1.

STANDARD SYMMETRIC T AND PI

EQUIVALENTS
Figure 16.7-1 shows a general T-network and Π-network using three
independent impedances. They are not symmetric networks, but we assume
that the impedances are passive impedances. From this section onwards, the
qualifier ‘passive’ implies that the network contains only R, L, C and M type
of elements. Then, they are reciprocal networks.

Any passive reciprocal two-port network requires only three parameters to

describe it. The fourth parameter will be provided by the reciprocity
condition. The network in Fig. 16.7-1(a), being a reciprocal one, has three
parameters. It has three impedances also. Therefore, it must be possible to
determine YA(s), YB(s) and Z(s) such that the resulting network has a pre-
specified set of parameters (z, y, h, g or ABCD). Therefore, it follows that any
reciprocal network will have a T-equivalent – i.e., given any reciprocal
network, it will be possible to find a T-network with suitable values
of YA(s),YB(s) and Z(s) such that the T-network and the original two-port
network will have the same two-port parameter sets.

A similar reasoning helps us to conclude that any reciprocal network will

have a n-equivalent too – i.e., given any reciprocal network, it will be possible
to find a Π-network with suitable values of ZA(s),ZB(s) and Y(s) such that the
Π-network and the original two-port network will have the same two-port
parameter sets.

If, in addition to being reciprocal, the passive two-port network is symmetric

too, then, its characterisation will require only two parameters. Moreover,
the T and Ω equivalents also will be symmetric, i.e., YA(s) = YB(s) and ZA(s)
= ZB(s). This leads to the standard symmetric passive T and Ω equivalents for
any 'passive symmetric reciprocal linear time invariant two-port network
shown inFig. 16.7-2.

The reason for assigning Y(s)/2 as the shunt branch in Fig. 16.7-
2(a) and Z(s)/2 as the series branch in Fig. 16.7-2(b) will become clear in
subsequent discussions in this chapter. The point to be noted at this juncture
is that the two equivalent networks are symmetric.
We have already obtained the ABCD matrix of the symmetric п-network
in Example 16.3-1.

ABCD Matrix of the Π-network in Fig. 16.7-2(a) is

Fig. 16.7-1 General Passive T and п Networks in s-Domain

Fig. 16.7-2 Standard Symmetric Passive T and Equivalent Circuits for an
Arbitrary Passive Symmetric Two-Port Network

Fig. 16.7-3 Circuits to be Solved for Determining ABCD Parameters of a

Symmetric T-Network
EXAMPLE: 16.7-1

Find the ABCD Matrix of a symmetric T-network.

SOLUTION
The s-domain circuits that are to be solved to determine the ABCD
parameters are shown in Fig. 16.7-3.

Consider the first circuit.

Now, we can obtain B(s) and D(s) from the second circuit in Fig. 16.7-3.
However, we know that A = D and AD – BC = 1 for a symmetric reciprocal
network. We can use these two constraints to work out B(s) and D(s).

Impedance z and admittance Y can be employed to construct a T- or Π-

network as in Fig. 16.7-2. They are then called the 'underlying
impedances' of T- or Π-network.
 A T and a Ω formed from the same underlying impedances will not be
equivalent to each other – they will have different parameter sets.

The T-equivalent and the n-equivalent of a given two-port network will not
have the same underlying impedances.

Fig. 16.7-4 Resistive Two-Port Network in Example 16.7-2

Fig. 16.7-5 Circuit for Determining A and C in Example 16.7-2

Fig. 16.7-6 The п-Equivalent for the Resistive Two-Port Network in

Example 16.7-2
EXAMPLE: 16.7-2

(i) Find the ABCD Parameters of the resistive two-port shown in Fig. 16.7-
4 with R1 = R4 = 10 Ω and R2 = R3 = 5 n. (ii) Find the T- and n- equivalents for
this two-port network.

SOLUTION

(i) The circuit to be solved for determining A and C is shown in Fig. 16.7-5.

Consider the resistance seen from the first port with the second port open
in the circuit in Fig. 16.7-5. It is 10 Ω//20 Ω. The resistance seen from the
second port with the first port kept open is 10 Ω//20 Ω. These two resistance
values are equal, and hence, the network in Fig. 16.7-5 is a symmetric
reciprocal one.

Therefore, D = A = 2 and B = (AD – 1)/C = 10 Ω.

 Comparing this with the ABCD matrix of the resistive network, we get, 1 +
0.5 ZY = 2, Z = 10 ⇒ Y = 0.2 S.

... The п-equivalent is as shown in Fig. 16.7-6. Note that п-equivalent

uses 1 in the series arm and 0.5Y in the shunt arms.

Comparing this with the ABCD matrix of the resistive network, we get,

... The T-equivalent is as shown in Fig. 16.7-7.

Note that the T-equivalent uses 0.5Z in series arms and Y in the shunt ar.m

Fig. 16.7-7 The T-Equivalent for the Resistive Two-Port Network

in Example 16.7-2
 
2. IMAGE PARAMETER DESCRIPTION OF A
RECIPROCAL TWO-PORT NETWORK
A reciprocal two-port requires three independent parameters to describe it.
For instance, the set of parameters (A, B, C) will describe it since the fourth
parameter D can be obtained from the constraint AD – BC = 1 arising out of
the reciprocal nature of the network.

ABCD parameters are widely applied in the analysis of transmission lines

under sinusoidal steady-state. However, analysts prefer another equivalent
formulation when it comes to analysis of transmission lines under transient
conditions or with aperiodic inputs. Similarly, filter designers favour this
alternative formulation to ABCD parameters. This alternative way to
describe areciprocal two-port network is called the 'Image Parameter
Description'. We take up this description in this section.

Two impedances called image impedances (also called iterative

impedances) designated by Zim1 andZim2 and a constant called image transfer
constant designated by /describe a reciprocal linear time-invariant two-port
network in this formulation.

Image impedances are a pair of impedances – Zim1 and Zim2 – such that the
input impedance at port-1 with port-2 terminated in Zim2 is Zim1 and the input
impedance at port-2 with port-1 terminated inZim1 is Zim2. There exists such a
pair of impedances for every linear time-invariant two-port network. This is
shown in Fig. 16.8-1.

Image impedances defined.

Fig. 16.8-1 Defintion of Image Impedances

Image impedances can be obtained from ABCD parameters. Consider the
first circuit in Fig. 16.8-1.

Image Impedances

Image impedances are a pair of impedances – Zim1 and Zim2 – such that the
input impedance at port-1 with port-2 terminated in Zim2is Zim1 and the input
impedance at port-2 with port-1 terminated in Zim1 is Z.

They are given in terms of ABCD parameters as

Substituting this in the first ABCD equation, we get,

A similar derivation using second circuit in Fig. 16.8-1 leads to

Image impedances of an LTI two-port network in terms of its ABCD

parameters.

Substituting Eqn. 16.8-2 in Eqn. 16.8-1 and solving for Zim1, we get,

Substituting Eqn. 16.8-3 in Eqn. 16.8-2, we get,

The third parameter needed to complete the description is obtained by

determining the ratios and when the second port is terminated in

zim2 and v1 is applied at the first port. The geometric mean of these two ratios
is expressed as the exponential of a number γ and that γ is called the Image
Transfer Constant.

Image transfer constant defined.

Image transfer constant can be expressed in terms of the ABCD parameters.

The last step in the above derivation made use of the fact that AD – BC = 1
for a reciprocal network. The number γ essentially contains information on
how effectively the applied voltage and current are transmitted to the output
side by the two-port network. It is possible to show that transmission in the
reverse direction – i.e., if voltage is applied at the second port and the first
port is terminated inZim1 – is also governed by the same γ factor.

Zim1, Zim2 and γ will be real numbers for a memoryless two-port network. They
will be functions of ρfor sinusoidal steady-state analysis of a dynamic linear
time-invariant two-port network and they will be functions of complex
frequency s for a dynamic circuit in s-domain.

Note that v1i1 is the power delivered to the input port and – v2j2 is the power
delivered to the terminating impedance (i.e., the load impedance). Hence,
the number eγ can be viewed as a measure of power transfer in the two-port
network.

eγ = (Pi/Po)05, where Pi is the input power into the network and Po is the
output power delivered by the network when the load impedance is equal to
the image impedance.

The ratios v1/v2 and i1/(–i2) are the same as eγ for a symmetric network.

16.8.1 Image Parameters for a Symmetric Reciprocal Two‐Port Network

In this case, we need only two parameters. Eqn. 16.8-3 and Eqn. 16.8-4 reveal
that Zim1 = Zim2 if A =D. For a symmetric network A = D. Therefore, the two

image impedances are equal and are equal to . This impedance is now
given a new name – it is called the Characteristic Impedance of the
symmetric two-port network and is usually designated by Zo.

The two transfer ratios when the second

port is terminated in Zim2and v1 is applied at the first port, will be equal for a
symmetric network. Therefore, the image transfer constant may be
interpreted as the ratio of applied voltage to output voltage with
characteristic impedance termination in the case of symmetric networks.

That is, for a

symmetric two-port network. With this interpretation of e , the number γ
γ

gets a new name applicable only in the case of symmetric networks. It is then
called Propagation Constant. Real part of γ has the unit of ‘nepers’ and
imaginary part is in ‘radians’.

Image Parameters

(i) General LTI Two-Port Network

(ii) Symmetric Reciprocal Two-Port Network

16.8.2 Image Parameters in terms of Open‐Circuit and Short‐Circuit Impedances

Consider the four circuits shown in Fig. 16.8-2.

Z1o is the input impedance measured from port-1 with port-2 kept open. Z1s is
the input impedance measured from port-1 with port-2 kept shorted. Z2o is
the input impedance measured from port-2 with port-1 kept open. Z2s is the
input impedance measured from port-2 with port-1 kept shorted.
With the second port open, and with the second port

shorted Similarly, with the first port open and with the first

port shorted Therefore,

Comparing Eqn. 16.8-6 with Eqn. 16.8-3 and Eqn. 16.8-4, we get,

A = D for a symmetric network. Therefore, Eqn. 16.8-6 shows that for a

symmetric linear time-invariant two-port

network and Eqn. 16.8-7 shows that for such a

network The equal

values of Z1o and Z2o is designated by a symbol Zoc and the equal values
of Z1s and Z2s is designated by a symbol Z in the case of a symmetric two-port.
Thus, for a symmetric linear time invariant two-port network,
Fig. 16.8-2 Definition of Z1o, Z1s, Z2o and Z2s

Zoc and Zsc are independent of the port from where they are measured in the
case of a symmetric network.

Fig. 16.8-3 Circuit for Example 16.8-1

Fig. 16.8-4 Circuit in Example 16.8-1 with Image Impedance Termination
EXAMPLE: 16.8-1

(i) Find the ABCD parameters for the asymmetric T-network in Fig. 16.8-
3 and obtain its image parameters. (ii) Calculate the image impedances from
open-circuit and short-circuit impedances and verify the values.

SOLUTION

In a resistive network with a single independent voltage source, the voltage

across any terminal pair can only be ≤ the applied voltage. Therefore, the
voltage ratio has to be a real number ≥1. Similarly, the current flow at any
point in a single-source resistive network can only be ≤ the source current.

Therefore, the current ratio has to be a real number ≥1. Therefore, eγ, the
image transfer constant, has to be a positive real number for a resistive two-
port. The circuit with image impedance termination is shown in Fig. 16.8-4.
 The impedance seen at the input is the other image impedance – i.e., 12.25
Ω. ... i1 = 0.08163v1. This current divides into 10 Ω and 26.33 Ω in parallel. ...

– i2 = 0.08163v1 that value

we obtained using ABCD parameters.

(ii) The open-circuit and short-circuit impedances are calculated as

They are the same as the ones calculated from ABCD parameters.

Fig. 16.8-5 Circuit for Example 16.8-2

EXAMPLE: 16.8-2

(i) Find the ABCD parameters of the network in Fig. 16.8-5 for ω = 1 rad/s
and ω = 4 rad/s.

(ii) Obtain the image parameters at these two frequencies. (iii) Find the
steady-state output voltage as a function of time if v1 (t) = cost V and the
output port is terminated in characteristic impedance. (iv) Repeat part (iii)
if v1(t) = cos4t V.
SOLUTION

(i) This is a symmetric Π-network with Z(s) = s and Y(s) = s. We have already
obtained the ABCDmatrix of the symmetric Π-network in Example 16.3-1.

Substituting Z(s) = s and Y(s) = s, we get, A = 1 + 0.5s2 and B = s.

We get the ABCD parameters required for sinusoidal steady-state analysis

by substituting s = jω. Then, A = D = 1 – 0.5ω2, B = jω and C = jω(1 – 0.25ω2).

(ii) The network is a symmetric one. Therefore, there are only two image
parameters. They are the characteristic impedance Zo and the propagation
constant ε

The values for Zo and γ are calculated and tabulated in the table above.
Many comments on the calculation procedure and the nature of values
arrived at are in order at this point.
 The equation for Zo admits two possible values for it, since it is a square
root. The value of Zo at ω= 1 rad/s is real. There is no confusion as to which
value of Zo is to be accepted at this frequency. It is 1.1547 Ω of resistance. We
rule out –1.1547 Ω, since no physical resistor can have a negative resistance
value.

Thus, the propagation constant is a pure imaginary number. If propagation

constant is purely imaginary, then, the eγ factor must have a magnitude of
unity. That will imply that the amplitude of input and output at 1 rad/s are
equal – i.e., there is no loss of amplitude when a 1 rad/s sinusoidal waveform
goes through this two-port network, provided the termination impedance is
a resistance of 1.1547 Ω.

We consider the second frequency of 4 rad/s now. At this frequency, the

characteristic impedance is a pure reactance. It can be an inductive reactance
of 0.5774 n corresponding to a positive sign in the square root operation or
it can be a capacitive reactance of 0.5774 Ω corresponding to a negative sign
in the square root operation. Both values are physically realisable. If an
inductive reactance of 0.5774 Ω is connected across the output, the value of
eγ is –0.0718. If a capacitive reactance of 0.5774 Ω is connected across the
output, the value of eγ is –13.93.

In the first case, and β =

π rad leading to γ = –2.634 + jπ. But this value of 1 implies that the input
voltage amplitude is much less than the output voltage amplitude,
since Thus, there is amplification of voltage amplitude. This happens
due to partial cancellation of j2 S admittance of capacitor at 4 rad/s by
j0.5774 a of inductive impedance. The resultant impedance of parallel
combination is –j3.732 a at 4 rad/s. This negative impedance cancels most
of j4 a impedance in the series path leading to a large flow of current towards
output and consequent voltage amplification.

In the second case, . Therefore, a = in 13.93 =

2.634 Np and β = π rad leading to 1 = 2.634 + jn. This value of γimplies that
the output voltage amplitude is only 1/13.93 = 0.0718 times the input
amplitude at 4 rad/s. There is considerable attenuation of the signal at 4
rad/s.

Thus, if attenuation is the aim, the termination has to be done by

connecting a –j0.5774a at 4 rad/s – i.e., a capacitor of 0.433 F – across the
output.

(iii) frequency. This ratio

has to be understood as a phasor ratio in the context of sinusoidal steady-
state analysis. Therefore v2 = cos(t – 60°) V.

(iv) if termination is by a
0.1444 H inductor and it is –13.93 if termination is by a 0.433 F capacitor.
This ratio has to be understood as a phasor ratio in the context of sinusoidal
steady-state analysis. Therefore v2 = –13.93 cos(4t) V if terminated by 0.1444
H inductor and v2 = –0.0718 cos(4t) V if terminated by a 0.433 F capacitor.
 

 
 

3. CONSTANT-K LOW-PASS FILTER

We commence our discussion on passive filters designed using symmetric
reactive two-port networks from this section onwards. The constant-k low-
pass filter is taken up first. It is also called the'Prototype LPF Section'. The
T-network and Π-network versions of prototype low-pass filter section are
shown in Fig. 16.10‐1.

The characteristic impedance and propagation constant of these two

prototype sections can be determined by substituting Z1 = jωL and Z2 =
1/jωC in the corresponding expressions arrived at in Sect. 16.9.

Note that the product of Z1 and Z2 in both sections is a constant, independent

of angular frequency. This is the reason behind the name ‘constant-k low-
pass filter’. Let this constant be designated as Ro2. That is,

Ro has dimensions of resistance. Now, the characteristic impedance of the T-

section low-pass filter can be expressed as
Constant-k Filters

A constant-k filter is a reactive T- or n-section such that the product

of Z1 and Z2 (the impedances used to derive the series arm and shunt arm,
respectively) is a constant, independent of frequency.

ZoT and Zor are resistive for 0 ≤ f < fc and are reactive for fc ≤ f < <. The
variation of oT on and Z orfor 0 ≤ f < fc is shown in Fig. 16.10-2.

The quantity R gets another interpretation now – it is the value of

characteristic impedance of T-section and Π-Section prototype low-pass
filters at zero frequency – i.e., for DC input. The characteristic impedance of
both sections vary with frequency and terminating the filter with a fixed
resistance will not result in the characteristic impedance termination at all
frequencies in the range 0 ≤ f < f. Characteristic impedance is reactive
outside this frequency range, and hence, resistive termination will not result
in the characteristic impedance termination in any case as far as f < frange is
concerned.

Fig. 16.10-2 Variation of Zo and Zon of Low-Pass Sections in the Frequency

Range 0 < f < fc

We take up the attenuation features of these two prototype sections now. We

had noted in Sect. 16.9 that T-section and Π-section using the
same ZX and Z2 will have the same propagation constant. The propagation
constant γ is governed by Eqn. 16.9-4.

But the reader is reminded of the fact that this equation is valid only if the
network is terminated in its characteristic impedance at the frequency at
which this expression is evaluated.
Substituting Z1 = jπL and Z2 = H j a C in the above equation and simplifying
the expressions using the previously defined quantities ZoT and fc, we get,

We study this function eγ for the two frequency ranges in detail.

Behaviour of eγ in the range 0 ≤ f < fc

The value of x in this range is between 0 and 1, and therefore, the function
eγ evaluates to a complex number with non-zero imaginary part. The sign
of that we accept has to be the same as the sign we accepted in
evaluating the characteristic impedance in this frequency range. We had
accepted a positive sign so that the characteristic impedance in this
frequency range will turn out to be a positive-valued resistance. Therefore,
we accept the positive root of (1 – x2) in Eqn. 16.10-4. The magnitude of the
right-side of Eqn. 16.10-4 gives the attenuation in the filter (i.e., ea).

Simplifying the expression, we get,

Attenuation = eα = 1

Therefore, the attenuation constant a is 0 in this frequency range. Therefore,

if a sinusoidal signal with frequency < fc is applied to the filter, the output
amplitude will be the same as the input amplitude, provided the filter is
terminated in its characteristic

impedance

Thus, the frequency range 0 ≤ f < fc constitutes the pass-band of the filter.
But zero attenuation (and unity gain) is possible if, and only if, the filter is
terminated in its characteristic impedance at all frequencies.

What is the behaviour of the phase angle part of attenuation function (i.e.,
eγ) in the frequency range 0 ≤ f < fc?

Therefore, sinβ must be and is positive in this range. Therefore, β is

expected to be between 0 and π rads. Moreover, cosβ must be 1 – 2x2.

Phase response of constant-k low-pass filter in pass-band (Zo termination is

assumed).
Thus, a sinusoidal signal with its frequency < fc undergoes no change in its

amplitude, but suffers a phase lag of rads when it goes through the
prototype low-pass filter, provided the filter is terminated in its
characteristic impedance at that frequency.

Behaviour of eγ of prototype low-pass filter in the range fc < f (i.e.,

x > 1)

The positive sign corresponds to inductive termination and the negative sign
corresponds to capacitive termination. Now, the attenuation function is

with a negative sign for inductive termination and a positive sign for
capacitive termination. The filter is expected to provide a large attenuation
to signals in the frequency range f > fc. Therefore, we must choose a negative
sign in the expression above. That is, the T-section low-pass filter must be
terminated in an inductive reactance in the fc > fc band for good attenuation.
Then,

We expect this number to be a negative real number since x > 1 in the

frequency range we are considering now. Therefore,
What follows now is an algebraic manipulation to express a in a convenient
form.

Now, we express ea in terms of z as

Further, we write ea as below.

Attenuation provided by constant-k low-pass filter in the stop-band

(Zo termination is assumed).

An identity involving hyperbolic functions helps us at this point.

Comparing Eqn. 16.10-9 and Eqn. 16.10-10, we see that,

The attenuation constant a is positive for all f> fc since inverse hyperbolic
cosine is positive in that range. Thus, the filter reduces the amplitude of
signals in this frequency range and adds a phase of –π rad to them.
Therefore, the frequency range fc is the stop-band of the filter. The frequency
value that separates the pass-band and stop-band – i.e., f – is called the cut-
off frequency of the filter.

Note that Eqn. 16.10-11 gives the attenuation constant and Eqn. 16.10-
12 yields the dB attenuation correctly if, and only if, the filter is terminated
in an inductive reactance of value in the case of T-section filter,
where x = f/fc. The reader may verify that the Π-section filter has to be

terminated in a capacitive reactance of value for for the same

purpose.
Figure 16.10-3 shows the dB attenuation and phase constant in the pass-
band and stop-band for the prototype low-pass filter terminated in its
characteristic impedance at all frequencies.

Fig. 16.10-3 dB Attenuation and Phase Constant for a Prototype Low-Pass

Filter

16.10.1 Ideal Low-pass Filter Versus Constant-k Low-pass Filter

An ideal low-pass filter is expected to provide 0 dB attenuation and 0 rad

phase shift to all sinusoidal components with frequencies below the cut-off
frequency fc. Further, it is expected to provide infinite attenuation (i.e., zero
gain) for all sinusoidal components with frequency >fc. A constant-k low-
pass filter fails in both due to two reasons.

A constant-k low-pass filter can provide zero attenuation in the pass-band,

provided it is terminated in its characteristic impedance, but its
characteristic impedance in the pass-band is a frequency dependent
resistance. The load on the filter is usually a fixed resistor. Hence, the filter
is terminated in its characteristic impedance at only one frequency, at the
best. This frequency is chosen to be DC usually. Failure to terminate the filter
in its characteristic impedance in the pass-band results in non-zero
attenuation for all frequency components except for the DC component in
the input signal.
A practical constant-k low-pass filter has non-zero attenuation in pass-band.

The rise of attenuation with frequency in the stop-band is gradual even if the
filter is terminated in its characteristic impedance. If the filter is not
terminated at Zo, the rise of attenuation with frequency will be still slower. In
actual practice, the filter is terminated at Zo only for ω = 0. This makes the
stop-band attenuation far from satisfactory in practical applications.

Thus, the major issues with the prototype low-pass filter are (i) problem of
non-zero pass-band attenuation due to termination and (ii) unsatisfactory
stop-band attenuation.

There are satisfactory solutions to these two issues. But before we take them
up, let us develop design equations for a prototype low-pass filter from
specifications.

Design equations for a constant-k low-pass prototype filter.

16.10.2 Prototype Low-pass Filter Design

The design specifications are the values of cut-off frequency fc and the values
of load resistance RL. We make the filter experience characteristic
impedance termination at ω = 0. Both T-section and Π-Section have
characteristic impedance of Ro at this frequency.

Solving these two equations for L and C, we get,

The designs are given in Fig. 16.10-4.

Fig. 16.10-4 Prototype Low-Pass Filter Designs

Now, we address the issue of unsatisfactory rise in attenuation in the stop-

band in the prototype filter and arrive at a solution to this problem in the
next section
 

4. M-DERIVED LOW-PASS FILTER

SECTIONS FOR IMPROVED ATTENUATION
An m-derived LPF (Low-Pass Filter) section is a circuit section that is
cascaded with the prototype section in order to improve the performance of
the prototype section. More than one such m-derived section may be
employed in a practical filter. Each such section results in the overall filter,
providing zero gain (infinite attenuation) at a frequency above the cut-off
frequency of the prototype section. We use T-sections in our discussion
almost exclusively. Results for Π-Sections will be arrived at by comparison.
Consider the T-network shown in Fig. 16.11-1.

The shunt branch comprising an inductor and a capacitor will resonate

at Hz. Hence, the output signal component at f∞ will be zero,

thanks to the short-circuit caused by the series resonance in the shunt
connected branch. This conclusion is independent of the termination
impedance at the output.

However, the attenuation characteristics of the prototype filter section will

get modified when we cascade an m-derived section with it unless (i) the
input impedance of the m-derived section is equal to characteristic
impedance of the prototype filter and (ii) the m-derived section is terminated
in its characteristic impedance. The m-derived T-section is shown in Fig.
16.11-2.

Thus, m-derived T-section is obtained by scaling the series impedance of a

prototype T-section by a real positive number ‘ m’ (0 < m <1) and using an
impedance Z2' in the shunt branch such that the characteristic impedance
of m-derived T-section is the same as the characteristic impedance of
prototype T-section. Let Zom be the characteristic impedance of the m-derived
section. We want it to be equal to ZoT.

Solving this equation for Z2', we get,

m-derived Π-Section is formed by scaling the shunt branch admittance

by m and changing the series branch impedance suitably such that the
resulting section has a characteristic impedance that is equal to Zoc . The
derivation of this impedance is skipped and the result is shown in Fig. 16.11-
3.

Z1 is an inductor and Z2 is a capacitor in the case of a low-pass filter. Thus,

the m-derived LPF sections will be as in Fig. 16.11-4.

The series-tuned shunt branch in the m-derived T-section in Fig. 16.11-4 goes
short at a frequency f∞and provides infinite attenuation at that frequency,
quite independent of what is connected at the output. The value of m decides
this frequency.

The parallel-tuned series branch in m-derived Π-Section in Fig. 16.11-4 goes

open at a frequency f∞and provides infinite attenuation at that frequency,
quite independent of what is connected at the output. The reader may verify
that f∞ in Π-Section is the same as f∞ in T-section.

Fig. 16.11-1 A Low-pass Filter with zero gain at one frequency

Fig. 16.11-2 An m-Derived T-Section

Fig. 16.11-3 (a) m-Derived T-Section and (b) m-Derived Π-Section

Fig. 16.11-4 (a) m-Derived T-Section Low-Pass Filter (b) m-Derived Π-
Section Low-Pass Filter

Design specification will include the values of frequency at which infinite

attenuation is desired in the filter. There has to be one m-derived section for
each frequency at which infinite attenuation is desired. The value of m to be
employed in each m-derived section can be worked out from the
corresponding frequency at which infinite attenuation is needed and the
filter cut-off frequency by employing Eqn. 16.11-2. The final filter design will
have a prototype section cascaded with as manym-derived sections as the
frequencies at which infinite attenuation is desired.

The pass-band of a filter section is the range of frequency for which the
characteristic impedance is real-valued – i.e., resistive. An m-derived section
has the same characteristic impedance as that of a prototype section.
Therefore, the m-derived section and the prototype section will have the
same pass-band.

The pass-band attenuation of the cascade will remain zero, provided the/Iter
is terminated in its characteristic impedance at its output. But we have seen
that this can not be done unless the filter load is a frequency-dependent
resistance. Thus, the problem arising out of non-Zo termination will continue
to be present even in a filter with m-derived sections cascaded with prototype
section.
However, the stop-band attenuation will be much improved in a cascaded
filter. Each m-derived section forces the stop-band attenuation to reach
infinite value at a certain frequency in the stop-band. The attenuation
characteristic in stop-band can be tailored to meet stringent specifications
by pulling down the gain to zero at a few judiciously selected stop-band
frequency values with the help ofm-derived sections. An m-derived section
with m close to zero will result in stop-band attenuation rising rapidly after
the cut-off frequency fc.

However, if an m-derived section has the same pass-band performance as

that of the prototype section, and, in addition, if it can introduce infinite
attenuation at some stop-band frequency, why use a prototype filter section
at all? Why do not we make the filter using m-derived sections exclusively?

Consider the T-section prototype low-pass filter. The shunt-connected

branch is a pure capacitor. The impedance of the capacitor approaches zero
at high frequencies. Therefore, a prototype section provides zero gain
(infinite attenuation) at high frequencies. The m-derived T-section contains
a series combination of inductor and capacitor in the shunt branch. Though
the capacitor goes short at high frequencies, the shunt branch does not;
thanks to the inductor. Therefore, the m-derived section provides a non-zero
finite gain at high frequencies. Thus, the attenuation characteristic of m-
derived section is unsatisfactory in the high frequency range. This is why at
least one prototype section is needed in a cascaded filter structure.

Why do we need a prototype section at all?

A low-pass filter design terminates the filter at its Zo value at a = 0. This is

done by making its equal to the load resistance RL. Thus, the filter
works under mismatched termination condition at all other frequencies.
Consequently, the pass-band attenuation will be non-zero except at a = 0 in
a filter cascade.

EXAMPLE: 16.11-1

Design a low-pass filter for a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz and a load resistance
of 50 n. The filter should provide infinite attenuation at 1.5 kHz and 2 kHz.
Use T-sections.
SOLUTION

One prototype section and two m-derived sections are needed for this design.

Step-1: Design of prototype low-pass section

Using the design formula arrived at in Sect. 16.10, we calculate L and C as

The prototype section is shown in Fig. 16.11-5.

Fig. 16.11-5 The Prototype Section in Example 16.11-1

Step-2: Design of an m-derived T-section for f∞ = 1.5 kHz

 Therefore, the m-derived section required is as shown in Fig. 16.11-6.

Fig. 16.11-6 m-Derived Section for f∞ = 1.5 kHz in Example 16.11-1

Step-3: Design of an m-derived T-section for f∞ = 2 kHz .

Therefore, the m-derived section required is as shown in Fig. 16.11-7.

Fig. 16.11-7 m-Derived Section for = 1.5 kHz in Example 16.11-1

 Step-4: Simplify the final design by combining elements

The cascade of one prototype and two m-derived sections with the filter
terminated at 50 Ω load resistance is shown in Fig. 16.11-8.

Fig. 16.11-8 Cascade of Prototype and m-Derived Sections in Example 16.11-

1

The inductors that appear in series can be replaced with equivalents to

arrive at the final design shown in Fig. 16.11-9.

Fig. 16.11-9 Final Design Solution in Example 16.11-1

Fig. 16.12-1 (a) An m-Derived Section (b) Bisection of m-Derived Section
(c) An m-Derived Half-T Section