CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Need of composite:
Epoxy with hardner, Fiber glass and Rice husk are the most important components in the
development of infrastructure. However, costs of construction have been increasing very
significantly in recent years above the expectations. In this context, synthetic, petroleum-
based fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have been found as best alternatives to
conventional construction materials as they exhibit Higher strength and stiffness with
reference to specific gravity; higher fatigue strength and impact energy absorption capacity;
better resistance to corrosion, fire, acids, and natural hazardous environments; longer service
life and lower life-cycle costs; better insulation and less toxicity as primary components for
construction .
1.2 Merits of FRP composites:
Some merits of composite materials over conventional materials
 The expanded use of natural FRP composites composed of natural fibers and/or
biopolymers would provide long term benefits to infrastructure.
 Natural FRPs have the potential to eventually be lighter-weight and lower-cost than
conventional materials and many synthetic composites.
 Natural fibers are easier to handle and have good thermal and acoustic insulation
properties.
Using materials like natural composites that reduce construction waste and increase energy
efficiency would provide a solution to immediate infrastructure needs while promoting the
concept of sustainability.

1.2.1 Matrix Phase:

The matrix phase generally comprises the bulk part of a composite. Materials in
fibrous form are seen to be showing good strength property and for achieving this property
the fibers should be bonded by a matrix. Matrix may consist of any of the three basic material
types mainly Polymer, ceramics or metals.
1.2.2 Reinforcement:
The reinforcement is generally responsible for strengthening the composite and improves
its mechanical properties. All of the different fibers used in composites have different
properties and so affect the properties of the composite in different ways. It also provides
stiffness to the composites

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1.3 Polymers:
1.3.1 Introduction:
Polymer can be defined as a long molecular structure made of many units where the basic
units are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Polymers are produced from raw materials
such as petroleum, natural gas and derivatives of fossil fuel. Generally, petro chemicals for
polymer synthesis are produced on large scale from an important substance known as
naphtha. Naphtha is one of the main derivatives of fossil Fuel. From naphtha, othe role fins
are produced such as ethylene, propylene, benzene and toluene. Ethane is a component of
natural gas that produces ethylene. Once the polymer materials are synthesized, they are
channeled to major consuming in dustries such as,Textiles and paints,or to highly diverse
processing sectors producing commercial product sin construction, packaging, automobile,
agriculture, furniture, electrical and general engineering .Fig.1 illustrates these quence of
polymer based products production from raw materials.

Fig.1. sequence of polymer based production from raw petroleum products

1.3.2 Types of polymers:

There are three types of polymers based on the variation in the chemical molecular
arrangement namely thermosetting plastics, Thermoplastics and Elastomers. Thermosetting

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polymers are stronger and stiffer than thermoplastics and they, generally, can be used at
higher temperature. They are shaped directly from the raw polymer material and no further
processing is required except machining. Thermosetting polymers are limited to molding
only. In molding process, chemicals are added to enhance the cross linking while the material
is still in the mould. Thermos sets have high thermal stability, high dimensional stability and
stiffness, good resistance to creep, low densities and high electrical and thermal insulating
properties. Thermoplastic polymers however are materials that become soften when heated
and harden when cooled. The properties of the thermoplastic polymers can be altered by
changing the length and the form of its individual chains. Elastomers on the other hand have
excellent elastic properties. They are capable of returning to their original shape when a
force, not exceeding its yield strength, is removed. Thus, due to the advantages of polymers
as compared to steel and aluminum, they are often used by the aircraft, construction,
electrical, marine and transportation industries [6].

1.3.3 Biopolymers:
These are produced from renewable agricultural raw materials but not derived from fossil
fuels. At present, two biopolymers or Natural thermoplastic resins are having some market
exposure namely polylactic acid (PLA) and soy-based resins such as soy-protein concentrates
(SPCs) and soy-protein isolates(SPIs). These biopolymers are made from agricultural raw
materials such as dextrose or starch, fermented to form lactic acids and then polymerized [7,
8].The various types of polymers and their corresponding applications [9-20] are shown in
Table 1.

Table1: Types of polymers and their main applications

Polymers Applications
Thermosets
Polyester Bearing applications
Epoxides Boat hulls
Polyurethanes Refrigerators
Phenotics Gears/bearings/electric insulators
Polymides Airplane body/circuit board
Thermoplastics
Acrylics Name tags/lenses for carlights
Polyethylene Wires, cables or insulators
Polypropylene Piping/floor lines

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Polyvinylchloride Cups/packaging/vending machines
Polystyrene

Elastomers
Natural rubber Hoses/belts/mats/gloves
Silicon rubber O rings/adhesive bonds
Polybutadiene Automobile tires
Epichlorohydrine Explosives/water purification
Polyether block amide Vibration absorbers/shoes/insulators

1.4 Natural Fibers:

Natural fiber can be defined as a hair like structure which is obtained
naturally i.e from environment and not a man and natural fiber has high aspect ratio (length to
diameter ratio). The structure of a natural fiber consists of a primary cell wall and three
secondary cell walls as shown. The cell walls are made up of a lignin–hemicellulose matrix
and micro fibrils, which are oriented in different directions in each cell wall. The micro fibrils
each have a diameter of the order of about 10 nm, and are made up of around 30–100
cellulose molecules [21]. The micro febrile angle, or the average angle at which the micro
fibrils are oriented off of the axis of the filament, is thought to be responsible for a number of
mechanical properties of the fiber, as smaller angles generally lead to higher strength and
stiffness and larger angles to better ductility [21].Filaments are bonded into a bundle by
lignin and then attached to the stem by pectin. The lignin and the pectin are both weaker
polymers than the cellulose, so they must be removed if the fibers are going to be effective as
composite reinforcements. Most of the pectin is removed when the bundles are separated
from the rest of the stem by retting (soaking) and scotching (beating).

The three main chemical components of a natural fiber are cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin. The hemicellulose forms crosslinking molecules with the cellulose, forming the
main structural component of the cell. The lignin provides additional strength and coupling
on the hemicellulose–cellulose network and in some cases acts as a protective barrier

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1.5 Classification of Natural Fibers:
Natural fibers can be classified into three categories: vegetable fibers which are
harvested from parts of plants, animal fibers (animal hair, silk fiber from worms etc.) and
mineral fibers (asbestos fiber, ceramic fiber, basalt (rock) fiber and metal fiber (aluminum
fiber). Fig.3. gives typical examples of vegetable or plant or lignocellulose fibers. Table 2
collects the chemical composition of few natural fibers [22].

1.6 Composites of Polymers and Natural Fibers:

1.6.1 Types of composites:

Fig.1.2 .Types of reinforcements

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1.7 Glass Properties
Woven fibre glass fabrics offer the widest range and the best control over thickness, weight
and strength of all forms of fibre glass textiles. This offers the materials engineer a wide
choice of controlled fabric properties to satisfy design needs and objectives. In general,
woven glass fabrics have the following properties.

1.7.1 High Tensile Strength:

Glass is one of the strongest textile fibres, having greater specific tensile strength than steel
wire of the same diameter, at a lower weight.

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1.7.2 Dimensional Stability:
Low elongation under load, generally 3% or less. Glass fibres produce fabrics with excellent
dimensional stability under various types of conditions.

1.7.3 High Heat Resistance:

Glass fabrics have excellent heat resistance at relatively low cost. They retain approximately
50% of room temperature tensile strength at 700°F (371°C); approximately 25% at 900°F
(482°C); with a softening point of 1555°F (846°C) and a melting point of 2075° F (1121 °C).

1.7.4 Fire Resistance:

Composed of inorganic materials, glass fabrics are non-combustible, a natural choice where
flammability is of concern.

1.7.5 Good Thermal Conductivity:

The rapid heat dissipation of glass fabrics is particularly important in electrical insulation
applications.

1.7.6 Good Chemical Resistance:

Like glass itself, fiberglass fabrics are highly resistant to attack by most chemicals.

1.7.7 Outstanding Electrical Properties:

Glass fabrics withstand high temperature and have low moisture regain. Along with its high
dielectric strength and low dielectric constant, glass is of major importance and usefulness in
the electrical industry.

1.7.8 Durability:
Being inert, glass fabrics are unaffected by sunlight, fungus or bacteria.

1.7.9 Economical:
Glass fabrics are lower in cost than many other fabrics for similar applications.

1.7.10 Types of reinforcement:-

They are different types of fiber glass are

Woven cloth

Chopped Strand Mat

Woven roving

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Combination mat

Biaxial cloth

Fig no 1.3 types of fiber glass

1.8 Chopped Strand Mat:-

M705 mat is made of randomly oriented chopped glass strands bonded together in mat form
using an emulsion binder. The emulsion binder uniquely bonds the mat so that it conforms
rapidly to highly contoured molds. It is a porous, well bonded mat which maintains its
integrity during the impregnation process and provides an uniform wet-through rate. The
emulsion binder produces superior handling properties compared to powder bonded mats.

Fig .no 1.4 Chopped Strand Mat

1.8.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The following are the typical laminate properties of M705 in an orthophthalic polyester resin,
glass content 31% by weight, melded by hand lay-up using Lloyd’s specifications. M705

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shows excellent performance equal to and/or exceeding competitive products. M705 is
approved by Lloyd’s Register of Shipping and Det Norsk Verities.

Property Method Unit M705

Tensile Strength ISO3268/DIN 53455 Mpa 108

Tensile Elongation ISO3268/DIN 53455 % 1.8

Tensile Modulus ISO3268/DIN 53455 Mpa 7800

Flexural Modulus ISO 178 Mpa 6770

Flexural Strength ISO 178 Mpa 204

Flexural Elongation ISO 178 % 3.4

Table 1.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

1.8.2 PACKAGING (standard ref.):-
Mat width (cm) Roll diameter Roll weight Rolls / pallet Pallet size (cm)
(cm) (kg)

95 30 41 12 127 x 97

104 27 32 16 113 x 113

125 30 55 12 127 x 97

Table 1.3packaging (standard ref.)

M705 mat is wound into a roll on a 3-inch diameter cardboard inner tube. Rolls consist of a
single continuous length of mat. If a break occurs in the mat, it is marked with a colored
paper slip. A maximum of reef breaks are allowed in any one roll.

1.8.3 STORAGE
It is recommended that glass fiber products are stored in a cool dry area. Temperature should
not exceed 35°C and the relative humidity should be kept below 75%. The glass fiber
material should remain in its packing material until just prior to use. To avoid moisture pick-

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up on the glass, care should be taken not to open a container prior to conditioning to room
temperature. A avoid damage to the products and to ensure safety, pallets should be stacked
no more than two high.

1.9 EPOXY RESINS

Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are
referred to as the “resin” and the “hardener”. The resin consists of monomers or short chain
polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from
a reaction between-epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by
similar 45 chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for exp.
triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups
react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an
epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and
strong.

• Excellent adhesion to different materials.

• High resistance to chemical and Atmospheric attack.

• High dimensional stability.

• Free from internal stresses.

• Excellent mechanical and electrical

1.9.1 Properties:-
• Odorless, tasteless and completely nontoxic.

• Negligible shrinkage.

FIG.NO 1.5 EPOXY RESINS

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1.10 Rice husk:-
Rice husk is an agricultural waste product obtained from the milling of rice and it contributes
to about 20% of the weight of rice. The major compounds from rice husk are silica and
cellulose which yields carbon when thermally decomposed. In the majority of rice producing
countries much of the husks produced from the processing of rice is either burnt or dumped
as a waste, which constitute an environmental challenge. Starting from 1973 however,
various researches have been carried out, not just to control the disposal and pollution
problems associated with rice husk but also to find a value addition to this waste product by
using it as a secondary resource material. In certain regions, the husk is used as fuel for
parboiling paddy in the rice mills. The use of rice husk in the power production has been
reported by Reddy and Alvarez and several researchers have investigated on the use of rice
husk ash (RHA) as a pozzolanic material which can be used in partial replacement of cement
and glass fibres. Rice husk is berlignoselulosa like other biomass materials but siliceous
high. Chemical content of rice husk consists of 50% cellulose, 25-30% lignin, and 15-20%
silica [1]. Rice husk has now been developed as a raw material to produce ash that is known
in the world as the RHA (rice husk ask). Rice husk ash produced from burning rice husks at a
temperature of 400o - 500o C will become amorphous silica and at temperatures greater than
1.000o C will become crystalline silica. The resulting amorphous silica from rice husk ash is
suspected as an important source to produce pure silicon, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride
flour [2]. The burning of rice husk using conventional methods such as fluidised bed
combustors produce CO emission between 200 - 2000 mg / Nm3 and NOx emissions
between 200-300 mg / Nm3 [3]. Rice husk combustion method developed by Cogen-AIT is
able to reduce the potential for CO2 emissions by 14 762 tonnes, 74 tonnes of CH4 and NO2
of 0.16 tons per year from burning rice husks of 34 919 tonnes per year [4]. Husk has a
density of type (bulk Densil) 1125 kg / m3, with a calorific value of 1 kg of rice husk of 3300
k. calories, and has a bulk density of 0.100 g / ml, calorific value between 3300 -3600 kkalori
/ kg chaff with thermal conductivity of0.271 BTU.

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1.11 Fly Ash as a Filler Material
Fly ash is a coal combustion byproduct, which accumulates due to electrostatic precipitation
of the flue gases in thermal power plant. When coal is burnt in thermal power plant the ash is
carried forward in flue gases as fused particles, which solidifies as a spherical particle. Most
of these spherical particles have a gas bubble at the centre. The constituents of flyash
particles as obtained from coal in Britain are silica (59.5%), Alumina (20.3%), FeO /Fe2O3
(6.5%), remaining being FeO, MgO and unburnt coal etc. Flyash depending upon the source
of coal, contain different proportions of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, magnesium
etc along with elements like carbon, Ti, Mg, etc. So the flyash has properties combined of
spherical particles and that of metals and metal oxides. Filler materials are generally the inert
materials which are used in composite materials to reduce material costs, to improve
mechanical properties to some extent and in some cases to improve processability. Blending
of polymeric materials (PVC & PVB) leads to increased impact strength. Reinforcement of
polymer matrix with glass fiber leads to general improvement of mechanical properties.
Polymer matrix composites are used in greatest diversity in light of their less cost, ease of
fabricability, higher specific strength, design flexibility and lightweight.

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 Table :Chemical composition of fly ash

SI.No Compound Amount in fly ash(in

percentage)
1 SiO2 55.85
2 Al2O3 24.98
3 FeO3 8.1
4 MgO 1.14
5 P2O5 0.15
6 SO3 1.16
7 K2O 0.85
8 CaO 2.54
9 Na2O 0.2
10 TiO2 1.75
11 CO2 1.56

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 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

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 LITERATURE SURVEY
[1] Effect of fly ash concentration and its surface modification on fiber

reinforced epoxy composite’s mechanical properties

Pritish Shubham, S K Tiwari

Polymers materials, due to its light weight and high corrosion resistance, have a
unique place in engineering applications. However, due to low strength and low heat resisting
capability, its application is constrained significantly. To overcome this drawback hard phase
materials such as fibers and/or fillers are reinforced into soft polymer matrix. Effect of fly ash
as filler in fiber reinforced epoxy composite was studied for characterization of mechanical
properties. Investigation was done by varying fly ash concentration and modifying fly ash
particles surface by a γ-aminopropyl triethoxy silane coupling agent. The DMA test result
showed improvement in damping capability and thermal stability with lower concentration of
fly ash; however surface modification with silane coupling agent (i.e. silanization) resulted in
decrease in damping capability. The tensile test result showed that with increase in fly ash
concentration, the ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break was reduced; however
silanization of fly ash showed improvement in strength when compared to unmodified fly ash
at same concentration. The impact test result also showed similar trend, i.e. the toughness of
FRP composite was reduced due to addition of fly ash, but silanization resulted in improved
toughness. SEM analysis showed that surface modification of fly ash with coupling agent
enhanced their bonding with polymer resin which resulted in lower damping capability and
improved strength and toughness

[2] Investigation on Mechanical and Physical Properties of Fly Ash

Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composite

1Arijit Patra, 2Dr.Mahua Das, 3Kaif Anwar, 4Bilal Khan, 5Kashif Kamran, 6Dr.Dipak
Ranjan Jana

Fly ash is an inorganic alumino silicate, a by product of thermal power plant,

responsible for air pollution. If we use it as second phase or reinforcement material in
composite it will produce a suitable composite material as well as the pollution will be
reduced. In this experiment for obtaining composite we have mixed the fly ash with epoxy

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resin, a matrix material in different ratio such as 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. Different
mechanical testing such as tensile test, hardness test and impact test are conducted to get the
mechanical properties of composite. Roughness (Ra and Rz) test is done to check the
smoothness. TGA and DSC analysis of 40% fly ash epoxy composite is carried out to find the
thermal stability of composite.

From the experimental observation it has been found that the

toughness and hardness maximum for 40% fly ash contained composite that are 2 J and
Rf106.50 respectively but tensile strength is better for 30% fly ash based composite. The
surface roughness is better for 40% fly ash contained composite than others. It is shown that
within 5000C the material loses is 55% for 40% fly ash based composite

[3] Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Resin – Fly Ash Composite

Manoj Singla1 and Vikas Chawla2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.I.E.I.T., Railmajra, Distt. Nawanshahr (Pb.)-

144533, INDIA, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee
(Uttaranchal), INDIA.

There has been significant increase in use of glass fibre reinforced composites as
structural materials in naval mine countermeasure surface ships. Sea mines when detonated
emit underwater shock waves, which could impart severe loading to naval ship structure;
there are attempts to model the response of a ship structure to this loading. For the model to
be accurate& useful material property data determined experimentally by taking different
weight percentage of glass fibers (E-300, mat form) with epoxy resin & comparison with fly
ash reinforced composite. Specimens in the form of cube of size 10X10X10 (mm’s) are used
& results are presented. Fracture behavior of composite can also be studied using SEM. SEM
analysis is done to observe distribution of fly ash particles in matrix, resin fly ash interface,
glass fibre matrix interface, glass fibre distribution etc,.

17
[4] A STUDY ON EVALUATION OF MECHANICAL AND THERMAL
PROPERTIES OF RICE HUSK FILLED EPOXY COMPOSITES

Arun Kumar Rout*1, Alok Satapathy2, Ashok Kumar Sahoo3, Dipak Kumar Jesthi4

School of Mechanical Engg, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024 (India),Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008 (India),
School of Mechanical Engg, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024 (India), School of
Mechanical Engg, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024 (India).
This paper presents a study on the thermal and mechanical characterization of a
new class of multi-phase composites consisting of epoxy resin reinforced with glass fiber and
filled with rice husk particulates. Four different sets of glass-epoxy composites are fabricated
with addition of 0, 2.5, 7.5 and 12.5 wt% of ricehusk particulates. Tensile, flexural, micro-
hardness and inter-laminar-shear-strength of these composites are evaluated as per ASTM
standard. It is observed that micro-hardness of the composite is increasing while tensile and
flexural properties are decreasing with addition of rice husk. Further, six different sets of
epoxy composites are fabricated reinforced with 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 wt% of rice husk
particulates for thermal characterization. The effective thermal conductivity, coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) and glass transition temperatures (Tg) are studied for theses
composites. It is found that the effective thermal conductivity (Keff.) and CTE of neat epoxy
are reduced by 74.38% and 22% respectively and the Tg is increased by 140C with addition
of (15 wt%) rice husk content.

This study yields the following conclusions: (1) Incorporation

of rice husk particles has improved the hardness of glass-epoxy composites. A steady decline
in the tensile, flexural and inter laminar shear strength is also noticed in the filled composites.
The density of the composites is also greatly influenced by the filler content. Thus, while
designing such composite systems for specific requirements, there is a need for optimizing
the rice husk content. (2) The measured values of effective thermal conductivity are obtained
for different weight fractions of rice husk fillers. Incorporation of rice husk results in
reduction of thermal conductivity of epoxy resin about 74.38% and thereby improves its
thermal insulation capability. (3) It is observed that the coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) of epoxy is greatly influenced by addition of rice husk. A maximum decrease of about
22% in CTE of the epoxy is obtained with 15 wt % of rice husk in the composite. The
constraint of mobility of the epoxy chain due to the interaction of rice husk and epoxy are

18
responsible for the reduced CTE of the composites. (4) It is also observed that the glass
transition temperature (Tg ) of neat epoxy is increased by 14.28% with an increase in rice
husk content. A maximum increase of 140C in Tg is obtained as the rice husk content
increases to 15 wt%.

[5]EFFECT OF FLYASH ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS

FIBER POLYMER COMPOSITES

1A.V.PRADEEP, 2P.SRINIVAS REDDY, 3CHAITANYA MAYEE. M

The use of polymer fiber reinforced Composite materials is finding applications day by day in
engineering fields such as aero-space, automotive, aircrafts constructions, etc. Glass fibre
polymer composites are reinforced with flyash in different weight fractions, i.e. (0%, 5%,
10% and 15%) and fabricated by using hand lay-up technique. These fabricated slabs are cut
into required dimensions and the tests for mechanical properties like Tension test, Impact test
and Hardness test were performed. Tension test was performed on Universal Testing
Machine (UTM), Impact test was performed for Izod and Charpy specimens and Hardness
test was performed on Brinell’s Hardness Testing Machine. From the experimental results
obtained, it was noticed that the mechanical properties were enhanced when the flyash
percent was increased and also among these percentages of flyash, the specimen having 15%
was possessing highest properties.

After fabricating the composite slabs with different weight

fractions of flyash i.e. 0%, 5%, 10% and 15%, they are cut into required dimensions and
these specimens were tested for mechanical properties like Tension, Impact and Hardness.
Tension test was performed on Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Impact test was
performed for Izod and Charpy specimens and Hardness test was performed on Brinell’s
Hardness Testing Machine. From the results obtained experimentally it can be concluded that
the mechanical properties were enhanced when flyash is reinforced with the Glass fibre
polymer and also the specimen having 15% (largest constituent of flyash percent among all
other specimens) is possessing better Tensile Strength, Impact strength and Hardness.

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[6]Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk-Fly Ash-Epoxy
Hybrid Composites

Antaryami Mishra1, Deepanjali Padhee 2

An attempt has been made in this investigation to develop natural fibers reinforced polymer
composites using rice husk and fly ash as reinforcements. The content of rice husk is varied
(10, 15 and 20 weight percentages) whereas the fly ash percentage is kept constant at 5 % in
epoxy matrix. Composites have been fabricated using hand layup technique using a suitable
die developed in house. All the samples have been tested in Universal Testing Machine as per
standard for tensile strength and flexural strength. The hardness and water absorption tests
were also carried out. It is observed that composite with 10% rice husk is having highest
tensile strength of 33 MPa. Similarly the flexure modulus for 10 % rice husk composite was
4881 MPa. The impact strength of composite with 20 % rice husk was highest. The hardness
test showed that composite of 20% rice husk was highest. The water absorption test reveals
that composite with 10 % rice husk is the best. It is recommended that composite with 10%
rice husk and 5 % fly ash with epoxy matrix will be suitable for structural applications. The
composite with 15 or 20 % rice husk may not be used for such purposes. Composite with 15
and 20 % rice husk may be used for making parts of automobiles. But these will not be
suitable to work in moist environment. However composite with 10 % rice husk will be
suitable for structural applications like packaging, interior decorations, body of washing
machines and domestic appliances etc.

After developing natural fibre reinforced composites

prepared out of waste like fly ash and rice husk it is observed that composite with 10% rice
husk and 5 % fly ash with epoxy matrix will be suitable for structural applications. The
composite with 15 or 20 % rice husk may not be used for such purposes. Now a days the
automobile industry is in search of light weight materials to reduce the overall weight of the
vehicle. Composite with 15 and 20 % rice husk may be used for making parts of automobiles.
But these will not be suitable to work in moist environment. However it is recommended that
the composite with 10 % rice husk will be suitable for structural applications like packaging,
interior decorations, body of washing machines and domestic appliances etc.

20
[7]Analysis of Mechanical Characteristics of Fly Ash Cenospheres
Reinforced Epoxy Composites

CHEN Ping1, LI Jianchao1, ZHANG Lei2

(1. School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing,

Beijing 100083, China; 2. Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA)

Fly ash cenospheres (FACs) as a recycling material of industrial waste has become a
competitor for other inorganic particle fillers. Epoxy resin (EP) composites reinforced with
different content of FACs as well as different size grading ratio were prepared. The surface
modification of FACs particles was conducted before incorporating into EP matrix. The
impact and flexural strengths and the flexural modulus were investigated, and the fracture
surfaces of the testing samples were analyzed using SEM. Results showed that FACs had an
obvious effect on the mechanical characteristics of the FACs/EP composites. With increasing
weight fraction of FACs, the impact and flexural strengths and the flexural modulus of EP
composite samples increased, and reached the highest values when the weight fraction of
FACs reached 15 wt%. The mechanical characteristics of the FACs/EP composites however
deteriorated with further increasing of FACs content. For the EP composites reinforced with
different size grading ratio of FACs, the larger proportion of small FACs particles, the better
mechanical properties of the EP composites. The results were analyzed from the aspect of the
plastic deformation, new surface formation and fracture absorption energy. The synergistic
effect of the size grading ratio of FACs was not obvious, which would be further
investigated.

[8] TENSILE AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF GLASS FIBER EPOXY

COMPOSITES
S.PichiReddy1, P.V.ChandraSekhar Rao1, A.Chennakesava Reddy2,
G.Parmeswari11.Department of Mechanical Engineering, L.B.Reddy College
ofEngineering, Mylavaram, A.P2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUH
College of Engineering,JNTUH, Hyderabad-500085

The experimental investigation on tensile and flexural behaviour of fly ash

reinforced glass fibre epoxy composites with different weight percent of fly ash have been

21
carried out. The conclusions drawn from the present work are.1. The tensile strength of the
composites varied from 14.7727MPa to 27.1790MPa and the maximum is obtained for
composite with 6grams fly ash. 2. The maximum tensile modulus of elasticity is obtained for
the composite with 8grams fly ash. 3. The flexural strength of the composite varies from
81.648MPa to 110.497MPa. The maximum flexural strength is obtained for the composite
with 4grams fly ash.

[9] Fabrication and Testing of Fibre Reinforced Composite Material

Subbiah Jeeva.Ga,*, Subin Kumar.Mb, yabez Raj.D c PG Student, University College
of Engineering-Nagercoil, Kanyakumari Dt, Tamil Nadu, India a UG Student, Loyola
Institute of Technology and Science, Kanyakumari Dt, Tamil Nadu, India.

The fibre reinforced composite material was fabricated and then its mechanical
properties like tensile and impact strength was determined. The result thus obtained was
compared with standard specimen (A) that not having any additives. It was proved that the
added additives of natural fibres like sisal fiber, banana fiber, coconut fibre in a composite
material gives poor tensile strength when compared to the standard specimen (A). But the
titanium dioxide as additives in composite material gives high tensile strength. Through this
type of works we are optimizing and suggesting that the titanium dioxide used as additives
gives excellent mechanical tensile strength. But this is not in the case of impact strength.
Impact strength of all the specimens has almost same values and also equivalent values to the
standard specimen (A). In addition to that these materials have advantage like less weight,
high strength, very cheaper, very easy to fabricate and eco friendly. Therefore titanium
dioxide mixed composite materials is used in the area where high strength is needed. In future
we will deeply analysis the other mechanical properties of fiber reinforced composite
material.

[10] FABRICATION AND TESTING OF FIBRE REINFORCED

POLYMER COMPOSITES MATERIAL
K.Alagarraja1,A.Dhamodharan2 ,K.Gopinathan3,R.Mathan Raj4 ,K.Ram Kumar5. 1,
2,3,4,5 (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur, Tamil Nadu, India)

The composite materials are replacing the traditional materials, because of its
superior properties such as high tensile strength, low thermal expansion, high strength to
weight ratio. The developments of new materials are on the anvil and are growing day by

22
day. Natural fiber composites such as sisal polymer composites became more attractive due
to their high specific strength, lightweight and biodegradability. Mixing of natural fiber with
Glass-Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRPs) is finding increased applications. In this study,
sisal – glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites is developed and their mechanical properties
such as tensile strength, compression strength, flexural strength and impact strength are
evaluated. The interfacial properties, internal cracks and internal structure of the fractured
surfaces are evaluated by using Travelling Microscope .The results indicated that the
incorporation of sisal fiber with GFRP can improve the properties and used as an alternate
material for glass fiber reinforced polymer composites.

[11] TENSILE AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF GLASS FIBER

EPOXY COMPOSITES

S.PichiReddy1, P.V.ChandraSekhar Rao1, A.Chennakesava Reddy2,

G.Parmeswari11.Department of Mechanical Engineering, L.B.Reddy College of
Engineering, Mylavaram, A.P2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUH
College of Engineering, JNTUH, Hyderabad-500085

The experimental investigation on tensile and flexural behaviour of fly ash reinforced
glass fibre epoxy composites with different weight percent of fly ash have been carried out.
The conclusions drawn from the present work are. 1. The tensile strength of the composites
varied from 14.7727MPa to 27.1790MPa and the maximum is obtained for composite with
6grams fly ash. 2. The maximum tensile modulus of elasticity is obtained for the composite
with 8grams fly ash. 3. The flexural strength of the composite varies from 81.648MPa to
110.497MPa. The maximum flexural strength is obtained for the composite with 4grams fly
ash.

23
CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY

24
 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Selection of Resin Matrix

In selecting matrix material, following factors are taken into consideration:

1. The Matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if as high strength fibre is used as
the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength matrix, which will not
transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
2. The Matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity,
exposure to ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by
dust particles, etc.
3. The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
4. Smoke requirements.
5. Life expectancy.
6. The resultant composite should be cost effective.

The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid .The solid resin is then
said to be the matrix for the fibres.

3.1.1 Materials

 Epoxy resin (LY 556 grade)

 Hardener (HY 951)
 Glass Fibre
 Fly Ash
 Rice husk
 Mansion wax polish

25
 Fig No 3.1 Materials
3.1.2. Type of Resin Matrix:

1. Epoxy
2. Phenolic
3. Polyester
4. Polyurethane
5. Vinyl Ester

3.1.2.1 Epoxy:

Epoxy resin (Araldite LY 556) made by CIBA GUGYE Limited, having the
following outstanding properties has been used.
I. Excellent adhesion to different materials
ii. Great strength, toughness resistance
iii. Excellent resistance to chemical attack and to moisture
iv. Excellent mechanical and electrical properties.
v. Odorless, tasteless and completely nontoxic.

26
vi. Negligible shrinkage.

Epoxy resins are the most commonly used thermoset plastic in polymer matrix
composites. Epoxy resins are a family of thermoset plastic materials which do not give off
reaction products when they cure and so have low cure shrinkage. They also have good
adhesion to other materials, good chemical and environmental resistance, good chemical
properties and good insulating properties. The epoxy resins are generally manufactured by
reacting epichlorohydrin with bisphenol. Different resins are formed by varying proportions
of the two: as the proportion of epichlorohydrin is reduced the molecular weight of the resin
is increased.
Epoxy resins are cured by means of a curing agent, often referred as catalysts,
hardeners or activators. Often amines are used as curing agents. In amine curing agents, each
hydrogen on an amine nitrogen is reactive and can open one epoxide ring to form a covalent
bond.
1. Low cost
2. Good handling characteristics
3. Low viscosity and versatility
4. Good mechanical strength
5. Good electrical properties
6. Good heat resistance
7. Cold and hot molding
8. Flame resistant with fire proof additive and
9. Curing temperature is 120o C(250o F).
3.1.2.2. Properties of epoxy resin:
property specification unit Araldite LY556
Viscosity at 250C ISO 12058 mPa.s 10000-12000
Density at 250C ISO 1675 gm/cc 1.15-1.20
0
Flash point ISO 2719 C < 200

3.1.2.3. Hardener:
Hardener is mainly used to cure the epoxy resin which causes a chemical reaction without
changing its own composition. The catalyst initiates the chemical reaction of the unsaturated
polyester and monomer ingredient from liquid to a solid state. When used as a curing agent,

27
catalysts are referred to as catalytic hardeners. Hardeners are mainly used to increase the
polymerization process. The curing time mainly depends on the hardener and epoxy mixing
ratio. Here the mixing ratio is 100:10. This makes the fabrication process as per our
requirements.
3.1.2.4. Properties of hardener
property specification unit Aradur HY 951
Viscosity at 250C ISO 12058 mPa.s 10-20
Density at 250C ISO 1675 gm/cc 0.97-0.99
0
Flash point ISO 2719 C > 180

Processing
Mixing Ratio
Parts by weight
Araldite LY 556 100
Aradur HY 951 10-12
Resin and hardener should be mixed uniformly until they form a Homogenous mixture.
3.1.2.5. Selection fibre:
They Fibres are the principal constituents in a fibre reinforced composite portion of the
occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the major on the load
acting on a composite s The effectiveness of fibre reinforcement depends type. Length.
fractions and orientation of fibres in the matrix. Volume Proper selection of the fibre is
influenced by following characteristics
1. Density
2. Tensile and Compressive strength
3. MOE
4. Fracture
5. Fatigue performance
6. Response to impact loads
7. Electrical and Thermal properties
8. Cost
3.1.2.4 Glass fibres:
Over 95% of the fibres used in reinforced plastics are glass fibres, as they are
inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the

28
plastics with which they are density, resistance to chemicals insulation reinforced. Their low
capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that
it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time
However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames
This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to
sustain och loads for months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, m many
ad other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibres and the disadvantage is further
compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning
before the catastrophic failure.
3.1. Properties of E-glass fiber
Properties Specification Units Casting Laminate
s
Tensile strength ISO/R527 Kg / mm2 6-7 35-38
Flexural strength ISO/R178 Kg / mm2 12-14 45-50
Impact strength VSM 77105 Kg cm / cm2 10-11 115-125
Water absorption (specimen 60x10x4 mm)
10 days at 200C % 0.2 0.2-0.3
1 hour at 980C % 0.2 0.3-0.4
50 % glass (10 layers of 300 GSM glass fabric with Volan – A finish)

3.1.2.5 Chopped strand mat:

Chopped strands are produced by cutting continuous strands into short lengths.
The individual filaments to hold together during or after the chopping process depends ability
of the the type and amount of size applied during the fibre manufacturing operation. largely
on strands of high integrity are called "hard" and those that separate more readily are called
"soft". Longer strands are mixed with a resinous binder and spread in a two dimensional
random fashion to form CSMs.
Thus a CSM is made up of random yet evenly distributed strands chopped from
continuous "E" Glass fibres into 50mm length and bonded with "Emulsion binder". It
possesses excellent surface bonding efficiency. These mats are suitable for hand layup
mouldings and provide nearly equal properties in all directions in the plane of the structure.

29
3.1.2. HAND LAY-UP TECHNIQUE:
The fiber piles were cut to size from the glass fiber cloth. The appropriate numbers of
fiber plies were taken: two for each. Then the fibers were weighed and accordingly the resin
and hardeners were weighed. Epoxy and hardener were mixed by using stirrer in a bowl. Care
was taken to avoid formation of bubbles. Because the air bubbles were trapped in matrix may
result failure in the material. The subsequent fabrication process consisted of first putting a
releasing film on the mould surface. Next a polymer coating was applied on the sheets. Then
fiber ply of one kind was put and proper rolling was done. Then resin was again applied,
next to it fiber ply of another kind was put and rolled. Rolling was done using cylindrical
mild steel rod. This procedure was repeated until eight alternating fibers have been laid. On
the top of the last ply a polymer coating is done which serves to ensure a good surface finish.
Finally a releasing sheet was put on the top; a light rolling was carried out. Then a 20 kgf
weight was applied on the composite. It was left for 72 hrs to allow sufficient time for curing
and subsequent hardening.

Fig 3.2 Hand layup process

30
3.1.3. General overview:
The composites sheets were fabricated from glass fiber, with coal powder, fly ash and
resin matrix. The resin used was epoxy resin. The weight fraction of composites was
maintained at (i). 50wt% glass fiber and 50wt% epoxy, (ii).45wt% glass fiber,50wt%epoxy
and 5wt% filler material(coal powder), (iii)45wt% glass fiber,50wt% epoxy ,5wt% filler
material (fly ash)& (iv) 45wt% glass fiber,50wt% epoxy ,5wt% filler material (coal powder
+fly ash) .After preparation of the hybrid composites fabrication cutting of the specimen is
done in the desired shape to test the mechanical properties of the prepared composite. The
tensile and flexural testing of the samples was done by UTM (universal testing machine),
impact test was done on impact test machine & hardness test was done on Brinell hardness
test machine
3.1.4. Designation & Composition:
S.NO Designation Composition

1 C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber

2 C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5% Fly Ash+2.5% Rice Husk
3 C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2% Fly Ash+3% Rice Husk
4 C4 45wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber +3% Fly Ash+2%Rice Husk

Table 3.4. Composite constituents weight percentages

3.1.2.6 Chopped strand mat glass fibre Preparation of Polymer Composite

with Chopped Strand mat Glass fibre
1. The composite materials used for the present investigation is fabricated by hand lay-
up method
2. Chopped strand glass fibre is cut as per the mold size of 200 200 mm and the weight
of eight glass fibres is to be measured.
3. The polymer matrix is a mixture of polyester+catalyst, hardener and it is prepared in
the ratio of 100:12:2
4. Weight of the polymer matrix is equal to the weight of the glass fibres of eight
layers, the ratio of the weights is 50:50
5. One ceramic tile is taken and it is cleaned with cotton cloth to remove dirt and water
particles
6. Gl sheet obstacles are prepared of required composite material thickness. These are
placed on the ceramic tile in a square position is acts like a mold cavity.
7. Release gel (white grease) is coated on the square area by using the hand brush

31
 8. A layer of polymer matrix is spread uniformly with the help of hand brush after that a
fibre material chopped strand mat is placed on the polymer matrix
9. A wooden roller is moved with a mild pressure on the fibre mat to remove any air
trapped as well as the excess polymer present.
10. The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are
stacked.
11. After curing at sunlight temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite
part is taken out for further processing.
12. The normal curing temperature is 24-48 hours for polyester based systems
13. The obtained composite specimen consists of total eight layers in which each glass
fibre is placed in between the polyester resin
14. Now the specimen is cut into required dimensions

3.2 Step 1:-

Select the suitable work table, which should be smooth and clean. And select the mansion
wax polish and apply the specimen at required dimensions. Where dried in the presence of
sun light and the atmosphere up to 30 to 40 minutes.

Fig NO 3.2 applying mansion wax polish

STEP 2:-

The required amount fiber mat was taken, then the fiber mat was cut according to the
required size 250*250mm.

32
 Fig NO 3.3 Cutting of fiber glass
STEP 3:-

Fist take a bowl and pour epoxy into the bowl and then stir with a uniform pressure. After
adding the Rice husk and Fly Ash is also mixed with epoxy polymer. Then uniform
mixing of all the composites and addition of hardener is also done.

33
 Fig No:- 3.4 Measuring of materials
STEP 4:-

The resin was applied on the surface of the table by using a brush. Then the glass fiber mat
was placed on the resin and perform rolling operation to remove air gaps on all sides.

34
 Fig No:-3.5 layers of glass fibres

Step 5:-

Similarly, the process is repeated one by one layer until all 8 layers of fibre are placed.
The procedure was repeated for the other specimen composition also..

35
 Fig No:- 3.6 2 to 8 layers of fibre glass

STEP 6:-

Then the fabricated material was dried in the presence of sun light and atmosphere in 24
hours.

36
 Fig No:- 3.7 Pieces placed in sun light
STEP 7:-

After one day the frame is removed from the tile, the fiber is removed from the tile by
using tools

37
 Fig No:- 3.7 Frame is removed from the tile.

STEP 8:-

After removing it from tile it is inspected for thickness (3.2mm) by using the vernier calipers
and again exposed to atmosphere.

Fig No:- 3.8 Work pieces

38
STEP 9:-

According to ASTMstandards the specimens are cut according to dimensions.

Tensile Test:

Impact Test:

39
Water Absorption:

Flexural Strength:

40
3.2 Cutting Machine:

41
 Fig No 3.9 cutting of specimens

3.3 Prepared Samples :

Fig No: 3.10 prepared samples for Tension Test.

42
Fig No: 3.11 prepared samples for Impact Test.

Fig No: 3.12 prepared samples for Flexural Test

43
Fig No: 3.13 prepared samples for Handness Test

44
 CHAPTER-4
CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS
TO ANALYSE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES WE HAVE
CONDUCTED FOUR TESTS FOR OUR SPECIMENS.

 Tensile Strength.
 Izod Impact Strength.
 Flexural Strength.
 Water Absorption.

4.1 Tensile Strength:-

45
  It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests.
 A tensile test helps determining tensile properties such as tensile strength, yield point
or yield strength, % elongation, % reduction in area and modulus of elasticity.
 Fig shows a specimen for tensile test. Since mechanical properties to some extent are
influenced by the size and the shape of the test specimen, it is customary to use
standardized specimen.
 Tensile test is carried out by gripping the ends E, E of the specimen in a tensile testing
machine, fig a, and applying and increasing pull [fig b] on the specimen till it
fractures.
 During the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of a previously marked
gauge length in the Specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine
and extensometer respectively. These readings help plotting stress – strain curve.
 After fracture, the two pieces of the broken specimen are placed as fixed together and
the distance Lf between two gauge marks and the diameter D f at the place of fracture
are measured.

4.1.1 Tensile test

The hybrid composite material fabricated is cut into required dimension using a saw cutter
and the edges finished by using emery paper for mechanical testing. The tensile test specimen
is prepared according to the ASTM D638 standard. The dimensions, gauge length and cross-
head speeds are chosen according to the ASTM D638 standard. A tensile test involves
mounting the specimen in a machine and subjecting it to the tension. The testing process
involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and applying tension to it until it
fractures. The tensile force is recorded as a function of the increase in gauge length. During
the application of tension, the elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied
force.

Length = 200mm, width = 25mm, thick = 3.2mm

200 25

200 mm

46
 Fig No:- 4.1 Tensile strength
4.2 Tensile test
The tensile test was carried out using an universal testing machine of capacity 5 tons. The
test specimen is prepared according to ASTM D 638-03 standard. The tensile strength is
calculated according to the following formula

σt =P / bh - - - - - - - - (1)
Where, P-ultimate load on the specimen (N)
b- Initial width of specimen (mm)
h- Initial thickness of specimen (mm))

47
 Fig.6- Specimen before tensile test

4.3 Impact Test:-

 Impact testing becomes essential in order to study the behaviour of materials under
dynamic loading.
 An impact test determines the behaviour of materials when subjected to high rates of
loading, usually in Bending, tension or torsion
 In impact test, a specimen, machined or surface ground and usually notched, is struck and
broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine. The quantity measured is
the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a single blow.
 The ideal impact test would be one in which all energy of a blow is transmitted to the test
specimen.
 An impact test gives an indication of the relative toughness of the material.
 Two types of specimen are used on an impact testing machine, namely CHARPY and
IZOD. The chirpy specimen is placed in the vice so that it is just a simple beam supported
at the ends whereas Izod Specimen is placed in the vice such that it is a cantilever.

The impact test specimens are prepared according to the required dimension following the
ASTM-A370 standard. During the testing process, the specimen must be loaded in the testing
machine and allows the pendulum until it fractures or breaks. Using the impact test, the
energy needed to break the material can be measured easily and can be used to measure the
toughness of the material and the yield strength

48
Length = 130mm, width = 15mm, thick = 3.2mm.

15mm
130mm

Fig No 4.3 IMPACT TESTING MACHINE

4.4 Flexural Strength:-

ASTM D790 are used for determining the flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced
plastics, including high modulus composites and electrical insulating materials utilizing a
three-point loading system to apply a load to a simply supported beam (specimen). ASTM
D790 can generally be applied to both rigid and semi-rigid materials, but it is not possible to
determine the flexural strength for those materials that do not break or yield in the outer
surface of the test specimen within the 5.0 % strain limit.

49
Test specimens of rectangular cross section are injection moulded or cutting from moulded or
extruded sheets or plates. The sample must have precise characteristics: it must be solid and
its external surfaces must be rectangular evenly. The specimen is supported by two supports
and is loaded through a half load nose between the supports. The deflection can be measured
in two ways; using crosshead position or a deflect meter. Please note that studies have shown
that the deflection data obtained will vary depending on the system used.

Fig No 4.4 FLEXURAL TEST

4.4.1 Flexural test

The flexural test is carried out using the universal testing machine of capacity 5 tons. The test
specimen was prepared according to ASTM D790 standard.
The flexural strength is calculated according to the following formula Flexural strength:
σf =3PL/2bh2 - - - - - -(2)
(Where, P is the maximum load (N)
L- Span length of the specimen (mm)
b- Width of specimen (mm)
h- Thickness of the specimen (mm))

Flexure strength was measured using the following equation

50
 𝜎𝑓=3𝑃𝐿\𝑏𝑑2
Where P is the load applied, L is the span length; b and d are the width and thickness of the
specimen, respectively

TEST STANDARD

ASTM D 7264 / D 790 / D 6272/ D 4476 / ISO 178 / ISO 14125 / ISO 3597-2 / EN 2562 /
EN 2746

Maximum Load 30 kN

Temperature Range 80 °C a 149 °C

Specimen Thickness 1-10 mm

Specimen Width 74 mm

Specimen Length up to 340 mm

Mass 20.00 kg

Table:- 4.1 Test Standard

Length = 65mm, width = 10mm, thick = 3.2mm.

10mm
65m
4.5 Water Absorption

4.5.1 Water absorption test

A water absorption test was conducted in a 100% relative humidity environment in order to
evaluate the weight gain due to water absorption and the weight loss due to elution on the
five types of PLA. Specimens were cut into a rectangular shape (25 mm × 40 mm × 2 mm)
were maintained at 80°C for 1 hour using a constant temperature oven under 100% relative
humidity environment. Then the weight W of the specimens were measured using the
electronic balance after wiping the surface of the specimens. Weight gain rate (M) was
calculated using eqn (1). 1 h water absorbed specimens will be called “wet specimen”.

51
 M= (W-W0) /W0 *100
Where W is the specimen’s weight after water absorption test of 1 hour, and W0 is the
specimen’s weight before water absorption. After the water absorption tests, some specimens
were maintained at 80°C for 1 hour using a constant temperature oven under 0% humidity
environment. These are denoted as, ‘Re-dried specimens’. The water absorption rate (Ma)
and the weight loss rate (M1) were calculated using eqns (2) and (3).

Length = 25mm, width = 25mm, thick = 3.2mm

25mm

25mm

52
 CHAPTER-5
CALCULATION AND RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS

CALCULATION, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

53
 1. C1-50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber

Material Weight percentage Weight (grams)

Glass fiber 50 90
Epoxy resin 50 80
(Hardener) - 10

2. C2-45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5% Rick Husk+2.5%Fly Ash

Material Weight percentage Weight (grams)

Glass fiber 50 90
Epoxy resin(Hardener) 45 81
Rick Husk 2.5 4.5
Fly Ash 2.5 4.5

3. C3-45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3% Rick Husk+2%Fly Ash

Material Weight percentage Weight (grams)

Glass fiber 50 90
Epoxy resin(Hardener) 45 81
Rick Husk 3 5.4
Fly ash 2 3.6

4. C4-45wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber +2% Rick Husk+3%Fly Ash

Material Weight percentage Weight (grams)

Glass fiber 50 90
Epoxy resin(Hardener) 45 81
Rick Husk 2 3.6
Fly ash 3 5.4

5.1. Introduction

54
This chapter presents the physical and mechanical characterization of the class of epoxy
matrix composites developed for the present investigation. They are
1. Glass fiber Reinforced epoxy resin
2. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 2.5weight percentage of Rick Husk, 2.5
weight percentage of Fly Ash.
3. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 3 weight percentage of Rick Husk and 2
weight percentage of Fly Ash.
4. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 3 weight percentage of Fly Ash and 2
weight percentage of Rick Husk. Details of processing of these composites and the
tests conducted on them have been described in the previous chapter. The results of
various characterization tests are reported here. They include evaluation of tensile
strength, flexural strength, impact strength and water absorption.

5.2. Composite Characterization

Mechanical properties of composites the characterization of the composites reveals
that inclusion of any particulate filler has strong influence on the physical and mechanical
properties of composites. The modified values of the properties of the composites under this
investigation are presented and compared against the unfilled glass epoxy composite in Table
5.1.
5.3. Tensile strength Properties
Tensile
Strength
Composite (Mpa)
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 47.36
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 54.82
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 0.974
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 64.05

Table 5.1. Mechanical properties of the composites (Tensile strength)

55
 1 Type of composite Vs Tensile strength Mpa 64.05

60.974
54.82

50.974 47.36
Tensile Strength (NPa)

40.974

30.974

20.974

10.974

0.974
0.974
C1 C2 C3 C4
1 Type of composite Vs Tensile
47.36 54.82 0.974 64.05
strength Mpa
Type of Composites

Fig 5.1. Tensile strength of composites

The test results for tensile strengths are shown in Figure 5.1. It is seen that in all the
samples irrespective of the filler material the tensile strength of the composite decreases with
increase in filler content. The unfilled glass epoxy composite has a strength of 47.36MPa in
tension and it may be seen from Table 4.1 that this value increased to 64.05Mpa & 0.974MPa
with the addition of 3wt% of Rick Husk and 2wt% of fly ash and 2.5wt% of both Rick Husk
& fly ash of value 54.82Mpa content respectively. There can be one reasons for the increase
in the strength properties of these particulate filled composites compared to the unfilled ones.
1. Due to the absence of pores at the interface between filler particles and the matrix, the
interfacing adhesion may be too weak to transfer the tensile stress.
2. The corner points of the regular shaped particulates result in less stress concentration in
the matrix base.

56
5.4. Flexural strength Properties
Table 5.2. Mechanical properties of the composites (Flexural strength)
Flexural
Strength
Composite (Mpa)
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 157.19
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 316.14
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 128.95
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 172.14

2 Type of composite Vs Flexural Strength Mpa

400

350 316.14
Flexural strength (MPa)

300

250

200 172.14
157.19
150 128.95

100

50

0
C1 C2 C3 C4
2 Type of composite Vs Flexural
157.19 316.14 128.95 172.14
Strength Mpa
Type of Composites

Fig 4.2. Flexural strength of composites

The test results to flexural strengths are shown in Figure 4.2. It is seen that in all the
samples irrespective of the filler material the flexural strength of the composite decreases
with increase in filler content. The unfilled glass polyester composite has strength of
127.19MPa in Bending and it may be seen from Table 4.2. That this value drops to
172.14Mpa and 128.95MPa with the addition of 3wt% of Rich husk and 2wt% of fly ash and
addition of 2.5wt% of both Rick Husk and fly ash of value 316.14Mpa content respectively.
There can be two reasons for this decline in the Flexural strength properties of these
particulate filled composites compared to the unfilled ones.
1. The in compatibility of the particulates and the epoxy matrix, leading to poor
interfacial bonding.

57
 2. The lower values of flexural strength may also be attributed to fiber to fiber
interaction, voids and dispersion problems.
However it also depends on other factors such size, shape, type and loading on filler on
material.
4.5. Impact strength Properties

Table 4.3. Mechanical properties of the composites (Impact strength)

Impact
Strength
Composite (J/m)
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 558.8
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 428.63
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 393.90
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 458.06

3 Type of Composite Vs Impact Strength J/m

600 558.8

500 458.06
428.63
Impact Strngth (J/m)

393.9
400

300

200

100

0
C1 C2 C3 C4
3 Type of Composite Vs
558.8 428.63 393.9 458.06
Impact Strength J/m
Type of Composite

Fig 4.3. Impact strength of composites

The impact energy values of different composites recorded during the impact tests are
given in Table 5.3. It shows that the resistance to impact loading of glass epoxy composites
improves with addition of particulate filler (fly ash) but decreases with addition of coal

58
powder. The unfilled glass epoxy composite has impact energy of 558.8J. With the addition
of 3wt% of Fly ash and 2wt% Rick husk value raises to 393.9J and addition of 2wt% of fly
ash and 3wt% Rick husk value to 428.63J and addition of 2.5wt% of both Rick husk and fly
ash and there can be two reasons for this increase in the impact energies of these particulate
filled composite compared to the unfilled ones.
1. Due to Interfacial bonding in between the Particulate fillers and matrix material
2. The corner points of the regular shaped particulates result in less stress concentration in the
matrix base.
5.6. Water Absorption test Properties
It is observed from the Table.3, which with the addition of filler water absorption was increased. This
is because during the absorption material of water in water absorption test the reinforcement phase
(i.e. filler and glass fiber) and matrix phase are pressed together tightly in such a way that the
interface can transfer absorption more effectively which results in enhancement of absorption.
Table 4.4. Mechanical properties of the composites (water absorption)
Hardness
number
Composite
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 18.36
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 26.60
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 14.43
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 15.18

The test results to water absorption are shown in Figure 5.4. It is seen that in all the
samples irrespective of the filler material the water absorption of the composite decreases
with increase in filler content. The unfilled glass polyester composite has strength of 18.36 in
Bending and it may be seen from Table 4.2. That this value drops to 14.43 and 15.18 with the
addition of 3wt% of Rick husk and 2wt% of fly ash and addition of 2.5wt% of both Rick
husk and fly ash of value 26.60 content respectively. There can be two reasons for this
decline in the Flexural strength properties of these particulate filled composites compared to
the unfilled ones.

59
 4 Type of Composite Vs Water Absorption
30
26.6

25
Water Absorption

20 18.36

14.43 15.18
15

10

5
0
0
Units C1 C2 C3 C4
4 Type of Composite Vs Water
0 18.36 26.6 14.43 15.18
Absorption
Type of Composites

Fig 5.4. Water Absorption of Composites

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 CHAPTER-6

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

64
 Advantages
These consist of polymer matrix embedded with high strength fibres. These are the most
advanced composites that are used.

Some of the features of FRPCs are as

• Low cost

• Simple fabrication methods

• High tensile strength

• High stiffness

• Good abrasion, puncture and corrosion resistance

• Good fatigue strength Limitations of FRPCs are as follows:

• Low operating temperature

• Low thermal and moisture resistance

• High coefficient of thermal expansion

• Low elastic properties in transverse direction

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 Applications
• Rocket engine components, Space plane body

• Cutting tools, shafts, rollers, turbine blades, engine components

• Nuclear reactor components, first wall of fusion reactor, fuel pellet

• Optical fibres, lens

• Artificial skin implant, drug delivery system

• Heat exchanger, heat pipe, slurry pump, reaction vessel

• Thermoelectric generators, thermionic convertor, solar cell

• Building material, sports goods

• Car body, window glass

Applications of composites on aircraft include:

• Fairings

• Flight control surfaces

• Landing gear doors

• Leading and trailing edge panels on the wing and stabilizer

• Interior components

• Floor beams and floor boards

• Vertical and horizontal stabilizer primary structure on large aircraft

• Primary wing and fuselage structure on new generation large aircraft

• Turbine engine fan blades

• Propellers

6.1 Applications of Fiberglass in various Industries

Materials with high-temperature insulation provide an effective thermal barrier for industrial
gaskets. Since fiberglass is durable, safe and offers high thermal insulation, fiberglass is one
of the widely preferred materials in industrial gaskets. They not only provide a better

66
insulation but also help in protecting the machinery, conserving the energy and ensure the
safety of the professional workforce. This is the reason perhaps why fiberglass is widely used
in industries given below:

Beverage industry: Fiberglass grating is used in many areas like bottling lines and in
brew houses.
Car washes: Recently, fiberglass grating is greatly used for rust resistance and to give a
contrast color to areas that previously looked forbidden. It brightens the inside of the carwash
tunnel making the car look cleaner than it was.
Chemical industry: In this industry, the fiberglass grating is used for anti-slip safety
feature of the embedded grit surface and the chemically resistant feature of different resin
compounds. The chemicals being used are matched with the resins.
Cooling towers: Since cooling towers are always wet, they have to be protected from rust,
corrosion, and other safety issues. Due to the excellent properties of fiberglass, it is used in
these towers as screening to keep people and animals away from the danger zones.
Docks and marinas: The docks get corroded, rusted and damaged by the salty sea water.
So, fiberglass is used here for protection.
Food processing: In the chicken and beef processing plants, fiberglass grating is used for
slip resistance and for holding up to blood which is corrosive. Most of the areas of food
processing also use fiberglass as other grating materials are not suitable.
Fountains and aquariums: All sizes of fountains and aquariums use fiberglass to
support rocks to help in circulation and filtering from under the rocks. In large public
fountains, fiberglass grating is used to protect spray headers and lights from getting damaged.
This also keeps people from drowning in the fountains.
Manufacturing: The embedded grit surface of fiberglass grating ensures slip resistance in
the areas that are wet or in places where hydraulic fluids or oils are present.
Metals and mining: Fiberglass grating is used in electronic refining areas prone to chemical
corrosion. Other grating materials cannot be used here.
Power generation: Many areas of the power generation industry like tank farms,
scrubbers, and others use fiberglass. The reason for this is the non-conductive property of
fiberglass.

67
Plating plants: This application uses fiberglass grating due to the anti-slip property of the
surface.
Pulp and paper industry: The property of fiberglass which makes it chemical corrosion
resistant is useful in pulp and bleach mills. Recently, fiberglass is used in many areas due to
its corrosion resistance and anti-slip properties.
Automotive industry: Fiberglass is extensively used in automobile industry. Almost
every car has fiberglass components and body kits.
Aerospace & Defence: Fiberglass is used to manufacture parts for both military and
civilian aerospace industry including test equipment, ducting, enclosures, and others.

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CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS

69
7.1. Project conclusion
Fabrication of E-glass reinforced epoxy based composites with or without fillers is
possible by simple hand lay-up process.
The mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength
in epoxy and glass fiber (without filler material) modified epoxy based composites compared
to coal powder/coal fly ash and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.
Hardness value of combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified composite is more
compared to coal powder/coal fly ash modified composites.
1. Tensile modulus and impact strength of coal powder modified epoxy composites is
more compared to coal fly ash and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.
2. Flexural strength of coal fly ash modified epoxy composites is more compared to
coal powder and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified composites.
3. Impact strength and hardness of coal fly ash modified epoxy composites is less
compared to coal powder and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.

7.2. Scope of future work:

There is a very wide scope for future scholars to explore this area of research. This
work can be further extended to study other aspects of such composites like use of other
potential fillers for development of hybrid composites and evaluation of their mechanical and
erosion behavior and the resulting experimental findings can be similarly analyzed.

70
CHAPTER-8

71
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