7

Fibrous materials reinforced composites

production techniques
A. T. MARQUES, University of Porto, Portugal

Abstract: This chapter presents the main processing techniques used with
organic matrices fibrous materials reinforced composites, for civil engineering
applications. After a brief introduction, followed by the characterization of the
main matrices, thermosets and thermoplastics used in these composites, the
different techniques applied in various civil engineering applications are
presented and discussed: pultrusion, braiding, RTM, filament winding, hot
plate press and, finally, hand lay-up.

Key words: organic matrices, processing techniques, preforms, sandwich

conception.

7.1 Introduction
The use of fibrous composite materials for civil engineering applications started
very much with decorative purposes in mind, for example façade panels made by
hand lay-up or continuous laminating processes. Due to the freedom of design
afforded by these materials, it has been possible to develop specific constructions
with different purposes: one-off types of architectural demonstration, made by
hand lay-up or the assembling of different components; rescue housing and, more
recently, student housing (such as the Technical University of Delft Students’
Accommodations), where hand lay-up, resin transfer moulding (RTM) or even
filament winding can be used.
Almost simultaneously, the development of pedestrian bridges and the
strengthening of concrete structures appeared. In these examples, as well as in the
case of vehicle bridges, pultrusion and sandwich construction techniques are
the dominant methods used.
The use of fibrous materials reinforced composites is gradually being introduced
to the concrete reinforcement itself, with the aim of replacing the conventional
steel. Hence, we may use pultrusion, braiding or braiding pultrusion, either
directly or to produce preforms for subsequent processing. It may be said that
another type of cement-based fibrous reinforced composite material is winning
certain market niches. Here, the spray-up of fibres with cement is a possible
production route.
In the construction of piping for water supplies and sewage networks, the
following techniques may be considered: filament winding, centrifugal casting or
continuous filament winding (e.g. the DROLSTHOM process).

191
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192 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

After a brief introduction, followed by the characterization of the main matrices,

thermosets and thermoplastics used in these composites, this chapter discusses the
different techniques applied when civil engineering applications are considered:
pultrusion, braiding, RTM, filament winding, hot plate press, continuous laminating
and, even, hand lay-up.

7.2 Organic matrices

Although the fibrous materials reinforced composites used for civil engineering
applications are produced with thermosetting resins, there has recently been
increasing interest in using thermoplastics as an alternative group of construction
materials. The primary motivation for this has been environmental. The selection
of the matrix will be a decision based upon an evaluation of different aspects:
• life cycle and cost analysis;
• fibre/matrix interface;
• wettability of fibres by the matrix – an advantage for thermosetting matrices;
• processability;
• mechanical, thermal and chemical properties for a given application;
• durability;
• reaction to fire and smoke toxicity;
• recyclability – an advantage for thermoplastic matrices.
In a fibrous reinforced composite, fibres are mainly responsible for the on-axis
strength and stiffness properties. On the other hand, the matrices normally provide
the off-axis and out-of-plane properties, as well as the chemical resistance.
The role of the matrix in a composite can be given as follows:
(i) Design
• damage tolerance;
• off-axis property;
• shear strength;
• compressive longitudinal strength;
• transverse strength;
• specific weight (also in relation to fibre specific weight);
• rupture strain (also depending upon the rupture strain of the fibre);
• minor Poisson’s ratio;
• linear expansion coefficient (off axis and in relation to the fibre);
• impact.
(ii) Processing
• viscosity;
• adhesion property;
• processing temperature;

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 193

• cycle time;
• cost;
• exothermal cure (thermosetting);
• shrinkage after cure (thermosetting);
• shrinkage after moulding (thermoplastic).
(iii) Service
• fire and smoke behavior (also in combination with the fiber);
• chemical resistance;
• glass transition temperature or, as is applicable in the case of semi-
crystalline thermoplastics, glass transitions and melting temperatures;
• linear expansion coefficient.
It is important to note that the fibre/matrix interface may play the following roles:
• load transfer and inhibition of crack propagation, for design purposes;
• welding and adhesion during processing;
• chemical protection and resistance to humidity in service.

7.2.1 Thermosetting matrices

Thermosets are polymers in which a crosslinking reaction occurs promoting
chemical bonding between macromolecular chains and creating a three-
dimensional (3D) network. This process, normally named cure, is irreversible
unless treated by chemical action, i.e. thermosets cannot be recycled by thermal
action. Table 7.1 presents the most common thermosets resins used in civil
engineering applications. Unsaturated polyester resins are considered to be of
general application, whilst epoxy or vinyl-ester resins are normally used with
carbon fibres for concrete strengthening and seismic protection applications.
Vinyl-ester resins are also used in the production of profiles by pultrusion.
Phenolic resins are mainly used when good fire performance is required, i.e. fire
reaction and low smoke toxicity.

7.2.2 Thermoplastic matrices

Although the use of thermoplastic matrix composites is not common in civil
engineering applications, the development of new impregnation techniques using
either polymer melting, solvents or low viscosity precursors and the intimate
fibre/matrix contact will overcome impregnation difficulties, which are the main
barriers to entering this market.
Recyclability, together with specific properties such as higher toughness, can
be a competitive advantage for fibre reinforced thermoplastic matrix composites.
Table 7.2 presents the thermoplastic matrices most likely to be used in civil
engineering, both for non-structural and for structural applications.

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 Table 7.1 Thermosetting resins

Property Specific Young’s Tensile Notched Fracture Coef. of thermal Tmax Rupture Post-cure Relative
weight modulus strength impact toughness expansion service strain (%) shrinkage cost
Material (Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) strength kJ/m2 K1c (MPa.m−1/2) (10−6.°C−1) (°C) (%) per kg*

Unsaturated 1.1–1.5 2–4.5 40–90 1–2.5 0.5–1.7 100–180 90–130 2–2.5 5–15 1
polyester
Vinylester 1.1–1.2 3.5–4 65–85 40–70 100–150 3–6 8–9 2–4
Epoxy 1.1–1.4 2–5 50–100 1–8 0.5–2 50–120 120–180 2–8 0.1–2.5 3–20
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

Phenolic 1.2–1.5 2.5–4.5 30–60 1–2 0.8–1.5 115–130 140–200 1–3 0.1–1.5 1–2

* Reference cost 1 has been allocated to unsaturated polyester

Table 7.2 Thermoplastic matrices

Property Specific Young’s Tensile Rupture Notched Fracture Tmax α (10−6/°C) *Relative
weight modulus strength strain (%) impact toughness K 1c service (°C) cost per kg
Material (Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) strength kJ/m2 (MPa.m−1/2)

PP 0.9–0.93 0.9–1.8 20–50 50–900 2–5 1.5–4.5 90–120 35–100 1

PEAD 0.95–0.97 0.9–1.1 20–30 100–1300 5–20 1.5–2 100–120 100–200 0.96–1.06
PC 1.15–1.2 2–2.5 60–70 90–150 50–100 2–4.5 100–145 120–130 2.5–4
PA 66 1.05–1.4 1–4 50–100 10–300 3–90 1.5–5 60–110 80–150 2.5–4
PET 1.3–1.4 2.8–4 50–75 60–300 2.5–7 4.5–5.5 55–120 70–120 1.1–1.3
PVC 1.3–1.6 2.25–4 40–65 10–100 4–140 1.5–5 50–100 60–180 0.7–1.6
POM 1.39–1.41 1.5–4.5 45–90 20–75 7–25 2–5 75–120 90–200 2.5–4
ABS 1.04–1.2 1–3 30–55 1.5–100 5–50 1–4 80–120 100–250 1.5–2
PEEK 1.3 3.7–4 70–100 30–150 6–7 2.5–4 240–280 70–200 70–90

* Reference cost 1 has been allocated to polypropylene PP; α – coefficient of linear expansion
 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 195

7.3 Fibres
The properties of the most common fibres used in civil engineering are presented
in Table 7.3. As can be seen in this book, textile technologies are increasingly
being used to produce preforms of near net structural shape. Hence, it is possible
to obtain structural-like shapes in 2D fabrics, 3D braiding, 3D non-woven fabrics,
knitted and stitched layers and 3D interlacing tissues.
It is important to note the increased use of natural fibres in civil engineering
applications, particularly in countries such as Brazil, Argentina, India and China
where different types of natural fibres are available. Although there is a great need
for research to improve the specific properties of the fibrous composite materials
produced, the use of locally available fibres, together with the development of
appropriate technologies, will be a possible way towards a more sustainable world.

7.4 Production techniques: general characteristics

The main characteristics of the processing techniques used with fibrous materials
reinforced composites applied in civil engineering are presented in Table 7.4. The
table refers specifically to thermosetting (currently the most-used matrices for
civil engineering applications) and thermoplastic matrices.
Although the borders between artisanal (handicraft) and industrial processes are
not clear, the distinction can be made as follows. Artisanal processes are those which
are very much dependent on human skills, with low production rates and high levels
of personnel working hours. At the other end of the spectrum, industrial processes
are those which involve less human intervention, are very much dependent upon
machine parameters, and are to be considered for medium to high production rates.
Some considerations have to be made regarding wet and dry processing. The
first production techniques for polymeric matrix composite materials began with
thermosetting resins because they are, generally, liquid at room temperature and
can easily wet the fibres. Later on, with the advent of prepregs and moulding
compounds, processes were developed in which the fibres are already impregnated
with resin. Hence, this is called the dry process. The thermoplastic-based
composite materials are processed, in general, in a dry state, which means there is
no need to impregnate the fibres as the process will transform a semi-product like
LFT (Long Fibre Thermoplastic), CFTP (Continuous Fibre Thermoplastic) e.g.
Towpregs, commingled yarns, etc.
The definition of process efficiency can be given as:

Value of production rate per hour

Efficiency =
(equipment depreciation rate + man power) per hour

In the following points, descriptions of the processing techniques outlined in

Table 7.4 will be presented.

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 Table 7.3 Fibre properties

Property Specific Young’s Tensile Specific Specific Rupture Coefficient of *Relative cost
weight modulus strength modulus strength strain (%) thermal expansion per kg
Fibre (Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) (10−6/°C)

Glass
E 2.54 70 2200 27.6 866 3–3.5 3–5 1
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R 2.5 86 3200 34.4 1280 3.5–4 4 4–6

S 2.53 86 3500 33.9 1383 4.1 6–8
A 2.7 75 1700 27.7 666 0.75
Aramidic
Kevlar® 29 1.44 59 2640 41 1833 3–5 −3 to −3.5 25–40
Kevlar® 49 1.45 130 2900 89.7 2000 1.5–3 −2 to −5 60–75
Kevlar® 149 1.47 146 2410 99.3 1639 1–2 −4 to −2 70–180
Carbon
HS 1.80 230 4500 128 2500 2.0 −0.1 65–80
IM 1.76 290 3100 165 1761 1.1 −0.5 120–150
HM 1.86 380 2700 204.3 1452 0.7 −1.2
UHM 1.94 588 3920 303 2021 0.7 −0.9
Natural fibres
Jute 1.4–1.6 6.0–6.5 120–145 3.75–4.3 75–100 1.5–2.5 20–30 0.3–1.5
Sisal 1.4–1.6 15–30 400–800 9.5–21 250–570 1.5–4.0 18–30 0.5–0.6
Flax 1.45– 1.5 9.0–20 450–550 6–14 300–380 0.5–3 16–30 1.5–4
Hemp 1.4–1.5 5–20 500–900 3.33–14 333–640 0.5–2.5 15–25 0.6–2

* Reference cost 1 has been allocated to E glass fibre

 Table 7.4 Characteristics of production techniques

Characteristic Matrix Production Transformation Moulding Process Process

process rate process pressure type efficiency

Thermosetting Thermoplastic Artisanal (2) Industrial Wet Dry 0 Up to Up to 500 daN/ Open Closed
10 daN/ 100 daN/ cm2 mould mould
cm2 cm2
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Hand lay-up X X X X X 1–3

Spray up X X X X X X 1–4
Centrifugal X X X X X 3–10
casting
Continuous X X X X X 4–8
lamination
Pultrusion X X X X X X X 5–15
Filament
winding
– In situ X X (CFT)1 X X X X X 4–12
– Factory X X X X X X
Cold press X X X X X 5–10
Hot plate press
BMC(1), MC(1) X X X X X X 10–20
LFT(1) X X X X X 12–25
RTM1 X X X X X X X X 5–10
Injection X X X X X X 10–30
moulding

1
RTM, Resin Transfer Moulding; BMC, Bulk Moulding Compound; SMC, Sheet Moulding Compound; LFT, Long Fibre Thermoplastic; CFT,
Continuous Fibre Thermoplastic.
2
Artisanal: the word is associated to a slow rate process, where personnel time is considerable.
198 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

7.5 Processing: materials and parameters

7.5.1 Hand lay-up
Although the hand lay-up process requires very little investment, it is used only
when a reduced number of pieces are needed, i.e. for low series production. It is a
slow process and depends very much upon the skill of the workforce. However,
this technique is often employed for large and complex parts, when a good surface
finish is required on one side only. In Fig. 7.1, the materials and tools needed, as
well as the production technique, can be seen.

7.1 Hand lay-up process (Composite Materials Laboratory, INEGI,

Porto, Portugal).

Typically, one uses the following materials, tools and moulds:

Fibres
Fibres are used in the form of chopped strand CSM or continuous filament mat
(CFM) (300 to 600 g/m2), woven–roving (450 to 900 g/m2) or ‘COMBI’ (a
combination of CSM and woven) roving. It is also possible to use a ‘COREMAT’,
in order to increase specific stiffness.

Resins
The most-used resin is unsaturated polyester. The selection of the type of polyester
resin (orthophthalic, isophthalic and bisphenolic) depends upon the application;
for example, the orthophthalic type is used only when the required performance
level is low. The cure of the resin implies the use of an initiator (a catalyst such as

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 199

peroxide methylethylketone) and, eventually, an accelerator (such as cobalt

octoate) and an inhibitor (such as hydroquinone), following the specifications set
out by the suppliers of the raw materials.
Vinyl ester and epoxy resins are also used, although less commonly. When fire/
smoke properties are too strict, the use of phenolic resins may be required.

Pigments and fillers

Fillers can be used, for instance, to reduce the cost or to enhance a specific
property of a product. On the other hand, pigments are used to give a specified
colour to the product.

Core materials
If the product has a sandwich construction, core materials (such as foams and
honeycombs) are used. The idea is to create a product with high specific stiffness
and high specific strength. The sandwich construction can be applied with other
processing techniques.
Table 7.5 shows the properties of some typical core materials.

Release systems
The surface quality of the final product can be enhanced if an adequate release
system is used. This can be made with the following:
• release film (e.g. MELYNEX®)
• PVA – polyvinyl alcohol
• wax

Table 7.5 Structural core materials properties

Property Specific Young’s Compressive Tensile Rupture Coefficient *Relative

weight modulus strength strength strain of thermal cost per kg
(Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) expansion
Core (10−6/°C)

PU foam 0.03–0.08 0.02–0.07 2–3 3–5 1

PVC foam 0.04–0.4 0.03–0.5 1–13 3–5 20–45 9–20
PS foam- 0.045– 0.025–0.03 0.25–1.5 1–1.5 3.5–.5 50–80 2–2.5
closed cell 0.055
Cork 0.1–0.25 0.001–0.05 0.5–2 0.5–2.5 20–100 100–250 2–12
Honeycomb 0.02–0.06 0.25–3 6–20 3–30
NOMEX®

PU, polyurethane; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PS, polystyrene; NOMEX® from Du Pont de
Nemours.

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200 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

Tools
The tools needed are, essentially, a brush and a roller. Specific rollers exist for
different purposes (e.g. a roller to help remove trapped air) and may be used. One
also needs scissors or a knife to cut the fibres to size. A balance is used to carefully
weigh the different components.

Moulds
The moulds are made from wood or a composite material. As no pressure is
involved in the process, the moulds are generally light structures.
Having collected all the requisite materials, this technique requires the following
steps:
• mould preparation;
• application of release systems (please note that, with some release systems, it
may be necessary to apply several layers of a release agent);
• application of a gel-coat (this is a rich-resin layer, or resin only, normally
pigmented);
• mix the cure system with the resin;
• lay and impregnate individual fibre layers, sequentially;
• cure and, eventually, post-cure according to resin supplier’s instructions;
• demoulding.

7.5.2 Spray-up
Although the spray-up process requires both cutting and spray equipment
(Fig. 7.2), it is also a relatively slow process, to be used for a small/medium series

7.2 Spray-up process (Composite Materials Laboratory, INEGI, Porto,

Portugal).

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 201

production size. In terms of materials, the main difference in comparison with

hand lay-up is the fact that the fibres are cut and projected in the mould, whilst the
resin is sprayed. For better impregnation, a roller may be used at the end of the
spray-up process. The moulds are similar to those used with hand lay-up.
This process can be ‘robotized’ if the products to be made are of a regular shape
(e.g. a parabolic antenna).

7.5.3 Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal casting is essentially used to produce pipes for sewage and water
supplies. The technique consists of a cut/spray unit that goes through the interior
of a cylindrical metallic mould in rotation, and distributes the fibre and resin along
the length of the mould. The centrifugal effect of the rotation projects the fibre and
resin against the mould wall, creating the impregnation effect.
The raw materials used can be similar to those used with the spray-up technique.
However, a high content of sand is normally used, particularly for sewage applications.

7.5.4 Continuous lamination

Continuous lamination is used to produce flat panels (sheet) or corrugated channel
sheets (1–2 m wide), continuously. The latter are used as a type of large roof tile,
which can be either translucent or opaque.
The materials used are the following:
(i) Fibre: CSM (chopped strand mat); roving
(ii) Resin: unsaturated polyester
(iii) Fillers and pigments
(iv) Release film
The CSMs are continuously extended over the release film (or the roving are
cut and sprayed) that transports the resin. Then a cover release film is placed over
the materials, and the full set goes through a type of mould, slightly heated, where
the impregnation and curing takes place. Finally, the sheets are cut to specific
dimensions.

7.5.5 Pultrusion
The pultrusion process (Fig. 7.3) is used to produce specific profiles
(i.e. I, U, L, etc.).
Moreover, it can be used to produce reinforcing profiles for concrete structures,
replacing the equivalent steel profiles (Fig. 7.4).
This technique may be considered to be a wet transformation process if liquid
thermosetting resin is used, or a dry process in the case of prepreg thermosetting
systems or thermoplastic towpregs or commingled yarns. Bearing in mind the

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202 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

7.3 Pultrusion process: (a) Composite Materials Laboratory, INEGI,

Porto, Portugal; (b) POLIGHT S.A., Viana do Castelo, Portugal.

7.4 Reinforcing profiles (www.strongell.com).

different situations, the die has to be designed according to the shape and
dimensions of the profile, as well as with the type of matrix system. Basically, in
the case of the wet process, the different steps in this technique are the following:
• Roving only (or combined with CSM) are continuously pulled through a resin
bath with all necessary curing elements, as well as release agents and fillers.
• The impregnated fibre goes through a die with three main areas: preheating,
heating and cooling.
• The profile is cut to the required dimensions.

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In the case of prepreg thermosetting systems or thermoplastic towpregs/

commingled yarns, the semi-product (prepreg or thermoplastic towpreg or
commingled yarn) goes through the heated die of which the first part has been
sufficiently heated to allow the matrix to reduce viscosity and fully impregnate the
fibre, being subsequently cooled and cut to size.
The materials used are the following:
• fibres: glass or carbon fibre roving; continuous filament mat or chopped strand
mat;
• matrix: unsaturated polyester, vinyl-ester, epoxy or phenolic; different
thermoplastic matrices (pa, pp, pom, etc.);
• fillers and pigments;
• Release agent.
The release agents are normally mixed internally with the matrix, or are applied
externally.
The dies are made with steel. However, care must be taken with the specific
finishing depending upon the type of matrix.
An example of a profile produced with this technique is shown in Fig. 7.5.

7.5 Pultruded profile application: (a) www.strongell.com;

(b) POLIGHT S.A.

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204 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

Recently, a radius pultrusion production technique has been presented by

Thomas GmbH. This process can be applied for bridge beams, pipes and other
profiles.

7.5.6 Filament winding

Filament winding (Fig. 7.6) is a technique where fibres passing through a resin
bath with all the curing agents or pre-impregnated fibres (prepregs-thermosets, or
towpregs-thermoplastic) are wound in a rotational mandrel, allowing for a specific
orientation according to the loading requirements. This technique can be used for
pillar strengthening or in the production of water and sewage pipes, with given
specifications. Pressure vessels for water and gas storage can also be produced
using this technique. The ratio between rotational and translational speeds gives
the winding angle.
The materials used with this technique are similar to those of pultrusion
and adequate to the specific processing conditions. The size of the products
made by filament winding can vary from 100 mm to 5000 mm (or even more),
the latter being more frequently used in civil engineering when in situ
techniques are required. Please note that before any mould takes place, a
MELINEX® film is wound, and a gel-coat with a surface mat may be applied
(a chemical-resistant layer with CSM may also be applied after the gel-coat, if
necessary).

7.6 Filament winding process.

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 205

7.5.7 Cold press

In the cold press technique, a set of layers (chopped strand mat, woven-roving or
preforms) is placed inside the mould, under pressure, to be impregnated with resin
and cured. Alternatively, fibre preforms can be used. The type of materials used is
similar to those used in hand lay-up, bearing in mind the specificity of the resin
system to allow a faster cure.

7.5.8 Hot plate press

With hot plate press technology (Fig. 7.7), it is possible to process different semi-
products, either thermosetting moulding compounds (BMC, bulk moulding
compound; DMC, dough moulding compound; SMC, sheet moulding compound),
thermosetting prepregs (glass or carbon fibre epoxy) or thermoplastic semi-
products (LFT, long fibre thermoplastics and towpregs). The technique implies
the placement of the semi-products inside the mould, after which a release system
is applied, followed by the application of pressure and temperature, according to
a specific set of conditions relating to pressure, temperature and time of application.
Some typical products for civil engineering applications obtained with this
manufacturing technique are presented in Fig. 7.8.

7.7 Hot plate press (Composite Materials Laboratory, INEGI, Porto,

Portugal).

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206 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

7.8 Products made with BMC or DMC.

7.5.9 Resin transfer moulding

Resin transfer moulding (RTM) is the designation for a technology where, in
general, a fibre preform is placed in a female mould, the male mould closes
leaving a gap to allow the resin to be injected and to impregnate the fibres (Fig.
7.9). For processes that are similar but which have only a female mould and a
‘bag’ that may allow for the application of pressure and/or vacuum (VARI,
vacuum assisted resin injection; SCRIMP, SEAMANS Corporation resin injection
moulding process, normally used for large boats or structures), the name used to
describe this is an ‘umbrella’.
The application of injection or vacuum pressure needs to be adequate in order
to avoid voids and/or dry parts being formed. Typically, the following materials,
equipment and moulds are used:

Fibres
The fibres used are in the form of chopped strand mat (CSM) or continuous
filament mat (CFM) (300 to 600 g/m2), woven-roving (450 to 900 g/m2) or
‘COMBI’ (a combination of CSM and woven-roving). It is also possible to use a
‘COREMAT’, in order to increase specific stiffness.

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7.9 Resin Transfer Moulding process – VARTM (Estaleiros Navais de

Peniche, Portugal).

It is quite common to use preforms made by braiding, weft knitting, warp

knitting and embroidery, as well as 3D weaving or multidirectional fabrics.

Resins
The most-used resin is unsaturated polyester. The selection of the type of polyester
resin (orthophthalic, isophthalic and bisphenolic) depends upon the application,
for example the orthophthalic type used only when the required performance level
is low. The cure of the resin implies the use of an initiator (a catalyst, such as
peroxide methylethylketone) and, eventually, an accelerator (such as cobalt
octoate) and an inhibitor (such as hydroquinone), following the raw materials
suppliers’ specifications.
Although less commonly, vinyl ester and epoxy resins are also used. When fire/
smoke properties are too strict, the use of phenolic resins may be required.

Pigments and fillers

Fillers can be used, for instance, to reduce the cost or to enhance a specific
property of a product. On the other hand, pigments are used to give a specified
colour to the product.

Core materials
If the product has a sandwich construction, core materials (such as polyurethane,
polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene or polystyrene foams, honeycombs and cork)

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208 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

are used. The idea is to create a product with high specific stiffness and high
specific strength.

Release systems
The surface quality of the final product can be enhanced if an adequate release
system is used. This can be made with the following:
• release film (e.g. MELYNEX®)
• PVA – polyvinyl alcohol
• wax

Equipment
Depending upon the type of RTM, the following equipment may be used:
• vacuum pump
• pressure equipment
• pot
• valves, pipes and nozzles

Moulds
In the case of an RTM with resin injection and vacuum applied, when high quality
products (with tight tolerances) are required, a male and female metallic mould is
used. However, a composite mould may also be used.
For SCRIMP or VARTM techniques, a female mould made with composite or
metallic materials, can be used, together with a vacuum bag. This technique, although
of relatively low investment, can manufacture products with higher fibre volume
content than the hand lay-up process, as well as producing fewer voids, a better
surface finish and tighter tolerances. Moreover, the technique requires less manpower.
Considering the size of products normally required for civil engineering
applications, SCRIMP can be an interesting alternative.

7.5.10 Injection moulding

Injection moulding is particularly suitable for high volume productions. Basically,
the composite material is carried by a screw through a heated barrel and is injected,
under a given pressure, into a metallic mould. The shape and size of the screw
depends upon the type of matrix – thermoplastic or thermosetting.
In the case of a composite compound with a thermoset matrix, care must be
taken to avoid premature curing inside the barrel.
The most common compounds and moulding parameters are presented in
Tables 7.6 and 7.7 for thermoplastic and thermoset matrices respectively.

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Some typical products for civil engineering applications obtained with this
manufacturing technique are presented in Fig. 7.10.

Table 7.6 Thermoset moulding compounds for compression moulding

Type Description Matrix Fibre Vf (%) Processing

parameters

BMC Bulk Moulding Unsaturated Glass plus 15–25 Pressure

Compound polyester fillers (MPa): 1–15
Temperature
(°C): 130–170
DMC Dough Unsaturated Glass plus 10–25
Moulding polyester fillers
Compound

Table 7.7 Thermoplastic composite for injection moulding

Type Description Matrix

SFRTP Short (up to 2 mm) Fibre (glass or carbon) PP, PEAD, PC, PA, PET,
Reinforced Thermoplastic, with Vf up to 50% PEEK, PVC, POM, ABS
LFT Long (10m) Fibre (glass or carbon) PP, PEAD, PC, PA, PET,
Reinforced Thermoplastic, with Vf up to 30% PEEK, PVC, POM, ABS

7.10 Injection moulding products made with SFRTP or LFT.

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210 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

7.6 Strengthening of structures

7.6.1 Adhesive bonding
Fibrous materials reinforced composites can be used to strengthen concrete
structures (Fig. 7.11).

7.11 Strengthening of concrete using CFRP thin profiles.

The technology is used either to increase the load-carrying capacity of current

concrete structures (e.g. bridges) or to cater for degradation problems (such as
cracking, or the corrosion of metal reinforcement). Normally, a continuous band
of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy or vinyl ester resin (CFRP) is produced by
pultrusion, being subsequently bonded to the concrete structure. The bonding
technology can be applied using either room temperature or high-temperature
adhesives. With high-temperature curing adhesives, the strengthened structure
can withstand working conditions with higher temperatures.
Besides the strengthening application, the adhesive technology can also be
used to join different products (such as pipes and profiles).

7.6.2 In situ technology

The strengthening technology can be applied in the in situ manufacturing and curing
of strengthening bands. Different materials and application technologies are available
but, basically, they imply the use of dry or slightly impregnated fabrics, which are
applied to the concrete structure using a liquid thermoset resin (Fig. 7.12).
The typical application procedure is as follows:
• Surface defects are removed mechanically, alternatively we can fill the defects
using an adhesive paste.
• Cleaning of the surfaces to be strengthened using acetone.
• Mix the cure system with the resin.

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 211

7.12 Strengthening of concrete structures – bridge (Bridge Na S.a da

Guia = Ponte de Lima, Portugal).

• Lay and impregnate individual fibre layers (e.g. carbon fabrics), sequentially.
• Cure and, eventually, post-cure according to resin supplier’s instructions.
A completely different situation can be described for the reinforcement of
concrete pillars and columns. Here, the intention can also be the design of a
structure with much better performance in terms of its anti-seismic behaviour. The
most common situation can be seen in Fig. 7.13. The filament winding technique
is used, but the ‘mandrel’ (i.e. the column to be reinforced) does not rotate.
However, the moving carriage, in addition to its longitudinal movement, rotates
around the column to be reinforced. In general, carbon fibres impregnated with an
epoxy resin are used, and the final product has high-volume fibre content.

7.7 Properties of composite material laminates

Using different processing techniques, it is possible to produce composite
materials laminates within a large range of values. The final properties depend
upon the type of fibre, the type of resin, the type of fillers, the fibre-volume
content Vf (related to the process and type of fibre construction), the orientation of
the fibres, the stacking sequency and the void content (an indication of the quality
of the laminate). Table 7.8 show the mechanical, physical and thermal properties
of some typical laminates.

7.8 Conclusions
The production techniques for fibrous materials reinforced composites can be
used in the manufacture of a large range of products for civil engineering
applications. They may vary from low load carrying products to highly demanding

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 Table 7.8 Properties of typical composite materials laminates

Property Specific Young’s Tensile Fracture εr (%) Tmax α (10−6/°K) Vf (%) *Relative
weight modulus strength toughness K1C Service (°C) cost/kg
Laminate (Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa.m-−1/2)

GFRP
Epoxy/UD glass: 3–20 1–4 120–200 8–10 70 10–15
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Longitudinal 1.90 42 750

Transverse 1.90 12 50
GFRP
Polyester/glass UD: 90–130 8–10 50 3–10
Longitudinal 1.93 38 750 1.8
Transverse 1.93 10 22 02
GFRP
Polyester/CSM 1.4–1.6 7–9 75–95 1–3 90–130 30 1
GFRP
Polyester/glass 90–140 10–12 50
Woven: 2–6
Longitudinal 1.7–1.8 20 600
Transverse 1.7–1.8 19 550
AFRP
Epoxy/Aramide UD: ∼2 120–200 −0.3–0.5 50
Longitudinal 1.3–1.5 60 1100
Transverse 1.3–1.5 8 35
AFRP
Epoxy/Aramide Woven: 120–200 −4.0–5.5 50
Longitudinal 1.3–1.4 30 500
Transverse 1.3–1.4 30 450
 CFRP – High-strength carbon fibre
Epoxy/UD: 120–200 −0.1 60 20–30
Longitudinal 1.5–1.7 130–200 1750–2000 10–100
Transverse 1.5–1.7 8–10 25–40 2–80
CFRP – High-strength carbon fibre
Epoxy/Woven: 120–200 −0.5 60 20–30
Longitudinal 1.5–1.7 70 800
Transverse 1.5–1.7 65 750
CFRP – Intermediate modulus
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

carbon fibre
Epoxy/UD: 120–200 60 20–30
Longitudinal 1.5–1.7 170 2400
Transverse 1.5–1.7 9 80
CFRP – Intermediate modulus
carbon fibre
Epoxy/Woven: ∼1 120–200 60 20–30
Longitudinal 1.5–1.7 90 900
Transverse 1.5–1.7 90 850
DMC/BMC 1.8–2 10–14 30–70 3–6 1–2 120–190 20–30* 10–25 2–3
SMC 1.75–2 10–14 50–100 4–12 2–3.5 150–200 15–30* 10–40 3–4
214 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering

7.13 In situ strengthening of columns (The ROBO Wrapper I™).

ones, with requirements ranging from merely aesthetics to strengthening or

increasing the performance of concrete structures. Depending upon the specific
requirements, the technology selection will be made regarding the possibility of
creating a product with low- or high-volume content, adequate specific strength
and stiffness, adequate chemical resistance and adequate size and shape. For
similar applications, a procedure is needed to adequately select materials and
evaluate the technologies.
Bearing in mind that civil engineers are now more open to the use of fibrous
materials reinforced composites, and considering the possibilities provided by the
textile technology in terms of producing different fabrics and preforms, it is likely
that different types of composite materials and related technologies will be used
in the future for civil engineering applications. Moreover, the ease with which
fibrous materials reinforced composites can be processed, may be exploited in
remote areas and in developing countries using the so-called appropriate
technologies. In other words, use local resources (such as natural fibres and resins)
and/or recovered materials (e.g. convert plastic bags into composite matrices) to
produce corrugate or flat sheets, or other products, with an adapted technology.
This can help to give people a better life and contribute to a more sustainable
world.

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 Fibrous materials reinforced composites production techniques 215

7.9 Bibliography
1. F. L. Mathew and R. D. Rawlings, Composite Materials: Engineering and Science.
London: Chapman & Hall, 1995.
2. P. C. Powell, Engineering with Fibre-Polymer Laminates. London: Chapman & Hall,
1994.
3. C. A. Dostal, Engineering Materials Handbook – Vol. 1: Composites. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press (ASM International), 1987
4. Technomic, The Composite Materials Handbook (MIL-17), 3 volumes. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press, 1999
5. J. A. Quinn, Composites Design Manual. Liverpool: James Quinn Associates, 2007
6. J. L. Clarke (ed.), Structural Design of Polymer Composites. EUROCOMP Design
Code and Handbook. London: E&FN Spon, 1996
7. G. Akovali, Handbook of Composite Fabrication, Shrewsbury: RAPRA Technology,
2001
8. R. M. Christensen, Mechanics of Composite Materials. New York: Dover Publications,
2005 (ISBN: 0–486–44239-X).
9. A. Kelly (and C. Zweben (eds)), Comprehensive Composite Materials. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, 2000 (ISBN: 0–08–042993–9).
10. S. W. Tsai (ed.), Strength and Life of Composites. Stanford: JEC Composites, 2008
(ISBN: 978–0–9819143–0–5).
11. D. Gay and S. V. Hoa, Composites Materials: Design and Applications (2nd edn),
Baton Rouge, FL: CRC Press, 2007 (ISBN: 978–1–4200–4519–2).
12. M. Ashby, H. Shercliff and D. Cebon, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and
Design (1st edn). Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007 (ISBN 978–0–7506–8391–3)
13. M. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design (3rd edn). Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2005 (ISBN 0–7506–6168–2).
14. M. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art and Science of Material
Selection in Product Design. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002 (ISBN 0–7506–
5554–2).
15. Granta’s CES EduPack 2009. Cambridge: Granta Design, 2009.

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