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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This paper describes the experimental investigation on a newly designed steel shear link (SL) for seismic pro-
Supplemental damping tection of civil structures. It is a low-cost hysteretic device, realized from a single steel plate where variable
Shear link device thickness is given through milling. It has been already adopted for several applications in South America, both
Experimental test for new constructions and seismic retrofit of existing buildings. Even small variation of device’s geometry can
Hysteretic behavior
significantly modify its mechanical behavior, both in terms of strength and stiffness, making such devices very
appealing for the flexibility in terms of design solutions.
SL device is conceived to be connected to the main frame through bolted connections and mounted on a
supporting brace. In particular, slotted holes on one edge of the damper prevent the device from transmitting
shear to the upper beam during the seismic excitation. A couple of specimens for each of 5 different geometries
has been tested, for a total of 10 tests. Two different boundary configurations have been considered, analyzing
results of fully-tightened or not fully-tightened bolts in correspondence of slotted holes. The set-up system has
been properly designed to apply forces up to 1000 kN, to be able to accommodate and test the largest specimens
of the set. The paper presents the experimental results and data processing concerning analysis of deformation
process, hardening behavior and collapse. The main features of the control devices are highlighted, above all, the
high dissipative capability that is mainly due to the particular shape of the steel damper, which leads to a high
buckling resistance.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: iolanda.nuzzo@uniparthenope.it (I. Nuzzo), daniele.losanno@unina.it (D. Losanno), nicola.caterino@uniparthenope.it (N. Caterino),
giorgio.serino@unina.it (G. Serino), info@luisbozzo.com (L.M. Bozzo Rotondo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.005
Received 21 July 2017; Received in revised form 23 May 2018; Accepted 5 June 2018
0141-0296/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
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I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
Connection: welded/bolted Connection: bolted with circular holes Connection: bolted with circular/slotted holes
Fig. 4. SL generations in last 20 years (Ht = total height; tt = stiffeners thickness; Hw = web height; tw = dissipative window's thickness; L = web width): specimens
for tests at (a) ISMES (Bergamo) 1997, (b) ISMES (Bergamo) 2001, (c) University of Naples 2017.
40
tubular component, causing a premature interruption of the experi-
ment.
30 The latest SL generation is the third one (Fig. 4c), characterized by
20
heights, as well as stiffeners’ thickness, mainly unvaried with respect to
the previous geometry. The connection is totally bolted, in order to
10 avoid welding and make easier installation and replacement process
dx (mm) during lifetime of the building. As a difference with respect to previous
0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 generation, the number of dissipative windows, always distributed in
-10 two columns, is increased from 2 to 4, reducing their height but sig-
nificantly increasing their width, in order to enhance ductility as well as
-20
to improve web buckling resistance. A further innovation is the adop-
-30 tion of slotted holes for connection on one side, with the aim to avoid
axial load transferred from the upper beam to the device and vice versa.
-40
The performance of the newest SL version has been tested at the La-
-50 boratory of Structures at the University of Naples Federico II in colla-
boration with University of Naples Parthenope, Italy. Five different
Fig. 5. Experimental force-displacement hysteretic curve (ISMES, 1997), from
[22]. geometries have been investigated, testing two specimens for each of
them, for a total of ten tests. Seven specimens were tested cyclically,
while three of them were subjected to monotonic load, measuring re-
angle γ’ assumed as twice the linear strain orientated at 45° in the action forces up to 1000 kN. Experimental results and data processing
hypothesis of a pure shear strain state. are discussed in the following sections, leading to highlight the main
The second SL generation (Fig. 4b) was tested cyclically again at advantages of using such devices for seismic protection of civil struc-
ISMES S.p.A. in 2001 [23–25], with the main aim of generalizing its tures.
mechanical properties for many different yielding force levels. The
device, indicated as SL30_2, has been compared to the previous one and
has been characterized by two columns of dissipative windows in the 3. Experimental campaign
web. The connection to the equipment was just bolted and the role of
the tolerance between holes and bolts has been analyzed through a The experimental program was carried out at the laboratory of
parametric analysis. In the case of tolerances of 2 or 4 mm, tests were Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University
not concluded successfully because the slippage was too high. Con- of Naples Federico II (Italy). The testing machine has an axial hydraulic
versely, specimens with 1 mm of hole tolerance showed again stable actuator with a capacity of 2500 kN in tension and 3000 kN in com-
hysteretic curves with strain hardening, performing shear and flexural pression, with a stroke of 150 mm. The machine has a rigid basement,
mode behaviors, similarly to what shown in Fig. 5. Anyway, even in this where four vertical steel columns are founded. The actuator is attached
case, significant slippage was registered, observing collapse in corre- to the columns through a rigid frame that can move from 60 to 400 cm
spondence of the vertical bolted connection. In order to continue the from the base level. A total of 10 specimens (Fig. 6) of 5 different
test, the damaged connection was welded to the horizontal plate, but geometries were tested, disposing of 2 samples for each typology. Each
after a high number of cycles even the weld connection failed. A nu- specimen is indicated in the following as SL X_Y, where X is the web
merical interpretation of these experimental tests was used to deduce width in cm, while Y is the dissipative windows thickness in mm. Total
mechanical properties of 32 devices of different dimensions (web height height (310 mm), height of the web (110 mm) and thickness of the plate
fixed at 110 mm) that could even be combined in parallel, so providing (19 mm) are the same for all the devices (they are reported once in
a wide range of performance parameters to designers. Fig. 6 with reference to the device SL 30_3). The thickness of the dis-
A further device belonging to second SL generation was later tested sipative windows is 3 or 5 mm. The web width is 300, 400 or 500 mm.
at the laboratory of the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP) The proposed SL device can be considered a low-cost hysteretic
in Lima, in 2015. The geometry was similar to the SL30_2, but smaller, damper for passive control of seismic vibrations. As a matter of fact, its
with a total web’s width L of 25 cm (SL25_2). An horizontal actuator cost is about 20 € per kilogram. For instance, the cost of the prototypes
was used to apply a quasi-static load history to the device through the investigated herein varies in the range 400–750 €. Among alternative
interposition of a square hollow element under controlled displace- commercial hysteretic devices for seismic application, one of the most
ment. During this test, the specimen suffered an out-of-plane failure widely adopted are the buckling restrained (BR) metallic dampers,
407
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
whose cost – for similar strengths – is much higher (in the range configuration. This allows understanding the role of the boundary
2200–3800 €, according to the Italian market [26]). It is worth to ob- conditions in determining the mechanical response of the device. In
serve that additional costs for supporting braces and connections are particular, the slotted holes, as said above, had been thought to avoid
similar in the two cases, therefore they have been excluded from the axial stress in the device due to deflection of the beam under gravity
comparison. loads. At the same time, however, the cyclic behavior of the device is
The connection is made by means of M30 high strength bolts. On affected by slotted holes due clearances. Actually, due to free or re-
one side of the device, there are circular 30.5 mm holes, while on the strained rotations at slotted holes, the device can be roughly thought as
other side 30.5 × 38 mm slotted holes have been realized. The small a cantilever in the FNF configuration and as fixed at both ends in the FF
tolerance of 0.5 mm is to reduce slippage movements during the tests, configuration, respectively (Fig. 7). Table 1 displays for each test the
that may affect the overall response. The number of bolts is 10 for all geometry of the device, the number of the sample (1 or 2), the type of
the specimens, except for the smallest (SL 30_3), where 6 bolts have test (cyclic or monotonic) and the tightening configuration of bolts on
been adopted. Bolts in circular holes have been always fully tightened the slotted holes (FF or FNF).
with a torque of 2800 Nm to achieve a fixed configuration without The monotonic tests were performed with a constant velocity of
slippage. Differently, bolts in slotted holes have been fully tightened in 0.05 mm/s of the actuator. The cyclic tests have been done according to
some configurations, indicated as FF (Fixed-Fixed), while in other cases the displacement time-history described in Table 2 and Fig. 8.
they have not been tightened at all, obtaining the FNF (Fixed-Not Fixed) Specimens were made of American ASTM A36 mild steel plates.
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I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
F>0 Two tensile tests were conducted to determine yielding stress (σy),
yielding strain (εy), ultimate stress (σu), ultimate strain (εu) and Young
modulus (Es), as given in Table 3. Other material's mechanical prop-
x>0
erties have been derived: shear yielding stress has been calculated as
σy/√3, shear modulus as E/(2(1 + ν)), where the adopted Poisson
modulus ν is 0.3; finally shear strain at yielding γy has been determined
as τy/G.
60
50
40
30
Displacement [mm]
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 t [s] 4500
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I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
Table 3
Tensile test output results.
Sample Test # σy εy σu Es εu τy G γy
[MPa] [%] [MPa] [MPa] [%] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
In particular, also the fixed end side of the device has been in- A very stiff initial elastic behavior is observed for all the tests and
strumented after analyzing Test #1 output results, during which not stable hysteretic loops are obtained up to ± 20 mm in all cases.
negligible sliding movements were observed. Differently from previous SL generations (Fig. 4 and 5), hysteretic loops
The demand of displacement x to the device has been derived from keep the same level of strength up to failure, not exhibiting significant
the above measurements. In addition to LVDTs, n°6 strain gauges (sg) softening. It is worth noting that capacity force of specimens with the
were used to measure local deformation. Number four sg were posi- same geometry but thicknesses of dissipative windows varying from 3
tioned on the windows with an inclination of 45°, while the other two to 5 mm increases of about 50% (e.g. compare test #3 and #5, #4 and
were placed at the bottom and top stiffeners in horizontal configuration #6, #7 and #10). Loops are not symmetric, particularly in case of FNF
(Fig. 12). configuration: during unloading and reloading phases residual de-
formations are stored due to slippage at the connections. This is also
3.2. Output results confirmed by comparing displacement of the actuator (xact) and that of
the device (x), for test #7 and #8 (Fig. 14). The displacement demand x
Results in terms of force-displacements (F–x) response are shown in to the device gradually deviates from displacement of the actuator xact,
Fig. 13 for all 10 tests. It is worth noting that F and x have the meaning especially in the case of FNF configuration, as expected. Displacement
described in the previous section, except for test #1, where not all the xact is larger than x until the device is far from failure (i.e. up to values
LVDTs were installed and x simply represents absolute vertical dis- for xact less than 15 mm, t = 2520 s). After that, the trend is inverted,
placement. with higher displacement of the device due to significant, irreversible
Smoother curves are those related to tests performed in the FF damage.
configuration (#1, 3, 4, 7), as expected. The others referred to FNF tests The same SL device provided almost the same maximum peak force
are more irregular due to the sliding of bolts within the slotted holes. for both cyclic and monotonic tests (Fig. 15). However, they occurred
Too large, unexpected zero-force displacements have been registered for different amount of displacement. Actually, the envelope of the
for test #2, highlighting something did not perfectly work during that loops registered for cyclic tests provided higher values of force with
test, probably due to an incorrect tightening of the bolts at the end of respect to the monotonic test on the same device (such hardening
the device that had to be fully fixed. phenomenon will be addressed in the following sections).
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I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
Fig. 10. Experimental set-up: lateral (left) and frontal (right) views.
4 3 2 1
In this case, just at the onset of buckling (tests #6, 9) or by end of the
Fig. 11. Out-of-plane restraints.
test (test #4) some tearing in the top stiffener was observed.
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I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
1200
1200
Test #1 Test #2
F [kN]
900 900
600 600
F [kN]
300 300
0 0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
x [mm] x [mm]
-300 -300
-600 -600
-900
(a) -900
(b)
-1200
-1200
1200 1200
Test #3
F [kN]
Test #5
F [kN]
900 900
600 600
300 300
0 0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
x [mm] x [mm]
-300 -300
-600 -600
-900 -900
(c) (d)
-1200 -1200
1200 1200
Test #7 Test #8
F [kN]
F [kN]
900 900
600 600
300 300
0 0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
x [mm] x [mm]
-300 -300
-600 -600
-900 -900
(e) (f)
-1200 -1200
1200 1200
Test #10 (h)
F [kN]
900
900
#9
600
300 #6
600
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-300
x [mm] #4
300
-600
-900 x [mm]
(g) 0
-1200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
412
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
FF configuration usually provide higher values of initial stiffness and cyclic loading can be decomposed into skeleton part, softened part and
yielding force than FNF case, although with no significant discrepancy. elastically unloaded part. The same procedure has been applied to
From the comparison of SLs under different loading conditions, it force–displacement experimental curves of specimens SL40_3_1 (test
emerges that initial elastic stiffness at yielding point is generally si- #3), SLB40_5_1 (test #5) and SL50_5_2 (test #10), but for sake of
milar, with slightly higher values in monotonic tests. Contrarily, re- shortness only test #3 plot is shown in Fig. 19, stretching its hysteretic
gistered yielding force values are higher for cyclically loaded samples, loops in one sequence for each sign domain until degrading behavior is
as already highlighted in Fig. 15. observed and differentiating the three parts mentioned above. The
Even if in seismic loading condition SL device obviously undergoes segments indicated as “Skeleton part” represent the load path exceeding
cyclic behavior, the sense of analyzing its monotonic performance the stress level attained in the previous cycle: connecting them in each
stands in the necessity of numerically modeling dampers within a domain, the positive and negative skeleton curves are obtained. On the
structure, particularly in the case of performing a static pushover other hand, the loading path covering a level of stress already attained
analysis. For this reason, authors believe it can be interesting to com- in the previous cycle turns out to be softened: this is the result of
pare F-x monotonic curves with the skeleton curve extrapolated from Bauschinger effect, which consists in the reduction of material’s yield
corresponding cyclic tests. stress when the direction of deformation is reversed after plastic regime
Hysteretic behavior has been analyzed in order to get skeleton path has been reached [27]. Since the loading path in all the tests starts in
and compare it to the result of correspondent monotonic curves. Kato the positive domain, the negative skeleton curves are significantly
et al. [26] observed that the stress–strain relation of steel bars under softened with respect to the positive ones. It is worth to note that the
1200 1200
(a) (b)
F [kN]
F [kN]
900 900
Test #3 - SL 40_3 (FF) Test #5 - SL 40_5 (FNF)
600 600
Test #4 - SL40_3 (FF) Test #6 - SL 40_5 (FNF)
300 300
0 0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 x [mm] 30
-300 -300
x [mm]
-600 -600
-900 -900
-1200 -1200
1200
(c)
F [kN]
900
Test #10 - SL 50_5 (FNF)
600
Test #9 - SL 50_5 (FNF)
300
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-300
x [mm]
-600
-900
-1200
Fig. 15. Cyclic and monotonic F–x curves for specimens SL 40_ 3 (a), SL 40_5 (b), SL 50_5 (c).
413
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
Fig. 16. Cyclic test # 10 damage scenario: (a) initial condition, (b) yielded phase, (c) onset of tearing, (d) distribution of tearing.
600
unloaded part follows the initial elastic path in all the loops. F [kN] (d y , Fy )
The decomposition of the cyclic curve into the skeleton and
Bauschinger parts allows to formulate several considerations. First of all
the skeleton path can be compared to the monotonic test performed on Kpl
Keq
the same device. In particular, only the positive skeleton is compared to
the monotonic curve since the negative skeleton initial stiffness is af- Kel
fected by softening due to Bauschinger effect. As demonstrative ex- 0
-20 -10 0 10 x [mm] 20
ample, Fig. 20 shows positive skeleton and monotonic curves relative to
SL40_5 device: it emerges that initial stiffness predicted by the positive
skeleton curve is quite satisfactory, while after yielding the monotonic
curve is always lower. This behavior, consistent with results observed in
previous experimental investigations on steel material [6,28] is attrib-
uted to hardening effect. Quantification of hardening effect is very -600
important because it significantly affects energy dissipation capacity of
Fig. 18. Bi-linear idealization of the non-linear SLs behavior.
hysteretic devices. The gap between monotonic and positive skeleton
curves after yielding can be indicated as hardening factor (H_f), around
4% for specimen SL40_3 and 7% for specimens SL40_5 and SL50_5. The decomposition of the cyclic curve can also be adopted in order
Scaling positive skeleton curves by H_f, a quite good agreement with to do energetic considerations and compute the ultimate energy ab-
monotonic curves is obtained. It is interesting to note that the hard- sorption capacity as the sum of the areas respectively enclosed by
ening factor is consistent with the ratio between yielding forces ob- skeleton and Bauschinger parts [13,29]. Climent [30] proposed an en-
served respectively in cyclic and monotonic tests. This confirms that ergy-based damage model defining energy capacity through the above
hardening effect is more significant in cyclic loading conditions than in mentioned method. Furthermore, each of the two parts can be con-
monotonic ones: the ratio between the force corresponding to 20 mm sidered representative of different fracture mechanisms [18]. Kato et al.
displacement and the yielding force varies in the range 1.9–2.5 for [26] observed that ductile fracture, described by the skeleton part, is
cyclic tests (see Table 4), while it is 1.8–1.9 for monotonic tests. independent by fatigue fracture, represented by the Bauschinger part,
Fig. 17. Monotonic test # 4 damage scenario: (a) initial condition, (b) yielded phase, (c) onset of buckling, (d) global buckling.
414
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
Table 4
Experimental SLs mechanical parameters.
Test # SL Sample Test Tightening configuration Fy [kN] kel [kN/mm] kpl/kel Fmax[kN] Fmax/Fy dmax[mm] ξeq[%] keq [kN/mm]
F [kN]
form the skeleton curve. This observation is confirmed also in Fig. 19 800
where it is evident that only the first of the three cycles at constant 700
amplitude provide a contribution to characterize the skeleton part. In
600
the three specimens analyzed above the ultimate displacement in the
cyclic test is always lower than the monotonic one. This can justify a 500
Monotonic curve
failure mechanism produced by fatigue in cyclic tests, where, as a 400
Positive skeleton
matter of fact, tearing on top stiffeners was observed, whereas in 300 H_f scaled skeleton
monotonic tests crisis of the device was always caused by buckling of
200
dissipative windows at a larger displacement.
100
In order to obtain effective parameters for simplified linear model of
SL devices, equivalent damping and stiffness have been estimated for 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
any cycle amplitude in the range 2 ÷ 20 mm (Fig. 21). As a con- x [mm]
sequence of stable hysteretic behavior, a general increasing trend of
Fig. 20. Comparison between monotonic and skeleton curves for SL40_5 de-
equivalent damping is observed, in spite of decreasing stiffness. At a
vice.
displacement amplitude of 5 mm equivalent damping is already higher
than 30%. for all devices. For the sake of brevity, only values at ± 20
mm are displayed in Table 4: at this deformation level ξeq is always for FNF configuration resulted to be slightly lower (maximum reduction
higher than 40%, in some cases around 50%. This is definitely con- 10%) than that achieved in FF condition, as expected due to clearances
sistent with results coming from similar experimental test performed in and slippage at slotted holes. Post-elastic stiffness is no larger than 3%
the past [12,31]. As far as tightening mode is concerned, damping ratio and 5% of the initial stiffness in monotonic and cyclic tests respectively,
600
Force [kN]
400
200
0
-160 -120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120 160
-200
-400
Fig. 19. Decomposition of test #3 cyclic curve into skeleton, Bauschinger (softned) and elastically unloaded parts.
415
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
60 700
keq [kN/mm]
ξeq [%] (a) # 10 (b)
600
50
500
40
#5
400
#8
#7
30 #3
#2
#8 300 #7
#1
20
#3
200
#2
10 #1
#10 100
#5
0 0
0 5 10 15 d [mm] 20 0 5 10 15 d [mm] 20
Fig. 21. Equivalent damping (a) and stiffness (b) in the range 2 ÷ 20 mm cycle amplitude.
estimation is expected, due to additional flexibility given by flexural 7 50_3 1 0.0029 0.0025 0.0022 0.0019 0.0024
behaviour and clearance at connections. In addition, kel in Table 4 has 8 2 0.0025 0.0026 0.0024 0.0021 0.0024
been estimated as the secant stiffness at yielding point. As a first ap- 9 50_5 1 *
NA 0.0022 0.0025 0.0026 0.0024
proximation, the expected elastic stiffness can be calculated as ka,V to be 10 2 0.0014 0.0021 0.0023 0.0026 0.0021
properly reduced by a coefficient 2.4. AVERAGE 0.0020 0.0025 0.0036 0.0023 0.0026
416
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
417
I. Nuzzo et al. Engineering Structures 172 (2018) 405–418
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