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INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
1.1. Need of composite:
Epoxy with hardner, Fiber glass and Rice husk are the most important components in the
development of infrastructure. However, costs of construction have been increasing very
significantly in recent years above the expectations. In this context, synthetic, petroleum-
based fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have been found as best alternatives to
conventional construction materials as they exhibit Higher strength and stiffness with
reference to specific gravity; higher fatigue strength and impact energy absorption capacity;
better resistance to corrosion, fire, acids, and natural hazardous environments; longer service
life and lower life-cycle costs; better insulation and less toxicity as primary components for
construction .
1.2 Merits of FRP composites:
Some merits of composite materials over conventional materials
The expanded use of natural FRP composites composed of natural fibers and/or
biopolymers would provide long term benefits to infrastructure.
Natural FRPs have the potential to eventually be lighter-weight and lower-cost than
conventional materials and many synthetic composites.
Natural fibers are easier to handle and have good thermal and acoustic insulation
properties.
Using materials like natural composites that reduce construction waste and increase energy
efficiency would provide a solution to immediate infrastructure needs while promoting the
concept of sustainability.
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1.3 Polymers:
1.3.1 Introduction:
Polymer can be defined as a long molecular structure made of many units where the basic
units are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Polymers are produced from raw materials
such as petroleum, natural gas and derivatives of fossil fuel. Generally, petro chemicals for
polymer synthesis are produced on large scale from an important substance known as
naphtha. Naphtha is one of the main derivatives of fossil Fuel. From naphtha, othe role fins
are produced such as ethylene, propylene, benzene and toluene. Ethane is a component of
natural gas that produces ethylene. Once the polymer materials are synthesized, they are
channeled to major consuming in dustries such as,Textiles and paints,or to highly diverse
processing sectors producing commercial product sin construction, packaging, automobile,
agriculture, furniture, electrical and general engineering .Fig.1 illustrates these quence of
polymer based products production from raw materials.
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polymers are stronger and stiffer than thermoplastics and they, generally, can be used at
higher temperature. They are shaped directly from the raw polymer material and no further
processing is required except machining. Thermosetting polymers are limited to molding
only. In molding process, chemicals are added to enhance the cross linking while the material
is still in the mould. Thermos sets have high thermal stability, high dimensional stability and
stiffness, good resistance to creep, low densities and high electrical and thermal insulating
properties. Thermoplastic polymers however are materials that become soften when heated
and harden when cooled. The properties of the thermoplastic polymers can be altered by
changing the length and the form of its individual chains. Elastomers on the other hand have
excellent elastic properties. They are capable of returning to their original shape when a
force, not exceeding its yield strength, is removed. Thus, due to the advantages of polymers
as compared to steel and aluminum, they are often used by the aircraft, construction,
electrical, marine and transportation industries [6].
1.3.3 Biopolymers:
These are produced from renewable agricultural raw materials but not derived from fossil
fuels. At present, two biopolymers or Natural thermoplastic resins are having some market
exposure namely polylactic acid (PLA) and soy-based resins such as soy-protein concentrates
(SPCs) and soy-protein isolates(SPIs). These biopolymers are made from agricultural raw
materials such as dextrose or starch, fermented to form lactic acids and then polymerized [7,
8].The various types of polymers and their corresponding applications [9-20] are shown in
Table 1.
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Polyvinylchloride Cups/packaging/vending machines
Polystyrene
Elastomers
Natural rubber Hoses/belts/mats/gloves
Silicon rubber O rings/adhesive bonds
Polybutadiene Automobile tires
Epichlorohydrine Explosives/water purification
Polyether block amide Vibration absorbers/shoes/insulators
The three main chemical components of a natural fiber are cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin. The hemicellulose forms crosslinking molecules with the cellulose, forming the
main structural component of the cell. The lignin provides additional strength and coupling
on the hemicellulose–cellulose network and in some cases acts as a protective barrier
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1.5 Classification of Natural Fibers:
Natural fibers can be classified into three categories: vegetable fibers which are
harvested from parts of plants, animal fibers (animal hair, silk fiber from worms etc.) and
mineral fibers (asbestos fiber, ceramic fiber, basalt (rock) fiber and metal fiber (aluminum
fiber). Fig.3. gives typical examples of vegetable or plant or lignocellulose fibers. Table 2
collects the chemical composition of few natural fibers [22].
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1.7 Glass Properties
Woven fibre glass fabrics offer the widest range and the best control over thickness, weight
and strength of all forms of fibre glass textiles. This offers the materials engineer a wide
choice of controlled fabric properties to satisfy design needs and objectives. In general,
woven glass fabrics have the following properties.
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1.7.2 Dimensional Stability:
Low elongation under load, generally 3% or less. Glass fibres produce fabrics with excellent
dimensional stability under various types of conditions.
1.7.8 Durability:
Being inert, glass fabrics are unaffected by sunlight, fungus or bacteria.
1.7.9 Economical:
Glass fabrics are lower in cost than many other fabrics for similar applications.
Woven cloth
Woven roving
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Combination mat
Biaxial cloth
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shows excellent performance equal to and/or exceeding competitive products. M705 is
approved by Lloyd’s Register of Shipping and Det Norsk Verities.
95 30 41 12 127 x 97
125 30 55 12 127 x 97
1.8.3 STORAGE
It is recommended that glass fiber products are stored in a cool dry area. Temperature should
not exceed 35°C and the relative humidity should be kept below 75%. The glass fiber
material should remain in its packing material until just prior to use. To avoid moisture pick-
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up on the glass, care should be taken not to open a container prior to conditioning to room
temperature. A avoid damage to the products and to ensure safety, pallets should be stacked
no more than two high.
1.9.1 Properties:-
• Odorless, tasteless and completely nontoxic.
• Negligible shrinkage.
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1.10 Rice husk:-
Rice husk is an agricultural waste product obtained from the milling of rice and it contributes
to about 20% of the weight of rice. The major compounds from rice husk are silica and
cellulose which yields carbon when thermally decomposed. In the majority of rice producing
countries much of the husks produced from the processing of rice is either burnt or dumped
as a waste, which constitute an environmental challenge. Starting from 1973 however,
various researches have been carried out, not just to control the disposal and pollution
problems associated with rice husk but also to find a value addition to this waste product by
using it as a secondary resource material. In certain regions, the husk is used as fuel for
parboiling paddy in the rice mills. The use of rice husk in the power production has been
reported by Reddy and Alvarez and several researchers have investigated on the use of rice
husk ash (RHA) as a pozzolanic material which can be used in partial replacement of cement
and glass fibres. Rice husk is berlignoselulosa like other biomass materials but siliceous
high. Chemical content of rice husk consists of 50% cellulose, 25-30% lignin, and 15-20%
silica [1]. Rice husk has now been developed as a raw material to produce ash that is known
in the world as the RHA (rice husk ask). Rice husk ash produced from burning rice husks at a
temperature of 400o - 500o C will become amorphous silica and at temperatures greater than
1.000o C will become crystalline silica. The resulting amorphous silica from rice husk ash is
suspected as an important source to produce pure silicon, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride
flour [2]. The burning of rice husk using conventional methods such as fluidised bed
combustors produce CO emission between 200 - 2000 mg / Nm3 and NOx emissions
between 200-300 mg / Nm3 [3]. Rice husk combustion method developed by Cogen-AIT is
able to reduce the potential for CO2 emissions by 14 762 tonnes, 74 tonnes of CH4 and NO2
of 0.16 tons per year from burning rice husks of 34 919 tonnes per year [4]. Husk has a
density of type (bulk Densil) 1125 kg / m3, with a calorific value of 1 kg of rice husk of 3300
k. calories, and has a bulk density of 0.100 g / ml, calorific value between 3300 -3600 kkalori
/ kg chaff with thermal conductivity of0.271 BTU.
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1.11 Fly Ash as a Filler Material
Fly ash is a coal combustion byproduct, which accumulates due to electrostatic precipitation
of the flue gases in thermal power plant. When coal is burnt in thermal power plant the ash is
carried forward in flue gases as fused particles, which solidifies as a spherical particle. Most
of these spherical particles have a gas bubble at the centre. The constituents of flyash
particles as obtained from coal in Britain are silica (59.5%), Alumina (20.3%), FeO /Fe2O3
(6.5%), remaining being FeO, MgO and unburnt coal etc. Flyash depending upon the source
of coal, contain different proportions of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, magnesium
etc along with elements like carbon, Ti, Mg, etc. So the flyash has properties combined of
spherical particles and that of metals and metal oxides. Filler materials are generally the inert
materials which are used in composite materials to reduce material costs, to improve
mechanical properties to some extent and in some cases to improve processability. Blending
of polymeric materials (PVC & PVB) leads to increased impact strength. Reinforcement of
polymer matrix with glass fiber leads to general improvement of mechanical properties.
Polymer matrix composites are used in greatest diversity in light of their less cost, ease of
fabricability, higher specific strength, design flexibility and lightweight.
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Table :Chemical composition of fly ash
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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
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LITERATURE SURVEY
[1] Effect of fly ash concentration and its surface modification on fiber
Polymers materials, due to its light weight and high corrosion resistance, have a
unique place in engineering applications. However, due to low strength and low heat resisting
capability, its application is constrained significantly. To overcome this drawback hard phase
materials such as fibers and/or fillers are reinforced into soft polymer matrix. Effect of fly ash
as filler in fiber reinforced epoxy composite was studied for characterization of mechanical
properties. Investigation was done by varying fly ash concentration and modifying fly ash
particles surface by a γ-aminopropyl triethoxy silane coupling agent. The DMA test result
showed improvement in damping capability and thermal stability with lower concentration of
fly ash; however surface modification with silane coupling agent (i.e. silanization) resulted in
decrease in damping capability. The tensile test result showed that with increase in fly ash
concentration, the ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break was reduced; however
silanization of fly ash showed improvement in strength when compared to unmodified fly ash
at same concentration. The impact test result also showed similar trend, i.e. the toughness of
FRP composite was reduced due to addition of fly ash, but silanization resulted in improved
toughness. SEM analysis showed that surface modification of fly ash with coupling agent
enhanced their bonding with polymer resin which resulted in lower damping capability and
improved strength and toughness
1Arijit Patra, 2Dr.Mahua Das, 3Kaif Anwar, 4Bilal Khan, 5Kashif Kamran, 6Dr.Dipak
Ranjan Jana
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resin, a matrix material in different ratio such as 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. Different
mechanical testing such as tensile test, hardness test and impact test are conducted to get the
mechanical properties of composite. Roughness (Ra and Rz) test is done to check the
smoothness. TGA and DSC analysis of 40% fly ash epoxy composite is carried out to find the
thermal stability of composite.
There has been significant increase in use of glass fibre reinforced composites as
structural materials in naval mine countermeasure surface ships. Sea mines when detonated
emit underwater shock waves, which could impart severe loading to naval ship structure;
there are attempts to model the response of a ship structure to this loading. For the model to
be accurate& useful material property data determined experimentally by taking different
weight percentage of glass fibers (E-300, mat form) with epoxy resin & comparison with fly
ash reinforced composite. Specimens in the form of cube of size 10X10X10 (mm’s) are used
& results are presented. Fracture behavior of composite can also be studied using SEM. SEM
analysis is done to observe distribution of fly ash particles in matrix, resin fly ash interface,
glass fibre matrix interface, glass fibre distribution etc,.
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[4] A STUDY ON EVALUATION OF MECHANICAL AND THERMAL
PROPERTIES OF RICE HUSK FILLED EPOXY COMPOSITES
Arun Kumar Rout*1, Alok Satapathy2, Ashok Kumar Sahoo3, Dipak Kumar Jesthi4
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responsible for the reduced CTE of the composites. (4) It is also observed that the glass
transition temperature (Tg ) of neat epoxy is increased by 14.28% with an increase in rice
husk content. A maximum increase of 140C in Tg is obtained as the rice husk content
increases to 15 wt%.
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[6]Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk-Fly Ash-Epoxy
Hybrid Composites
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[7]Analysis of Mechanical Characteristics of Fly Ash Cenospheres
Reinforced Epoxy Composites
Fly ash cenospheres (FACs) as a recycling material of industrial waste has become a
competitor for other inorganic particle fillers. Epoxy resin (EP) composites reinforced with
different content of FACs as well as different size grading ratio were prepared. The surface
modification of FACs particles was conducted before incorporating into EP matrix. The
impact and flexural strengths and the flexural modulus were investigated, and the fracture
surfaces of the testing samples were analyzed using SEM. Results showed that FACs had an
obvious effect on the mechanical characteristics of the FACs/EP composites. With increasing
weight fraction of FACs, the impact and flexural strengths and the flexural modulus of EP
composite samples increased, and reached the highest values when the weight fraction of
FACs reached 15 wt%. The mechanical characteristics of the FACs/EP composites however
deteriorated with further increasing of FACs content. For the EP composites reinforced with
different size grading ratio of FACs, the larger proportion of small FACs particles, the better
mechanical properties of the EP composites. The results were analyzed from the aspect of the
plastic deformation, new surface formation and fracture absorption energy. The synergistic
effect of the size grading ratio of FACs was not obvious, which would be further
investigated.
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carried out. The conclusions drawn from the present work are.1. The tensile strength of the
composites varied from 14.7727MPa to 27.1790MPa and the maximum is obtained for
composite with 6grams fly ash. 2. The maximum tensile modulus of elasticity is obtained for
the composite with 8grams fly ash. 3. The flexural strength of the composite varies from
81.648MPa to 110.497MPa. The maximum flexural strength is obtained for the composite
with 4grams fly ash.
The fibre reinforced composite material was fabricated and then its mechanical
properties like tensile and impact strength was determined. The result thus obtained was
compared with standard specimen (A) that not having any additives. It was proved that the
added additives of natural fibres like sisal fiber, banana fiber, coconut fibre in a composite
material gives poor tensile strength when compared to the standard specimen (A). But the
titanium dioxide as additives in composite material gives high tensile strength. Through this
type of works we are optimizing and suggesting that the titanium dioxide used as additives
gives excellent mechanical tensile strength. But this is not in the case of impact strength.
Impact strength of all the specimens has almost same values and also equivalent values to the
standard specimen (A). In addition to that these materials have advantage like less weight,
high strength, very cheaper, very easy to fabricate and eco friendly. Therefore titanium
dioxide mixed composite materials is used in the area where high strength is needed. In future
we will deeply analysis the other mechanical properties of fiber reinforced composite
material.
The composite materials are replacing the traditional materials, because of its
superior properties such as high tensile strength, low thermal expansion, high strength to
weight ratio. The developments of new materials are on the anvil and are growing day by
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day. Natural fiber composites such as sisal polymer composites became more attractive due
to their high specific strength, lightweight and biodegradability. Mixing of natural fiber with
Glass-Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRPs) is finding increased applications. In this study,
sisal – glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites is developed and their mechanical properties
such as tensile strength, compression strength, flexural strength and impact strength are
evaluated. The interfacial properties, internal cracks and internal structure of the fractured
surfaces are evaluated by using Travelling Microscope .The results indicated that the
incorporation of sisal fiber with GFRP can improve the properties and used as an alternate
material for glass fiber reinforced polymer composites.
The experimental investigation on tensile and flexural behaviour of fly ash reinforced
glass fibre epoxy composites with different weight percent of fly ash have been carried out.
The conclusions drawn from the present work are. 1. The tensile strength of the composites
varied from 14.7727MPa to 27.1790MPa and the maximum is obtained for composite with
6grams fly ash. 2. The maximum tensile modulus of elasticity is obtained for the composite
with 8grams fly ash. 3. The flexural strength of the composite varies from 81.648MPa to
110.497MPa. The maximum flexural strength is obtained for the composite with 4grams fly
ash.
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CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY
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METHODOLOGY
3.1 Selection of Resin Matrix
1. The Matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if as high strength fibre is used as
the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength matrix, which will not
transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
2. The Matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity,
exposure to ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by
dust particles, etc.
3. The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
4. Smoke requirements.
5. Life expectancy.
6. The resultant composite should be cost effective.
The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid .The solid resin is then
said to be the matrix for the fibres.
3.1.1 Materials
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Fig No 3.1 Materials
3.1.2. Type of Resin Matrix:
1. Epoxy
2. Phenolic
3. Polyester
4. Polyurethane
5. Vinyl Ester
3.1.2.1 Epoxy:
Epoxy resin (Araldite LY 556) made by CIBA GUGYE Limited, having the
following outstanding properties has been used.
I. Excellent adhesion to different materials
ii. Great strength, toughness resistance
iii. Excellent resistance to chemical attack and to moisture
iv. Excellent mechanical and electrical properties.
v. Odorless, tasteless and completely nontoxic.
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vi. Negligible shrinkage.
Epoxy resins are the most commonly used thermoset plastic in polymer matrix
composites. Epoxy resins are a family of thermoset plastic materials which do not give off
reaction products when they cure and so have low cure shrinkage. They also have good
adhesion to other materials, good chemical and environmental resistance, good chemical
properties and good insulating properties. The epoxy resins are generally manufactured by
reacting epichlorohydrin with bisphenol. Different resins are formed by varying proportions
of the two: as the proportion of epichlorohydrin is reduced the molecular weight of the resin
is increased.
Epoxy resins are cured by means of a curing agent, often referred as catalysts,
hardeners or activators. Often amines are used as curing agents. In amine curing agents, each
hydrogen on an amine nitrogen is reactive and can open one epoxide ring to form a covalent
bond.
1. Low cost
2. Good handling characteristics
3. Low viscosity and versatility
4. Good mechanical strength
5. Good electrical properties
6. Good heat resistance
7. Cold and hot molding
8. Flame resistant with fire proof additive and
9. Curing temperature is 120o C(250o F).
3.1.2.2. Properties of epoxy resin:
property specification unit Araldite LY556
Viscosity at 250C ISO 12058 mPa.s 10000-12000
Density at 250C ISO 1675 gm/cc 1.15-1.20
0
Flash point ISO 2719 C < 200
3.1.2.3. Hardener:
Hardener is mainly used to cure the epoxy resin which causes a chemical reaction without
changing its own composition. The catalyst initiates the chemical reaction of the unsaturated
polyester and monomer ingredient from liquid to a solid state. When used as a curing agent,
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catalysts are referred to as catalytic hardeners. Hardeners are mainly used to increase the
polymerization process. The curing time mainly depends on the hardener and epoxy mixing
ratio. Here the mixing ratio is 100:10. This makes the fabrication process as per our
requirements.
3.1.2.4. Properties of hardener
property specification unit Aradur HY 951
Viscosity at 250C ISO 12058 mPa.s 10-20
Density at 250C ISO 1675 gm/cc 0.97-0.99
0
Flash point ISO 2719 C > 180
Processing
Mixing Ratio
Parts by weight
Araldite LY 556 100
Aradur HY 951 10-12
Resin and hardener should be mixed uniformly until they form a Homogenous mixture.
3.1.2.5. Selection fibre:
They Fibres are the principal constituents in a fibre reinforced composite portion of the
occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the major on the load
acting on a composite s The effectiveness of fibre reinforcement depends type. Length.
fractions and orientation of fibres in the matrix. Volume Proper selection of the fibre is
influenced by following characteristics
1. Density
2. Tensile and Compressive strength
3. MOE
4. Fracture
5. Fatigue performance
6. Response to impact loads
7. Electrical and Thermal properties
8. Cost
3.1.2.4 Glass fibres:
Over 95% of the fibres used in reinforced plastics are glass fibres, as they are
inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the
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plastics with which they are density, resistance to chemicals insulation reinforced. Their low
capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that
it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time
However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames
This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to
sustain och loads for months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, m many
ad other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibres and the disadvantage is further
compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning
before the catastrophic failure.
3.1. Properties of E-glass fiber
Properties Specification Units Casting Laminate
s
Tensile strength ISO/R527 Kg / mm2 6-7 35-38
Flexural strength ISO/R178 Kg / mm2 12-14 45-50
Impact strength VSM 77105 Kg cm / cm2 10-11 115-125
Water absorption (specimen 60x10x4 mm)
10 days at 200C % 0.2 0.2-0.3
1 hour at 980C % 0.2 0.3-0.4
50 % glass (10 layers of 300 GSM glass fabric with Volan – A finish)
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3.1.2. HAND LAY-UP TECHNIQUE:
The fiber piles were cut to size from the glass fiber cloth. The appropriate numbers of
fiber plies were taken: two for each. Then the fibers were weighed and accordingly the resin
and hardeners were weighed. Epoxy and hardener were mixed by using stirrer in a bowl. Care
was taken to avoid formation of bubbles. Because the air bubbles were trapped in matrix may
result failure in the material. The subsequent fabrication process consisted of first putting a
releasing film on the mould surface. Next a polymer coating was applied on the sheets. Then
fiber ply of one kind was put and proper rolling was done. Then resin was again applied,
next to it fiber ply of another kind was put and rolled. Rolling was done using cylindrical
mild steel rod. This procedure was repeated until eight alternating fibers have been laid. On
the top of the last ply a polymer coating is done which serves to ensure a good surface finish.
Finally a releasing sheet was put on the top; a light rolling was carried out. Then a 20 kgf
weight was applied on the composite. It was left for 72 hrs to allow sufficient time for curing
and subsequent hardening.
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3.1.3. General overview:
The composites sheets were fabricated from glass fiber, with coal powder, fly ash and
resin matrix. The resin used was epoxy resin. The weight fraction of composites was
maintained at (i). 50wt% glass fiber and 50wt% epoxy, (ii).45wt% glass fiber,50wt%epoxy
and 5wt% filler material(coal powder), (iii)45wt% glass fiber,50wt% epoxy ,5wt% filler
material (fly ash)& (iv) 45wt% glass fiber,50wt% epoxy ,5wt% filler material (coal powder
+fly ash) .After preparation of the hybrid composites fabrication cutting of the specimen is
done in the desired shape to test the mechanical properties of the prepared composite. The
tensile and flexural testing of the samples was done by UTM (universal testing machine),
impact test was done on impact test machine & hardness test was done on Brinell hardness
test machine
3.1.4. Designation & Composition:
S.NO Designation Composition
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8. A layer of polymer matrix is spread uniformly with the help of hand brush after that a
fibre material chopped strand mat is placed on the polymer matrix
9. A wooden roller is moved with a mild pressure on the fibre mat to remove any air
trapped as well as the excess polymer present.
10. The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are
stacked.
11. After curing at sunlight temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite
part is taken out for further processing.
12. The normal curing temperature is 24-48 hours for polyester based systems
13. The obtained composite specimen consists of total eight layers in which each glass
fibre is placed in between the polyester resin
14. Now the specimen is cut into required dimensions
Select the suitable work table, which should be smooth and clean. And select the mansion
wax polish and apply the specimen at required dimensions. Where dried in the presence of
sun light and the atmosphere up to 30 to 40 minutes.
STEP 2:-
The required amount fiber mat was taken, then the fiber mat was cut according to the
required size 250*250mm.
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Fig NO 3.3 Cutting of fiber glass
STEP 3:-
Fist take a bowl and pour epoxy into the bowl and then stir with a uniform pressure. After
adding the Rice husk and Fly Ash is also mixed with epoxy polymer. Then uniform
mixing of all the composites and addition of hardener is also done.
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Fig No:- 3.4 Measuring of materials
STEP 4:-
The resin was applied on the surface of the table by using a brush. Then the glass fiber mat
was placed on the resin and perform rolling operation to remove air gaps on all sides.
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Fig No:-3.5 layers of glass fibres
Step 5:-
Similarly, the process is repeated one by one layer until all 8 layers of fibre are placed.
The procedure was repeated for the other specimen composition also..
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Fig No:- 3.6 2 to 8 layers of fibre glass
STEP 6:-
Then the fabricated material was dried in the presence of sun light and atmosphere in 24
hours.
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Fig No:- 3.7 Pieces placed in sun light
STEP 7:-
After one day the frame is removed from the tile, the fiber is removed from the tile by
using tools
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Fig No:- 3.7 Frame is removed from the tile.
STEP 8:-
After removing it from tile it is inspected for thickness (3.2mm) by using the vernier calipers
and again exposed to atmosphere.
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STEP 9:-
Tensile Test:
Impact Test:
39
Water Absorption:
Flexural Strength:
40
3.2 Cutting Machine:
41
Fig No 3.9 cutting of specimens
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Fig No: 3.11 prepared samples for Impact Test.
43
Fig No: 3.13 prepared samples for Handness Test
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CHAPTER-4
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
TO ANALYSE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES WE HAVE
CONDUCTED FOUR TESTS FOR OUR SPECIMENS.
Tensile Strength.
Izod Impact Strength.
Flexural Strength.
Water Absorption.
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It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests.
A tensile test helps determining tensile properties such as tensile strength, yield point
or yield strength, % elongation, % reduction in area and modulus of elasticity.
Fig shows a specimen for tensile test. Since mechanical properties to some extent are
influenced by the size and the shape of the test specimen, it is customary to use
standardized specimen.
Tensile test is carried out by gripping the ends E, E of the specimen in a tensile testing
machine, fig a, and applying and increasing pull [fig b] on the specimen till it
fractures.
During the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of a previously marked
gauge length in the Specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine
and extensometer respectively. These readings help plotting stress – strain curve.
After fracture, the two pieces of the broken specimen are placed as fixed together and
the distance Lf between two gauge marks and the diameter D f at the place of fracture
are measured.
200 25
200 mm
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Fig No:- 4.1 Tensile strength
4.2 Tensile test
The tensile test was carried out using an universal testing machine of capacity 5 tons. The
test specimen is prepared according to ASTM D 638-03 standard. The tensile strength is
calculated according to the following formula
σt =P / bh - - - - - - - - (1)
Where, P-ultimate load on the specimen (N)
b- Initial width of specimen (mm)
h- Initial thickness of specimen (mm))
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Fig.6- Specimen before tensile test
The impact test specimens are prepared according to the required dimension following the
ASTM-A370 standard. During the testing process, the specimen must be loaded in the testing
machine and allows the pendulum until it fractures or breaks. Using the impact test, the
energy needed to break the material can be measured easily and can be used to measure the
toughness of the material and the yield strength
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Length = 130mm, width = 15mm, thick = 3.2mm.
15mm
130mm
ASTM D790 are used for determining the flexural properties of unreinforced and reinforced
plastics, including high modulus composites and electrical insulating materials utilizing a
three-point loading system to apply a load to a simply supported beam (specimen). ASTM
D790 can generally be applied to both rigid and semi-rigid materials, but it is not possible to
determine the flexural strength for those materials that do not break or yield in the outer
surface of the test specimen within the 5.0 % strain limit.
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Test specimens of rectangular cross section are injection moulded or cutting from moulded or
extruded sheets or plates. The sample must have precise characteristics: it must be solid and
its external surfaces must be rectangular evenly. The specimen is supported by two supports
and is loaded through a half load nose between the supports. The deflection can be measured
in two ways; using crosshead position or a deflect meter. Please note that studies have shown
that the deflection data obtained will vary depending on the system used.
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𝜎𝑓=3𝑃𝐿\𝑏𝑑2
Where P is the load applied, L is the span length; b and d are the width and thickness of the
specimen, respectively
TEST STANDARD
ASTM D 7264 / D 790 / D 6272/ D 4476 / ISO 178 / ISO 14125 / ISO 3597-2 / EN 2562 /
EN 2746
Maximum Load 30 kN
Mass 20.00 kg
10mm
65m
4.5 Water Absorption
51
M= (W-W0) /W0 *100
Where W is the specimen’s weight after water absorption test of 1 hour, and W0 is the
specimen’s weight before water absorption. After the water absorption tests, some specimens
were maintained at 80°C for 1 hour using a constant temperature oven under 0% humidity
environment. These are denoted as, ‘Re-dried specimens’. The water absorption rate (Ma)
and the weight loss rate (M1) were calculated using eqns (2) and (3).
25mm
25mm
52
CHAPTER-5
CALCULATION AND RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS
53
1. C1-50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber
5.1. Introduction
54
This chapter presents the physical and mechanical characterization of the class of epoxy
matrix composites developed for the present investigation. They are
1. Glass fiber Reinforced epoxy resin
2. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 2.5weight percentage of Rick Husk, 2.5
weight percentage of Fly Ash.
3. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 3 weight percentage of Rick Husk and 2
weight percentage of Fly Ash.
4. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin filled with 3 weight percentage of Fly Ash and 2
weight percentage of Rick Husk. Details of processing of these composites and the
tests conducted on them have been described in the previous chapter. The results of
various characterization tests are reported here. They include evaluation of tensile
strength, flexural strength, impact strength and water absorption.
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1 Type of composite Vs Tensile strength Mpa 64.05
60.974
54.82
50.974 47.36
Tensile Strength (NPa)
40.974
30.974
20.974
10.974
0.974
0.974
C1 C2 C3 C4
1 Type of composite Vs Tensile
47.36 54.82 0.974 64.05
strength Mpa
Type of Composites
The test results for tensile strengths are shown in Figure 5.1. It is seen that in all the
samples irrespective of the filler material the tensile strength of the composite decreases with
increase in filler content. The unfilled glass epoxy composite has a strength of 47.36MPa in
tension and it may be seen from Table 4.1 that this value increased to 64.05Mpa & 0.974MPa
with the addition of 3wt% of Rick Husk and 2wt% of fly ash and 2.5wt% of both Rick Husk
& fly ash of value 54.82Mpa content respectively. There can be one reasons for the increase
in the strength properties of these particulate filled composites compared to the unfilled ones.
1. Due to the absence of pores at the interface between filler particles and the matrix, the
interfacing adhesion may be too weak to transfer the tensile stress.
2. The corner points of the regular shaped particulates result in less stress concentration in
the matrix base.
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5.4. Flexural strength Properties
Table 5.2. Mechanical properties of the composites (Flexural strength)
Flexural
Strength
Composite (Mpa)
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 157.19
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 316.14
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 128.95
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 172.14
350 316.14
Flexural strength (MPa)
300
250
200 172.14
157.19
150 128.95
100
50
0
C1 C2 C3 C4
2 Type of composite Vs Flexural
157.19 316.14 128.95 172.14
Strength Mpa
Type of Composites
57
2. The lower values of flexural strength may also be attributed to fiber to fiber
interaction, voids and dispersion problems.
However it also depends on other factors such size, shape, type and loading on filler on
material.
4.5. Impact strength Properties
500 458.06
428.63
Impact Strngth (J/m)
393.9
400
300
200
100
0
C1 C2 C3 C4
3 Type of Composite Vs
558.8 428.63 393.9 458.06
Impact Strength J/m
Type of Composite
The impact energy values of different composites recorded during the impact tests are
given in Table 5.3. It shows that the resistance to impact loading of glass epoxy composites
improves with addition of particulate filler (fly ash) but decreases with addition of coal
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powder. The unfilled glass epoxy composite has impact energy of 558.8J. With the addition
of 3wt% of Fly ash and 2wt% Rick husk value raises to 393.9J and addition of 2wt% of fly
ash and 3wt% Rick husk value to 428.63J and addition of 2.5wt% of both Rick husk and fly
ash and there can be two reasons for this increase in the impact energies of these particulate
filled composite compared to the unfilled ones.
1. Due to Interfacial bonding in between the Particulate fillers and matrix material
2. The corner points of the regular shaped particulates result in less stress concentration in the
matrix base.
5.6. Water Absorption test Properties
It is observed from the Table.3, which with the addition of filler water absorption was increased. This
is because during the absorption material of water in water absorption test the reinforcement phase
(i.e. filler and glass fiber) and matrix phase are pressed together tightly in such a way that the
interface can transfer absorption more effectively which results in enhancement of absorption.
Table 4.4. Mechanical properties of the composites (water absorption)
Hardness
number
Composite
C1 50wt% epoxy +50wt% glass fiber 18.36
C2 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+2.5wt% Fly Ash+2.5wt%Rick Husk 26.60
C3 45wt% epoxy +50% glass fiber+3wt%Rick Husk+2wt%Fly Ash 14.43
C4 50wt% epoxy +45% glass fiber+3wt% Fly ash+2wt%Rick Husk 15.18
The test results to water absorption are shown in Figure 5.4. It is seen that in all the
samples irrespective of the filler material the water absorption of the composite decreases
with increase in filler content. The unfilled glass polyester composite has strength of 18.36 in
Bending and it may be seen from Table 4.2. That this value drops to 14.43 and 15.18 with the
addition of 3wt% of Rick husk and 2wt% of fly ash and addition of 2.5wt% of both Rick
husk and fly ash of value 26.60 content respectively. There can be two reasons for this
decline in the Flexural strength properties of these particulate filled composites compared to
the unfilled ones.
59
4 Type of Composite Vs Water Absorption
30
26.6
25
Water Absorption
20 18.36
14.43 15.18
15
10
5
0
0
Units C1 C2 C3 C4
4 Type of Composite Vs Water
0 18.36 26.6 14.43 15.18
Absorption
Type of Composites
60
61
62
63
CHAPTER-6
64
Advantages
These consist of polymer matrix embedded with high strength fibres. These are the most
advanced composites that are used.
• Low cost
• High stiffness
65
Applications
• Rocket engine components, Space plane body
• Fairings
• Interior components
• Propellers
66
insulation but also help in protecting the machinery, conserving the energy and ensure the
safety of the professional workforce. This is the reason perhaps why fiberglass is widely used
in industries given below:
Beverage industry: Fiberglass grating is used in many areas like bottling lines and in
brew houses.
Car washes: Recently, fiberglass grating is greatly used for rust resistance and to give a
contrast color to areas that previously looked forbidden. It brightens the inside of the carwash
tunnel making the car look cleaner than it was.
Chemical industry: In this industry, the fiberglass grating is used for anti-slip safety
feature of the embedded grit surface and the chemically resistant feature of different resin
compounds. The chemicals being used are matched with the resins.
Cooling towers: Since cooling towers are always wet, they have to be protected from rust,
corrosion, and other safety issues. Due to the excellent properties of fiberglass, it is used in
these towers as screening to keep people and animals away from the danger zones.
Docks and marinas: The docks get corroded, rusted and damaged by the salty sea water.
So, fiberglass is used here for protection.
Food processing: In the chicken and beef processing plants, fiberglass grating is used for
slip resistance and for holding up to blood which is corrosive. Most of the areas of food
processing also use fiberglass as other grating materials are not suitable.
Fountains and aquariums: All sizes of fountains and aquariums use fiberglass to
support rocks to help in circulation and filtering from under the rocks. In large public
fountains, fiberglass grating is used to protect spray headers and lights from getting damaged.
This also keeps people from drowning in the fountains.
Manufacturing: The embedded grit surface of fiberglass grating ensures slip resistance in
the areas that are wet or in places where hydraulic fluids or oils are present.
Metals and mining: Fiberglass grating is used in electronic refining areas prone to chemical
corrosion. Other grating materials cannot be used here.
Power generation: Many areas of the power generation industry like tank farms,
scrubbers, and others use fiberglass. The reason for this is the non-conductive property of
fiberglass.
67
Plating plants: This application uses fiberglass grating due to the anti-slip property of the
surface.
Pulp and paper industry: The property of fiberglass which makes it chemical corrosion
resistant is useful in pulp and bleach mills. Recently, fiberglass is used in many areas due to
its corrosion resistance and anti-slip properties.
Automotive industry: Fiberglass is extensively used in automobile industry. Almost
every car has fiberglass components and body kits.
Aerospace & Defence: Fiberglass is used to manufacture parts for both military and
civilian aerospace industry including test equipment, ducting, enclosures, and others.
68
CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS
69
7.1. Project conclusion
Fabrication of E-glass reinforced epoxy based composites with or without fillers is
possible by simple hand lay-up process.
The mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength
in epoxy and glass fiber (without filler material) modified epoxy based composites compared
to coal powder/coal fly ash and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.
Hardness value of combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified composite is more
compared to coal powder/coal fly ash modified composites.
1. Tensile modulus and impact strength of coal powder modified epoxy composites is
more compared to coal fly ash and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.
2. Flexural strength of coal fly ash modified epoxy composites is more compared to
coal powder and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified composites.
3. Impact strength and hardness of coal fly ash modified epoxy composites is less
compared to coal powder and combination of coal powder and coal fly ash modified
composites.
70
CHAPTER-8
71
REFERENCES
[1] Effect of fly ash concentration and its surface modification on fiber reinforced epoxy
composite’s mechanical properties ,Pritish Shubham, S K Tiwari
[2] Investigation on Mechanical and Physical Properties of Fly Ash Reinforced Epoxy Resin
Composite,1Arijit Patra, 2Dr.Mahua Das, 3Kaif Anwar, 4Bilal Khan, 5Kashif Kamran,
6Dr.Dipak Ranjan Jana
[3] Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Resin – Fly Ash Composite,Manoj Singla1 and Vikas
Chawla2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.I.E.I.T., Railmajra, Distt. Nawanshahr
(Pb.)-144533, INDIA, Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee
(Uttaranchal), INDIA.
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