 11 5

30 6 11 6

31 6 11 12

32 6 11 15

33 6 12 5

34 6 12 6

35 6 12 7

36 6 12 15

37 6 15 5

38 6 15 7

39 6 15 11

40 6 15 12
41 7 5 6

42 7 5 11

43 7 5 12

44 7 5 15

45 7 6 5

46 7 6 11

47 7 6 12

48 7 6 15

49 7 11 5

50 7 11 6

51 7 11 12

52 7 11 15

53 7 12 5

54 7 12 6

55 7 12 11

56 7 12 15

57 7 15 5

58 7 15 6

59 7 15 11

60 7 15 12

61 11 5 6

62 11 5 7

63 11 5 12

64 11 5 15

65 11 6 5

66 11 6 7

67 11 6 12
68 11 6 15

69 11 7 5

70 11 7 6

71 11 7 12

72 11 7 15

73 11 12 5

74 11 12 6

75 11 12 7

76 11 12 15

77 11 15 5

78 11 15 6

79 11 15 7

80 11 15 15

81 12 5 6

82 12 5 7

83 12 5 11

84 12 5 15

85 12 6 5

86 12 6 7

87 12 6 11

88 12 6 15

89 12 7 5

90 12 7 6

91 12 7 7

92 12 7 11

93 12 11 5

94 12 11 6
95 12 11 7

96 12 11 15

97 12 15 5

98 12 15 6

99 12 15 7

100 12 15 11

101 15 5 6

102 15 5 7

103 15 5 11

104 15 5 12

105 15 6 5

106 15 6 7

107 15 6 11

108 15 6 12

109 15 7 5

110 15 7 6

111 15 7 11

112 15 7 12

113 15 11 5

114 15 11 6

115 15 11 7

116 15 11 12

117 15 12 5

118 15 12 6

119 15 12 7

120 15 12 11

Table 1
Conclusion
No, a triangle can’t always be formed with the 3 sides of the triangle being any lengths which are a,b and
c. This is because a triangle can only be formed when the sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater
than the length of the third side of the triangle. As a result, not all the possible combinations of triangle
ABC can form a triangle.

Section B

Diagram below shows a triangle ​ABC ​given two sides and an included 
angle. 
  

Can a triangle be built from the following measurements? 

- Yes  

1) ​Table 2 

a (cm) b (cm) ∠C ° Number of unique triangles formed

 5 4.5 50 ° 2

6 7.5 33 ° 2

2.5 3.7 80 ° 1

3 1.5 120 ° 1

2 3.1 100 ° 1

Table 2 

 
2) Diagram 1.1 below shows an acute triangle with the lengths 
a​=6cm, ​b​=4.5cm, and ​c​=4cm with an angle ∠​C​=50° according 
to ​Table 2​. 

Diagram 1.1 

Diagram 1.2 shows the second acute triangle which can be built 
from triangle ​ABC​ in Diagram 1.1 by using ambiguous case. 
 Diagram 1.2

Diagram 2 below shows an obtuse triangle with the lengths 

a​=3cm, ​b​=1.5cm and ​c​=4cm with an angle ∠​C​=120° according 
to ​Table 2​.  

Diagram 2
Only one triangle can be built from the measurements in 
Diagram 2 due to the angle ∠​C​ being an obtuse angle. 
Besides that, the length of ​c​ is longer than both lengths ​a​ and 
b​. Hence, no ambiguous case can occur.  

Section C

1.

Diagram 3(b)
2.

Diagram 3.1(b)

In Diagram 3.1(b), a straw with length of 7cm is used to join the points A
and B. It forms a triangle with ​∠ABC being an acute angle.

Diagram 3.2(b)

Whereas in diagram 3.2(b), another triangle can be formed with same

straw with ​∠ABC being an obtuse angle. Thus, an ambiguous case occurs.
 Diagram 3.3(b)

As a result 2 triangles can be formed with a straw which has a length of

7cm as shown in Diagram 3.3(b).

Diagram 3.4(b)

In Diagram 3.4(b), a straw of 15 cm is used to form a triangle. However,

only one triangle can formed. Thus, no ambiguous case occurs.
Conclusion
Yes, a triangle can be formed everytime by using straws of different
lengths. However not all the straws of different lengths can form 2 triangles.

3.

B C Number of Triangles Formed

4 2

5 2

6 2
12
7 2

11 2

15 1

Table 3

4. Cosine Rule
Section D

(a) AC² = AB² + BC² - 2(AB)(BC)cos60

AC² = 50² + 80² - 2(50)(80)cos60
AC² = 8900 - 8000cos60
AC² = 8900 - 4000
AC² = 4900
AC = ±√4900
AC = 70m

b)i) Ambiguous Case.

Conlcusion
Section A:​ ​No, a triangle can’t always be formed with the 3 sides of the triangle being any lengths which
are a,b and c. This is because a triangle can only be formed when the sum of any two sides of a triangle
is greater than the length of the third side of the triangle. As a result, not all the possible combinations of
triangle ABC can form a triangle.

Section B:

Section C: ​Yes, a triangle can be formed everytime by using straws of different lengths. However not all
the straws of different lengths can form 2 triangles.

Section D:

Reflection

While I conducting this project, a lot of information that I found.In the

process of completing this project, I have learnt that not all sides given can
be used to form a triangle. To form a triangle the sum of any two sides
must be longer than the third side. I discovered by using straws of different
lengths which were 5cm, 6cm, 7cm, 11cm, 12cm and 15cm to try to form
triangles. Out of the 120 possible combinations, some of them could not
form a triangles as they had the sum of two sides which were smaller than
the third.

Besides, I learnt about ambiguous case. I formed 5 different triangle with

random properties of angles and length of sides. Besides that, I
constructed a triangle and left one side unconstructed,c. I inserted straws
of different lengths to determine which lengths could form a triangle with an
ambiguous case. I found out that not all triangles can have an ambiguous
case and there are conditions that are needed to have an ambiguous case
which are;

1. Must have an acute angle.

2. The length of the side opposite to the acute angle must be shorter
than length of its side.

Other than that, I was able to apply my findings about the ambiguous case,
use the sine rule and cosine rule to further enhance my understanding of
geometry, especially about the solution of triangles.

Throughout the project, I have learnt to developed good time management

and can divide my time efficiently to ensure that I am able to complete the
project within the time given. Furthermore,I have learnt to be more patient
in everything i do. Moreover, I have learnt to work together and share my
knowledge with others to assist me in making this project a success. I was
also able to learn how gather information from the internet efficiently,
improve my thinking skills and promote my effective mathematical
communication.

The moral values that I have put into practice is compassion in executing
this project. I have poured my heart, mind and soul into completing this
project with the best result. I also put in a lot of hard work and effort in order
to complete this project. I also did not give up in doing my project, I have
completed it to the end.