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Domestic Violence: An
Ecological Analysis
Bonnie E. Carlson
State Universityof New Yorkat Albany
IV SOCIOCULTURAL
I. FAMILY
I. INDIVIDUAL
Family background,
personality, world view,
alcoholism.
Ecological Framework
Individual level
Analysis at the individual level focuses on what each adult brings with
him or her to the couple relationship. In a general sense, this consists
of such things as attitudes, values, and beliefs learned in one's family
of origin; personal resources, skills, and abilities; subjective perceptions
Family Level
This level of analysis focuses on the nature of family life and organization,
including family role structure and interactional dynamics. Given the
fact that most people tend to replicate in their families of procreation
what they have experienced in their families of origin, variablesoperating
at this level are frequently related to and interact with family background
factors at the individual level of analysis.
According to Carlson and Davis, there are a number of characteristics
of the family as a social unit that tend to predispose it to conflict and
tension as compared with other similar social groupings:
SocioculturalLevel
This level of analysisfocuseson societalnorms,culturalvalues,and
beliefsystemsthataffectvirtuallyall of us to at leastsomeextentand
differentiatethis society (or significantsubcultureswithin it) from
others.Fourfactorsat the sociocultural levelwillbe discussedin terms
of theircontributionsto the causationand maintenanceof domestic
violence:sexism,sex-rolestereotyping,generalacceptanceof violence,
and normsaboutthe familyin general.
The continuedexistenceof sexismin contemporary Americansociety
is a powerfulforce that cannotbe disputed.Its rootsare deep, and,
accordingto Straus,"toa considerableextent,the culturalnormsand
valuespermittingandsometimesencouraging husband-to-wife violence
reflectthe hierarchicalandmale-dominant of
type society which char-
acterizesthe Westernworld."38 Sexismcontributesto familyviolence
in both obviousand subtleways.It is manifestedin the mannerin
whichwe socializeour children-boys for independenceand aggres-
siveness,andgirlsfordependency andpassivity.Sexismisalsomanifested
in the responseof the criminaljusticesystemto the dangersto which
womenare dailysubjectedand by its refusalto takewomenseriously.
And it is manifestedin the labormarket,whereit is moredifficultfor
womento obtainjobs, hold them, and recoverfrom their loss, and
wherewomenstillare not assuredof equalpay for equalwork.
Sex-rolestereotypingis relatedto sexismandrefersto widelyaccepted
and narrowlydefinedrolesand modesof behaviorconsideredappro-
priatefor one genderor the other.Whilehistoricallysuch rigiddif-
ferentiationmayhavemadesenseon the basisof physicaldifferences
betweenthe sexes,it no longerdoes.As societymovesin the direction
of more flexiblesex roles, conflictis inevitablein the shortrun and
maybe mostlikelyto be manifestedin the familysetting.
It is neitherprofoundnor controversialto observethatwe live in
a violentsociety.Weapprove,orat leasttolerate,a tremendousamount
of violence,both real and fictionalized,in our media,in our public
schools,in our sports,and so forth. There is little doubt that such
broadacceptanceof violencein generalestablishesa contextfor the
tolerationand acceptanceof violencein intimatesituations.
The finalfactorto be discussedat the sociocultural levelof analysis
concernsnormsaboutthe familyandis closelyrelatedto otheraspects
of family life (level 2) discussed previously. One of the fundamental
norms of family life that contributes to the etiology and maintenance
of family violence has its roots in ancient times, and views women and
Case Study
Case Analysis
Why doesn't Brenda Reynolds do something about her situation? Does
she even perceive it as a problem? Does she enjoy or need to be beaten?
The ecological framework previously presented will be used to analyze
the Reynolds case in an attempt to understand why Brenda continues
to live in a situation in which she repeatedly is hurt and her children
are frightened. Factors that serve to maintain violence in families will
be highlighted in this discussion, which begins at the individual level
of analysis.
Individual level of analysis.-Based on Doug's family background, it
seems fairly clear that he has no real conception of healthy marital
interaction or family life. In addition, he must deal with the continuing
stress of a tenuous employment situation that deprives the family of
adequate material resources. The frustration and resentment caused
by his low wages and intermittent work situation undoubtedly have a
negative impact on his self-esteem. He does not appear to be coping
very effectively with this stress, as evidenced by his excessive drinking
and the displacement of his frustration onto other family members.
job market. Similarly, even if he were to allow her to work, the likelihood
that Brenda could find employment is very low, given her lack of skills
and absence from the labor market for twelve years. And since there
is almost no safe outlet for the frustration and resentment that inevitably
develop, they tend to get displaced onto members who are not powerful
enough to effectively resist.
In regard to the community, we know that rural communities, the
community mental health movement notwithstanding, are less likely
to have adequate social services as compared to other types of com-
munities. The inadequacy of the police response to the Reynolds's
problem also serves to maintain it. Finally, in addition to the attitudinal
factors that can facilitate or discourage services for families experiencing
violence, there are other small-community problems, such as trans-
portation and confidentiality.
Socioculturallevel of analysis.-All four of the factors identified at the
sociocultural level play some role in the problems of the Reynolds
family. By virtue of the fact that the family is part of mainstream
America, we can assume that they live in a cultural milieu where
violence is accepted and expected; we know that Brenda grew up in
a family where that was certainly true. The roles played by sexism,
norms about family life in general, and sex-role stereotyping are highly
interrelated. As a result of norms about family life and sex-role ster-
eotyping, Doug feels that he must be head of the family, and must
be its sole breadwinner, despite the fact that this is not very functional
in his situation. Although his personal resources do not legitimize his
position of dominance in the family, he persists in an almost pathetic
way in asserting his power by demonstrating his physical superiority
over his wife. She has so little power that she resorts to nagging and
assaults on his self-esteem in the attempt to get "permission" to work
outside the home. And yet, even if he were to grant permission, she
would encounter sexism in the marketplace that would greatly restrict
her access to employment. One of the consequences of this is the fact
that she is not really free to leave her husband, because in all likelihood
she would be unable to financially support her children on what she
alone might earn. And with her husband's erratic work history, it is
unlikely that he could ever support two households on what little he
earns. Consequently, their options are very limited.
Future Directions
Notes