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CONTENTS
2. Current Electricity 12
5. Electromagnetic Induction 20
6. Alternating Current 22
7. Light 26
8. Modern Physics 35
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
2. Electric field
→
→ F
(a) E=
q0
→ 1 q ^
(b) Electric field due to a point charge: (i) E = . r (if charge q is placed at the origin)
4πε 0 r 2
→ →
→ 1 q( r − r 0) →
(ii) E= (if charge q is placed at some point having position vector r0)
4 πε0 → → 3
| r− r0|
(c) [E] = [M1L1T–3A–1]
4. Electric dipole
(a) dipole moment p = q(2l) (where 2l = length of the dipole)
1 2pr
(b) Eaxial = (r = distance of axial point w.r.t. centre of dipole)
[
4πε 0 r 2 − l 2 2 ]
1 2p
≅ (if r >>l)
4πε 0 r 3
1 p 1 p
(c) Eequat. = ≈ (if r >>l)
2
[
4πε 0 r + l 2 ]
3/ 2 4πε 0 r 3
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
(iii) Ez =
(
1 p 3z 2 − r 2 )
4πε 0 r5
→ → →
(g) Torque on a dipole : (i) τ = p x E ; (ii) τ = pE sin θ
→ →
(h) Potential energy of a dipole: (i) U = − p . E = − pE cos θ
(ii) Work done in rotating a dipole from angle θ1 to angle θ2
W = U2 – U1 = pE (cos θ1 – cos θ2)
5. Electric flux
→ →
(a) dφ = E . dS
→ →
(b) φ ∫ E . dS = EA cos θ (If electric field is constant over the whole surface)
2
(c) Unit of φ = (Nm /Coulomb) = J.m/Couplomb
1 3 –3 –1
(d) [φ]= [M L T A ]
→ →
q
6. Gauss’s Law: ∫ E . dS =
ε0
7. Electric field due to various systems of charges
r 1 q
(a) Isolated Charge: E=
4 π ε0 r 2
q Fig. 1 P
E⊥ y• E|| → 1 2p
→
+++
+ + q
+ R +
+ + 1 qx
(c) A ring of charge:+ • •P E=
+
+
+
x (
4π ε 0 R 2 + x 2 )
3/ 2
+ +
+
+ + ++ Fig. 4
+
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
+ ++
+ +q
+ R +
+ + σ x
(d) A disc of charge:
+ • •P E= 1 −
+ x 2ε 0
+ x + R2
2
+
+ +
+ + Fig. 5
++ +
+
+
+ σ
(e) Infinite sheet of charge: + E=
+ σ 2ε 0
+
+
Fig. 6
+ λ
(f) Infinitely long line of charge: E=
+ •P 2π ε 0 x
+ x
+ λ
Fig. 7
+
+
+ α λ
(g) Finite line of charge: P E⊥= (sin α + sin β)
+ β 4 π ε0 x
+
+ λ
E||= (cos α+cos β)
4 π ε0
x
Fig. 8
+ + +
+ + q
+ R
(h) Charged spherical shell: + + (i) Inside: 0 ≤ r ≤ R
+ + E=0
+ + (ii) Outside: r ≥ R
+ + + q
E=
Fig. 9 4π ε 0 r 2
+ +
+ R
(i) Solid sphere of charge: + (i) Inside: 0 ≤ r ≤ r
++ + + +
+ + ++ E = ρr/3ε0
(ii) Outside : r ≥ R
2
Fig. 10 ρR R
E=
3ε 0 r
QUEST - Power Coaching for IITJEE 5
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
8. Force on a charged conductor: The force per unit area or electric pressure
dF σ 2
Pelec. = =
dA 2ε 0
4T σ 2
9. Charged soap bubble: (a) Pin – Pout = −
r 2ε 0
4T σ 2
(b) If air pressure inside and outside are assumed equal then: Pin = Pout and =
r 2ε 0
8ε 0 T σ2r
or r= or T = or σ = √(8ε0T/r) or Q = 8πr√(2ε0rT)
σ2 8ε 0
2 2 1/3
or r = [Q /128π ε0T]
(iii) inside: V=
(
1 q 3 R 2 − r2 )
; (iv) centre: V = 3 x 1 q = 1.5 Vsurface
4πε0 3 2 4π ε0 R
2R
(k) Common potential (Two spheres joined by thin wire)
1 Q1 + Q2
(i) common potential V=
4π ε 0 r +r
1 2
r1 (Q1 + Q 2 ) rQ r2 Q
(ii) q1 = = 1 ; q2 =
(r1 + r2 ) r1 + r2 r1 + r2
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
q1 r1 σ1 r2
(iii) = or =
q 2 r2 σ 2 r1
1
13. Energy density of electrostatic field: u = ε0E 2
2
CAPACITANCE
14. Capacitance:
(a) C = (q/V)
(b) Unit of C = farad (F)
–1 –2 4 2
(c) Dimensions of C = [M L T A ]
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
1 1 1 1
(c) = + +
C C1 C 2 C 3
(d) For two capacitors in series: C = C1C2/(C1 + C2)
(e) Energy stored: U = U1 + U2 + U3
ε 0 A K1 + K 2 K1 K2 d
(c) C=
d 2
A/1 A/2
Fig. 11
K1 d/2
2ε A K K
(d) C = 0 1 2 K2 d/2
d K1 + K 2
A/2 A/2
Fig. 12
ε0 A 2K 2 K 3 K2 d
(e) C= K1 + K1
4d K 2 + K 3 K3 d
ε0A
(g) C= K1 K2 K3
t1 t2 t3
K + K + K
1 2 3
t1 t2 t3
Fig. 14
23. Spherical capacitor with inner sphere grounded
4π ε 0 r1 r2
(a) C= + 4 π ε0 r2
(r2 − r1 )
(b) Charge on inner sphere = –q1, while charge on outer sphere = +q2
r
(c) Magnitude of charge on inner sphere: q1 = 1 q2
r2
24. Insertion of dielectric slab
(a) Battery remains connected when slab is introduced
(i) V’ = V; (ii) C’ = KC ; (iii) Q’ = KQ ; (iv) E’ = E; (v) U’ = KU
(b) Battery is disconnected after charging the capacitor and slab is introduced
(i) Q’ = Q; (ii) C’ = KC ; (iii) E’ = E/K; (iv) V’ = V/K; (v) U’ = U/K
25. Charge transfer, Common potential and energy loss when two capacitors are connected
C V + C 2 V2 q1 + q 2
(a) Common potential: V = 1 1 =
C1 + C 2 C1 + C 2
C1C 2
(b) Charge transfer: ∆q = (V1 − V2 )
C1 + C 2
1 C1C 2
(c) Energy loss: ∆U = (V1 − V2 )2
2 C1 + C 2
26. Charging and discharging of a capacitor
–t/RC
(a) Charging: (i) q = q0 (1–e ) ; (ii) V = V0 (1–e–t/RC); (iii) I = I0e–t/RC;
(iv) I0 = V0/R
–t/RC –t/RC –t/RC
(b) Discharge: (i) q = q0e ; (ii) V = V0e ; (iii) I = – I0e
(b) Time constant: τ = RC
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Electric Current
(a) I = (q/t); (b) I = (dq/dt); (c) I = (ne/t); (d) q = ∫ IdT
3. Current density
(a) J = (I/A); (b) J = nevd; (c) J = σE; (d) µ = (vd/E); (e) σ =neµ
W E
5. Cell: (a) E = ; (b) I = ; (c) V = E – Ir (where V = IR)
Q r+R
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
2 2 4
R 2 l 1 A1 l 2 A1 r
= x = = = 1 [ Q l1A1 = l2A2]
R 1 l 2 A 2 l 1 A 2 r2
nE E
12. Cells in series: I = = (if n r <<R)
nr + R R
E E
13. Cells in parallel: I = = (if r << R)
(r / n ) + R R
nE
= (if r >>R)
r
14. Mixed Combination (m rows with each containing n cells in series)
nE mnE
(a) I= = ;
(nr / m) + R nr + m R
(b) I is maximum when n r = m R ;
mnE
(c) Imax =
2 mnrR
m1 Z1 m1 W1 Z W
(ii) As = and = ; so 1 = 1
m 2 Z2 m 2 W2 Z 2 W2
βθ 2
16. Thermo e.m.f. : e = αθ + (where θ = θH = θC)
2
α de
17. Neutral temperature: θN = – = 0
β dθ θΝ
θ1 + θ C
18. Temperature of inversion: θ Ν = [ Q θI – θN = θN – θC]
2
de
19. Thermoelectric power or Seebeck Coefficient: S = =α + βθ
dθ
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
∆Q/time
(ii) Thomson coefficient, σ =
I ∆θ
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
µ 0 2M
25. Magnetic moment of circular coil: (a) M = NIA ; (b) Field: B=
4π x 3
26. Field due to an arc of current:
(a) B = (µ0Il/4πR2) ;
(b) B = (µ0Iθ/4πR)
(c) At the centre of a semicircular coil: B = (µ0I/4R)
µ0I
27. Field due to finite length of wire: B = (sin φ1 + sin φ2)
4πa
2 2 µ0I
28. Field at the centre of a square loop: B =
πl
→ → → →
29. Ampere’s law: (a∫) ∫
B . d l = µ0 I ; (b) H. d l =1
32. Field due to a toroid: (a) inside: B=µ0nI – µ0NI/2πR ; (b) outside: B = 0
→ → →
33. Force on electric current: F = H x B
F µ 0 I1 I 2
34. Force between two parallel conductors: =
l 2πd
35. Comparison of magnetic and electric forces between two moving charges: (Fmagnetic/Felectric) =
2 2
(v /c )
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
→
36. Force on a current loop in a magnetic field: F = 0 (any shape)
→ → →
37. Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field: τ = M x B or τ M B sin θ
39. Ammeter:
(a) Shunt resistance S = (IgG/ I– Ig);
(b) Length of shunt wire, l = S πr2/ρ;
(c) Effective resistance of ammeter, RA = GS/(G+S);
(d) For an ideal ammeter, RA = 0
40. Voltmeter:
V
(a) High resistance in series, R = − G ;
Ig
(b) For converted Voltmeter, RV = R + G;
(c) For an ideal Voltmeter, RV = ∞
→ →
(b) When angle between v and B is θ:
(i) path=helical ; (ii) r = (mv⊥/qB) = (mv sin θ/qB);
2πm
(iii) ν = (qB/2πm); (iv) T = ; (v) ω = (qB/m);
qB
(vi) pitch p = 2πr/tan θ (where tan θ = (v⊥/v ||)
43. Cyclotron:
(i) T = (2πm/qB) ;
(ii) ν = (qB/2πm) ;
(iii) ω = (θB/m) ;
(iv) radius of particle acquiring energy E, r = [√(2mE)/qB];
(v) velocity of particle at radius r, v = qBr/m;
(vi) the maximum kinetic energy (with upper limit of radius = R)
1 q 2 B2 R 2
K max =
2 m
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
µ 0 q v sin θ
(b) B=
4π r2
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
µ0 m
54. Field due to a pole: B =
4π r 2
55. Field due to a bar magnet:
µ 0 2 Mr µ 0 2M
(a) Axial point: B = = (if r > > l)
(
4π r 2 − l 2 )
2 4π r 3
µ0 M µ0 M
(b) Equatorial point: B = =
(
4π r 2 + l 2 )3/ 2 4π r3
µ0 M
(c) At arbitrary point: B = 1 + 3 cos 2 θ
4π r 3
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
→ →
57. Potential energy of a dipole in magnetic field: U = − M . B = – MB cos θ
(a) B = BH tan θ;
2r B H
(b) I = K tan θ, where K =
µ0n
I
59. Vibration magnetometer: T = 2π
M BH
until
make it happen!
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
60. Magnetic flux:
→ → → →
(a) dφ = B. d A = BdA cos θ; (b) φ= ∫ B . d A ;
→ → →
(c) φ = BA cos θ; (d) ∫ B . d S = 0 ; (e) V. B = 0
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
(d) M = K√(L1L2)
(if two coils of self inductances, L1 and L2 are over each other)
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
ALTERNATING CURRENT
71. A.C. Currrent and e.m.f. :
(a) I = I0 sin (ωt ± φ) ;
(b) e= e0 sin (ωt ± φ);
2I 0
(c) < I > = 0, < I >1/2 = =0.637 I0 ;
π
(d) < I 2 > I 02 / 2 ;
(e) Irms = (I0/√2) = 0.707 I0 ;
(f) form factor = π/2√2
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
(i) e = e0 sin ωt ;
(ii) I = I0 sin (ωt – φ);
–1 XL − XC
(iii) φ=tan , φ is positive for XL > XC, φ is negative for XL<XC;
R
(iv) current lags and circuit is inductive if XL < XC ;
(v) current leads and circuit is capacitive if XL < XC ; (vi) e0 = I0Z;
2 2
(vi) Impedance, Z = √[R + (XL – XC) ];
XL − XC
(viii) cos φ = (R/Z) and sin φ =
Z
73. Resonance
1
(a) Resonance frequency, ƒr =
2π LC
(b) At resonance, XL = XC, φ = 0, Z = R (minimum), cos φ = 1, sin φ = 0 and
current is maximum (=E0/R)
R R
75. Band width: ∆ƒ = or ∆ω =
2 πL L
76. Quality factor
ω ωL
(a) Q= r = r ;
∆ω R
1 1 1
(b) As ωr = , hence Qα√L, Qα and Q α ;
LC R C
1
(c) Q= ;
ω r CR
(X L )res (X C )res
(d) Q= or ;
R R
ƒ ƒr
(e) Q = r or ∆f =
∆ƒ Q
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
81. Transformer:
dφ dφ
(a) Cp = Np and es = Ns
dt dt
ep Np
(b) =
e N
s s
I ep Np
(c) Q ep Ip = es Is, so s = =
Ip
es Ns
(d) Step down: es < ep, Ns < Np and Is > Ip
(e) Step up : es > ep, Ns > Np and Is < Ip
e I
(f) Efficiency, η = s s
ep Ip
82. AC generator: e = e0 sin (2πƒt), (where e0 = NBAω)
83. DC motor:
E−e
(a) I=
R
(b) IE = Ie = I2R
e Back emf
(c) efficiency, η =
E Applied emf
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
LIGHT
1. Intensity of light
P 1
(a) Spherical wave front: (i) I = 2
, (ii) amplitude ∝
4 πr r
1 1
(b) Cylindrical wave front: (i) I ∝ , (ii) amplitude ∝
r r
(c) Plane wave front: (i) I ∝ r0, (i) A ∝ r0 (i.e. I and A are both constants)
(e) The EM wave propagating in the positive x–direction may be represented by:
Ey = E0 sin (kx – ωt) and Bz = B0 sin (kx – ωt)
8. Pointing vector
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
→ → → 1 → → → →
(a) S = ExH= ( E x B ) = c 2ε 0 ( E x B )
µ0
2 2
(b) S = cε0E = √(ε0/µ0)E
(c) I = S and S = cu
(d) Impedance of free space, Z = √ (µ0/ε0) ≅ 377 ohm
9. Pressure of EM Radiation
(a) Change in momentum (normal incidence)
U S A∆t
∆p = = (absorber)
c c
2 U S A∆t
∆p = = (reflector)
c c
S
P= =u (absorber)
c
2S
P= = 2u (reflector)
c
1S 1
P= = u (absorber)
3 c 3
2 S 2
P= = u (reflector)
3 c 3
10. Quantum theory of light:
(a) Energy of photon, E = hν = hc/λ
E h
(b) Momentum, p = =
c λ
(c) Rest mass of photon = 0
2
(d) Mass equivalent of energy, m = (E/c )
360
n= − 1 (whatever may be location of the object)
θ
0 0
(b) When 360 is exactly divisible by θ and 360/θ) is an odd integer, then the number of images
formed is
360
n= − 1 (for symmetrical placement)
θ
360
= (for unsymmetrical placement)
θ
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
0
(c) When 360 is not exactly divisible by θ, then the number of images formed is
= integer value of n (where n = 360/θ)
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
21. Dispersion:
(a) δred < δviolet because ηred < ηviolet
(b) Angular dispersion: θ = δV – δR = (ηV–ηR)A
δ V − δ R ηV − ηR ηB − ηR
(c) Dispersive power: ω = = = (In practice)
δY ηY − 1 ηY − 1
AF η − ηCR
(e) Deviation without dispersion: (i) θC + θF = 0 or, = − CV
AC η FV − ηFR
ωF δ
(ii) Also, = − CY
ωC δ FY
(b) amax = a1 + a2
2
(c) Imax ∝ (a1 + a2)
2
(d) Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 √ (I1I2) = (√I1 + √I2)
(e) Imax = 4I0 ; If I1 = I2 = I0
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
λ
(b) Angular fringe width, α =
d
β air λ air
(c) βliquid = air
or λliquid = air
ηliquid ηliquid
3
(d) βwater = βair
4
28. When a thin shit is introduced in the path of one of the interfering waves:
(a) (η–1) t = nλ
(b) Shift of the central fringe =
(η − 1) t β
λ
I max − I min
29. Fringe visibility: V =
I max − I min
30. Frensel’s biprism:
(a) d = 2a (η–1) α ; (b) d = √(d1d2)
(c) β = (Dλ/d); (d) dliquid < dair, for example, dwater = dair/4
ηg − 1
(e) βliquid > βair ; βliquid = βair
ηg − ηt
31. Newton’s rings:
(a) Diameter of nth dark fringe, Dn = √(4nλR)
D 2n +p − D 2n D 2 − D 2n
(b) λ= and η = n2+ p
4 pR D' n + p − D' 2n
33. Diffraction:
(a) a sin θ = nλ (a = width of slit)
(b) Half angular width of central maxima, θ = sin–1 (λ/a)
2
sin φ
(c) Intensity distribution of the screen I = I0
φ
πa y
where, φ = and I0 = Intensity at central point of screen
λD
1.22 λ
(d) Limit of resolution of telescope: θ =
a
1 a
(e) Resolving power of telescope = =
θ 1.22λ
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
I v ƒ ƒ−v
(d) Linear magnification: m = =− = =
o u ƒ−u ƒ
v2
(e) Longitudinal magnification: m = −
u2
1 2 (η − 1)
(e) Biconvex or biconcave lens of the same radii for two surfaces: =
ƒ R
I v ƒ−v ƒ
(f) Linear magnification: m = = = =
O u ƒ ƒ+u
1
(g) Power of lens: P=
ƒ
(h) Lenses in contact:
1 1 1
(i) = + ; (ii) P = P1 + P2
ƒ ƒ1 ƒ 2
1 1 1 d
(iii) For lenses separated by a distance d = = + −
ƒ ƒ1 ƒ 2 ƒ1ƒ 2
ω ω'
(i) Achromatic lens combinations: Condition of achromatism, =−
ƒy ƒ 'y
36. Silvering at one surface:
1 1 1 1 2 2 (η - 1) R η
(a) = + + = =
F ƒl ƒ m ƒl ƒl R
Fig. 1
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
η R
1 2 1 (η − 1) 2 2n
(b) = + =2 + = R
F ƒl ƒ m R R
Fig. 2
1 R1 η R2
1 2 1 1 2
(c) = + = 2(η − 1) + +
F ƒl ƒ m R1 R 2 R 2
Fig. 3
37. Optical Instruments
(a) Astronomical Telescope:
ƒ0
(i) For normal adjustment: m =
ƒe
ƒ0 ƒ
(ii) For near–point adjustment: m = 1 + e
ƒe D
(b) Simple Microscope:
D
(i) For normal adjustment: m =
ƒ
D
(ii) For near–point adjustment = m = 1+
ƒ
(c) Compound Microscope:
D
v0
(i) For normal adjustment: m =
ƒe
u0
v D
(ii) For near–point adjustment: m = 0 1 +
u0 ƒe
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
MODERN PHYSICS
CATHODE RAYS AND POSITIVE RAYS
1. Cathode rays
(a) Thomson identified cathode rays as an electron beam.
11
(b) Specific charge q/m as measured by Thomson is: (q/m) = 1.759 x 10 Coulomb/Kg
2. Positive rays
(a) Positive rays were discovered by Goldstein.
(b) (q/m) for positive rays is much less than that of electrons.
5. Mass spectrographs
(a) Thomson’s mass spectrograph
(i) Traces on the screen are parabolic in nature
(ii) Inner parabola corresponding to heavy M white outer parabola to light M.
(iii) The upper portion of parabola is due to small v ions, while lower portion is due to high v ions.
(iv) Only v = ∞ ions can reach vertex of parabola.
2 2
(v) Equation of parabola: X = (B LD/E) (q/M) Y = K (q/M) Y
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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Work function W
6. Threshold frequency: v0 = =
h h
c hc hc
7. Threshold wavelength: λ0 = = =
v 0 hv 0 W
(To calculate λ0, use hc = 1240 (eV) (nm) = 1.24 x 10–6 eV) (m)
(a)
2
number of photons per sec per m , np =
(
Intensity Watt/m 2)
hv
Power (Watt )
(b) number of photons incident per second, np =
hv
(c) number of electrons emitted per second = (efficiency of surface) x number of photons incident per
second.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2 Ze2 1
14. Distance of closest approach: r0 = (where E = mu2 = KE of the
(4π ε0 )E 2
α–particle)
15. Bohr’s atomic model
nh
(a) L = mvr =
2π
hc
(b) hv = Ei = Ef =
λ
(c) Radius of nth orbit:
n2 n2 h2
(i) rn ∝ , (ii) rn =
Z 4 π 2 m ke 2
Z
2 2 2
(iii) Bohr’s radius: a0 = (h /4π mke ) = 0.529 Å
1 1
(iv) Ratio of radii: r1:r2 : r3 = 1 : 4 : 9 ; rN : rHe+ : rLi++ = 1 : : =6:3:1
2 3
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1 1 1 2π 2 m k 2 e 4
= RZ 2 2 − 2 where R = = 1.097 x 10 7 m -1
λ n 3
1 n2 ch
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MATTER WAVES
34. For photons:
(a) E = hv = (hc/λ) ;
(b) p = (hv/c) = (E/c) = (h/λ) ;
2 2
(c) m = (E/c ) = (hv/c ) = h/cλ
(d) rest mass = 0, charge = 0, spin = 1 (h/2π)
12.27
(b) (i) For electron λe = Å
V
0.286
(ii) For proton, λp = Å
V
0.101
(iii) For alpha particle λα = Å
V
h 3
(c) For particle at temperature T : λ = E = kT
3 m KT 2
(i) For neutron or proton: λ = (25.2/√T) Å [if E = (3/2) kT, average energy]
30.8
but λ= Å [if E = kT, most probable energy]
T
12.27
(d) The wavelength of electron accelerated by potential difference of V volts is: λe = Å
v
Hence, accelerating potential required for obtaining de Broglie wavelength for as electron is:
150.6
V= volt
λ2e
(e) Condition for obtaining stable orbit: 2πrn = nλ
(f) The phase velocity of a de Broglie wave of wavelength λ and frequency v is
Ε h mc 2 h c2
v p = vλ = x = x = i.e. v p > c.
h mv h mv v
(g) Group velocity, vg = (dω/dk). It is found that group velocity is equal to particle velocity i.e., v g = v
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Formula Booklet – Physics XII
RADIOACTIVITY
Decay law: (a) (dN/dt) = – λN ; (b) N = N0 e λ ; (c) (N/N0) = (1/2)
– t t/T
36.
39. Activity:
R = |dN/dt| ; (b) R = λN ; (c) R = R0e λ ; (d) (R/R0) = (1/2) ;
– t t/T
(a)
10
(e) 1 Becquerel = 1 dps ; (f) 1 curie = 1 ci = 3.7 x 10 dps;
6 6
(g) 1 Rutherford = 1Rd = 10 Rd = 10 dps
–µx
43. Gamma intensity absorption: (a) I = I0e ; (b) Half value thickness, x1/2 = (0.693/µ)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
44. Atomic mass unit: (a) 1 amu = 1.66 x 10–27 kg ; (b) 1 amu ≡ 1u ≡ 931.5 MeV
47. Packing fraction: ƒ = ∆/A = mass excess per nucleon [∆ = –∆M = mass excess]
2
48. Binding energy: ∆E = BE = (∆M)c
ELECTRONICS
50. Richarson equation
2 –W/KT
(a) J = AT e where A = 60 x 104 A/K2m2
2 11600 W/T –23 –5
(b) J = AT e [∴ K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10 J/K = 8.62 x 10 eV/K
Hence, 1/K = 11600 kelvin/eV]
(c) I = AT2Se–W/KT
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3/2
51. Child’s law: Ip = KVp [K = constant of proportionality]
58. Transistor:
(a) IE = IC + IB (IB << IE, IB << IC)
(b) (i ) α = ΙC , α ac = ∆IC
Current gains:
ΙE ∆ΙΕ
ΙC ∆ IC
(ii ) β= , βac =
IB ∆ IB
β α
(c) Relation between α and β: α = or β=
1+ β 1− α
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