Design Loadbearing Masonry Structures

1 Introduction

Use of masonry for construction have been carried out for many centuries from building
the pyramids of Giza, and the Great Wall of China. Evidence for brick use has been
present from 6000 BC. During this time bricks were hand-casted from mud and straw,
and dried in the sun. It was during 2500 BC where the kiln-fired brick usage started. After
the fall of the Roman Empire, use of bricks was lost for a few centuries, and then revived
later in the 13th century and continues to be used in present time.

Use of masonry for construction is very popular in Sri Lanka, and following are some
reasons for this popularity:

Lower Cost

 High availability of material to make masonry unit

 High availability of skilled labour (masons)
 Minimal need of supervision and technology
 High Durability
 Simultaneous provision of structure, subdivision of space, thermal and acoustic
insulation as well as fire and weather protection
 High flexibility in terms of building layout, etc.

Until recently, (i.e. till the first half of the 20th century), most popular used for multi-
storey buildings were steel and reinforced concrete. In these structures, cladding was
done by bricks. Main reason for this is use of empirical relationships in designing
masonry loadbearing walls, leading to excessively thick walls that were wasteful of space
and material and took a great deal of time to build. With the introduction of structural
codes of practice, design processes were rationalized and provided a basis for design of
masonry structures around thirty storeys.

1.1 Uses of Masonry

Main uses of masonry are as listed below:

1. Load bearing walls, piers and columns

2. Partition walls
3. Cladding for multi-storey framed buildings

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4. Chimneys, clock towers, and towers supporting water tanks
5. Arches for culverts and small bridges
6. Perimeter and garden walls

1.2 Masonry
Masonry can be defines as an assembly of structural units laid in a particular pattern and
bonded together using mortar. This definition states three important factors in masonry.
Which are: Structural/ Masonry units; laying pattern; mortar.

1.2.1 Types of Masonry units

Following are a few types of masonry units used in Sri Lanka:

1. Clay Bricks

This is the most popular type of masonry units used in Sri Lanka. The standard
work size for individual clay bricks is 215 mm × 102.5 mm × 65 mm (length ×
width × height). The standard joint thickness of the mortar connecting these units
is 10 mm, and hence, the coordinated size of bricks become, 225 mm × 112.5 mm
× 75 mm

2. Masonry Blocks

These units come in several sizes, where the widely available size of blocks in Sri
Lanka is 400 mm × 100 mm × 200 mm (length × width × height).
 3. Cement Stabilized Soil Masonry Blocks

4. Random Rubble Masonry

5. Stone Masonry

In instances where appearance is important, following properties of masonry needs to be

considered:

 Attractive appearance
 Colour
 Good resistance to exposure

1.2.2 Mortar

As given in the definition above, mortar is used to bind masonry units together, to form
a continuous structural form. Most of the time this is a mixture of cement, sand and water
mixed in appropriate proportions.

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In addition to binding masonry units, mortar serves the following functions as well:

 Distribute the pressure through individual units

 Infill the joints between units, and increase the resistance to moisture penetration
 Maintain sound characteristics of masonry walls
 Maintain thermal characteristics of masonry walls

Following table extracted from BS 5628 – 1 shows the recommendations set by British
Standards on material proportions and compressive strengths.

Table 1.1 - Requirements for mortar, extracted from BS 5628-1

1.2.3 Bond

Walls made by regular shaped units, are classified to definite, specific patterns called
bonds, according to the orientation of long sides (Stretcher) and short sides (header).

During bonding, units are staggered so that they will overlap with the bricks on the rows
in top and bottom to distribute the applied loads (Both in horizontal and vertical
directions), as shown in following figures.
BS 5628-2 defines seven and three bond patterns for brickwork and blockwork
respectively

1.3 Properties of Masonry

If masonry was considered as a material, it is a non-isotropic, non-homogeneous material
having many forms of various shapes, size and physical characteristics. Following are
some important properties of masonry that needs to be considered in designs:

 Strength of masonry
o Compressive strength
o Flexural strength
o Shear Strength
 Elastic characteristics (Modulus of elasticity)
 Coefficient of friction, creep, and moisture characteristics
 Thermal performance (Expansion)

1.3.1 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength of masonry depends on several factors.

 Strength of masonry units

 Strength of mortar
 Bond between masonry units and mortar
 Thickness of mortar joints
 Dimensions of units (Aspect ratio)
 Laying pattern

1.3.2 Flexural Strength

Masonry is a non-isotropic material, and has two principle modes of flexural failure.

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  Flexure parallel to bed joints
 Flexure perpendicular to bed joints

Water absorption characteristics of masonry units also influences the flexural strength of
masonry.

1.3.3 Tensile Strength

Similar to concrete, tensile strength of masonry is very small. Hence, it is generally

ignored in designs.

1.3.4 Shear Strength

Shear strength of masonry will be important when lateral loads are present. Similar to
flexural effects, shear on masonry panels are of two main modes:

 In-plane shear
 Lateral shear

Shear strength of masonry will depend on mortar strength and pre-compression of the
wall panels.

1.3.5 Modulus of Elasticity

Masonry being an anisotropic and composite material, have different elastic moduli
depending on the material used, direction of loading, etc. A typical stress-strain diagram
for masonry is given below.

Figure 1.1 - Typical stress-strain diagram for masonry

BS 5628-2 gives approximations to the elastic moduli to be used in designs. In clause
7.4.1.7, it is given as 0.9 𝑓𝑘 kN/mm2 (where 𝑓𝑘 is the characteristic compressive strength
of masonry in N/mm2) which is accurate enough for designs. The actual value may vary
between 0.5 𝑓𝑘 – 2.0 𝑓𝑘 kN/mm2. When deciding on a long-term elastic modulus value,
effects of creep and shrinkage should be taken to account.

1.3.6 Coefficient of Friction

Clause 26 of BS 5628-1 states “The coefficient of friction between clean concrete and
masonry faces may be taken as 0.6”.

1.4 Design of Structural Masonry

As mentioned previously, use of rational methods, instead of the empirical relationships
were developed in the latter part of the 20th century, with the development of appropriate
codes of practice.

Design of masonry can be defined as a limit state design. During the designs, it is
impossible to accurately predict the actions acting on structures and the response of the
structures to these actions. Factors of safety are incorporated into designs to manage these
situations.

In designs, the main criteria that needs to be satisfied is:

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 > 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑓 𝐹
>
𝛾𝑚 𝛾𝑓

Characteristic Strength and Characteristic Load

1.4.1 Design for Vertical Load Resistance

Design vertical load resistance of masonry walls and columns are given by the following
equations:

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For walls (Per unit length):

𝛽𝑡𝑓𝑘
𝛾𝑚

For Columns:

𝛽𝑡𝑏𝑓𝑘
𝛾𝑚

Where:

𝛽= Capacity reduction factor allowing for the effects of slenderness

and eccentricity and is obtained from Table 7 of BS 5628-1

𝑓𝑘 = Characteristic strength of the masonry obtained from clause 23 of

BS 5628-1

𝑡= Thickness of wall/ column

𝑏= Width of the column

𝛾𝑚 = appropriate partial safety factor for the material obtained from

clause 27 Table 4(a) of BS 5628-1

1.4.2 Walls with Concentrated Loading

The failure stress of any material is generally higher than when a uniformly distributed
load is applied over its full length. When a relatively flexible member applies this load,
it is considered have a triangular distribution.

For forces applied through relatively stiff elements, it will distribute uniformly vary the
contact area. Provisions have been made in clause 34 of BS 5628-1, to enhance the load
bearing capacity for in three classes as follows:

 Bearing type 1: 25%

 Bearing type 2: 50%
 Bearing type 3: 100%
Strength of masonry should be checked under the concentrated load, and at 0.4h (h =
clear height of wall) below the bearing.

In normal conditions, the maximum design eccentricity occurs at 0.4h level.

References

Dilrukshi, K. G. (2010/2011). Design of Masonry and Timber Structures, Lecture Notes

for B.Sc.Eng. Degree. University of Moratuwa, Department of Civil Engineering.

Hendry, A. W., Sinha, B. P., & Davies, S. R. (2004). Design of Masonry Structures (3
ed.). Chapman & Hall.