Circulation of the

Atmosphere
 Key Ideas In This Chapter

 The interaction of ocean and atmosphere moderates surface temperatures, shapes

Earth's weather and climate, and creates most of the sea's waves and currents.

 Different amounts of solar energy are absorbed at different latitudes. The tropics are
warmer than the polar regions because of this difference.

 Uneven solar heating causes convection currents to form in the atmosphere. The
direction of air flow in these currents is influenced by the rotation of Earth.

 To observers on the surface, Earth's rotation causes moving air (or any moving
mass) in the Northern Hemisphere to curve to the right of its initial path, and in the
Southern Hemisphere to the left. The apparent curvature of path is known as the
Coriolis effect.

 Each hemisphere has three large atmospheric circulation cells: a Hadley cell, a
Ferrel cell, and a polar cell. Air circulation within each cell is powered by uneven
solar heating and influenced by the Coriolis effect.
 Key Ideas Continued…

 The atmosphere responds to uneven solar heating by flowing in three great

circulating cells over each hemisphere. The flow of air within these cells is
influenced by Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect).

 Large storms are spinning areas of unstable air that develop between or within air
masses. Extratropical cyclones originate at the boundary between air masses.

 Tropical cyclones, the most powerful of Earth's atmospheric storms, occur within a
single humid air mass.
The Atmosphere Is Composed Mainly of
Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Water Vapor

What are some properties of the atmosphere?

• The lower atmosphere is a fairly homogeneous mixture of gases.

• Water vapor occupies up to 4% of the volume of the atmosphere.
• The density of air is influenced by temperature and water content.

(right) Ascending air cools as it

expands. Cooler air can hold less
water, so water vapor condenses
into tiny droplets - clouds.
Descending air warms as it
compresses – the droplets (clouds)
evaporate.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Steam fog over the ocean indicates rapid evaporation.
Water vapor is invisible, but as it rises into cool air,
water vapor can condense into visible droplets.
Fig. 8-2b, p. 204
 The Atmosphere Moves in Response to
Uneven Solar Heating and Earth’s Rotation

Atmospheric circulation is powered by sunlight. Since Earth is in thermal

equilibrium, what assumption can be made about the input and output of
heat on Earth?

(above) An estimate of the heat budget for Earth. On an average day, about half of the solar
energy arriving at the upper atmosphere is absorbed at Earth’s surface. Light (short-wave)
energy absorbed at the surface is converted into heat. Heat leaves Earth as infrared (long-
wave) radiation. Since input equals output over long periods of time, the heat budget is
balanced.
© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
The Solar Heating of Earth Varies
with Latitude

How solar energy input

varies with latitude.

Equal amounts of sunlight are

spread over a greater surface
area near the poles than in the
tropics.

Ice near the poles reflects

much of the energy that
reaches the surface there.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

The Solar Heating of Earth Varies
with Latitude

Earth as a whole is in thermal equilibrium, but different

latitudes are not.
(top left) The average annual incoming solar radiation (red
line) absorbed by Earth is shown along with the average
annual infrared radiation (blue line) emitted by Earth. Note
that polar latitudes lose more heat to space than they gain,
and tropical latitudes gain more heat than they lose. Only at
about 38° N and 38° S latitudes does the amount of
radiation received equal the amount lost. Since the area of
heat gained (orange area) equals the area of heat lost (blue
areas), Earth’s total heat budget is balanced.

What factors govern the global circulation of air?

• Uneven solar heating

• The Coriolis effect

(bottom left) The ocean does not boil away near the
equator or freeze solid near the poles because heat is
transferred by winds and ocean currents from equatorial
to polar regions.
 The Solar Heating of Earth Also
Varies with the Seasons

The seasons are caused by variations in the amount of incoming solar energy as Earth
makes its annual rotation around the sun on an axis tilted by 23 ½ °. During the Northern
Hemisphere winter, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and the Northern
Hemisphere receives less light and heat. During the Northern Hemisphere summer, the
situation is reversed.
© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Spring (sun aims Winter (Northern Hemisphere
directly at equator) tilts away from sun)
To
Polaris

Summer
(Northern
Hemisphere tilts
toward sun)
Fall
(sun aims
directly at
equator)
Seasonal changes in net short-wave radiation, net long-wave
radiation/sensible heat exchange, and latent heat exchange, and the
total at 35ºN 48ºW
 Earth’s Uneven Solar Heating Results
in Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation

A convection current forms in a

room when air flows from a hot
radiator to a cold window and
back.

Air warms, expands, becomes

less dense, and rises over the
radiator. Air cools, contracts,
becomes more dense, and falls
near the cold glass window.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Descending cold air North Pole

Rising
Hot warm air

Cool

Descending cold air Fig. 8-8, p. 208

 Earth’s Uneven Solar Heating Results
in Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation

The Coriolis effect is the observed deflection of a moving object,

caused by the moving frame of reference on the spinning Earth.

How does this apply to the atmosphere?

As air warms, expands, and rises at the equator, it moves toward the
pole, but instead of traveling in a straight path, the air is deflected
eastward.

In the Northern Hemisphere air turns to the right.

In the Southern Hemisphere air turns to the left.
 The Coriolis Effect Deflects the
Path of Moving Objects

(above-left) Sketch of the thought (above-right) A continuation of the thought

experiment in the text, showing that experiment. A look at Earth from above the
Buffalo travels a shorter path on the
rotating Earth each day then Quito does. North Pole shows that Buffalo and Quito
move at different velocities.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Fig. 8-10, p. 209
The Coriolis Effect Deflects the
Path of Moving Objects

The final step in the experiment.

As observed from space,

cannonball 1 (shot northward) and
cannonball 2 (shot southward)
move as we might expect; that is,
they travel straight away from the
cannons and fall to Earth.

Observed from the ground,

however, cannonball 1 veers
slightly east and cannonball 2
veers slightly west of their
intended targets.

The effect depends on the

observer’s frame of reference.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement
of Air in Atmospheric Circulation Cells

Global air circulation as described in the six-cell circulation model. Air rises at the equator
and falls at the poles, but instead of one great circuit in each hemisphere from equator to
pole, there are three in each hemisphere. Note the influence of the Coriolis effect on wind
direction. The circulation show here is ideal – that is, a long-term average of wind flow.
The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement
of Air in Atmospheric Circulation Cells

A large circuit of air is called an atmospheric circulation cell.

Three cells exist in each hemisphere.

Hadley cells are tropical cells found on each side of the equator.
Ferrel cells are found at the mid-latitudes.
Polar cells are found near the poles.

What are some of the wind patterns found between and

within cells?

Doldrums are calm equatorial areas where two Hadley cells converge
Horse latitudes (subtropical highs) are areas between Hadley and Ferrel
cells.
Trade winds are surface winds of Hadley cells.
Westerlies are surface winds of Ferrel cells.
 Seasonal changes in the position of the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ)

?
Geographical
Geographical equator
equator

The zone does not coincide with the geographical equator (0° latitude).
Instead, it lies at the meteorological equator (or thermal equator), an
irregular imaginary line of thermal equilibrium between the hemispheres,
situated about 5° north of the geographical equator.

The zone reaches its most northerly location in July and its most southerly
location in January. Because of the thermostatic effect of water, the
seasonal north–south movement is generally less over the ocean than over
land. Fig. 8-14, p. 213
 Cell Circulation Centers on the
Meteorological (Not Geographical) Equator

Winds over the Pacific Ocean on 20 and 21

September 1996. Wind speed increases as
colors change from blue-purple to yellow-
orange, with the strongest winds at 20
meters per second (45 miles per hour). Wind
direction is shown by the small white
arrows. The measurements were made with
a NASA radar scatterometer aboard Japan’s
Advanced Earth Orbiting Satellite, launched
16 August 1996. The scatterometer
measures and analyzes the backscatter
(reflection) of high frequency radar pulses
from small wind-caused ripples on the sea
surface. Note the Hawai’ian islands in the
midst of the persistent northeast trade
winds, the vigorous westerlies driving
toward western Canada, a large
extratropical cyclone east of New Zealand,
and the last remnants of a tropical cyclone
off the coast of Japan. Although
instantaneous views such as this one depart
substantially from wind flow predicted in the
six-cell model, the average wind flow over
many years looks remarkable like what we
would expect from the model.
Table 8-1, p. 214
 Monsoons Are Wind Patterns That
Change with the Seasons

Monsoons are patterns of wind circulation that change with the

season. Areas with monsoons generally have dry winters and wet
summers.

Sea breeze is cool air from over the water moving toward land. Sea
breezes occur after sunrise.

Land breezes occur after sunset when air warmed by the land blows
toward the water.
Monsoons Are Wind Patterns That
Change with the Seasons

A monsoon is a pattern of wind

circulation that changes with the
season. (The word monsoon is derived
from mausim, the Arabic word for
season). Locations where monsoons
occur typically have wet summers and
dry winters.

(left) Monsoon patterns.

During the monsoon circulations of
January (a) and July (b), surface winds
are deflected to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. (c) Detail of
summer Asian monsoon, showing
location of Cherrapunji, India, one f the
world’s wettest places. Rainfall amounts
there can exceed 10 meters (425
inches) per year!
 Sea Breezes and Land Breezes
Arise from Uneven Surface Heating

The flow of air in coastal regions

during stable weather conditions.

(a) In the afternoon, the land is

warmer than the ocean surface, and
the warm air rising from the land is
replaced by an onshore sea breeze.

(b) At night, as the land cools, the air

over the ocean is now warmer than
the air over the land. The ocean air
rises. Air flows offshore to replace it,
generating an offshore flow (a land
breezes).
 Storms Are Variations in Large-
Scale Atmospheric Circulation

Storms are regional atmospheric disturbances. Storms have high

winds and most have precipitation.

Tropical cyclones occur in tropical regions. These storms can cause

millions of dollars worth of damage and endanger life.

Extratropical cyclones occur in Ferrel cells, and are winter weather

disturbances. These storms can also cause extensive damage.

Both types of storms are cyclones, or rotating masses of low-

pressure air.
 Extratropical Cyclones Form
between Two Air Masses

(a) The genesis and early

development of an
extratropical cyclone in the
Northern Hemisphere

(b) How precipitation

develops in an extratropical
cyclone. These
relationships between two
contrasting air mases are
responsible for nearly all
the storms generated in the
polar frontal zone and thus
responsible for the high
rainfall within these belts
and the decreased
salinities of surface waters
below.
Extratropical cyclones form at the polar front –
the boundary between each hemisphere’s
polar cell and its Ferrel cell. © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
A well-developed extratropical cyclone swirls over the northeastern Pacific on 27
October 2000. Looking like a huge comma, the cloud-dense cold front extends
southward and westward from the storm’s center. Spotty cumulus clouds and
thunder storms have formed in the cold, unstable air behind the front.
Fig. 8-20, p. 218
Waves crash over the seawall and threaten homes in Hull, Massachusetts,
during a furious nor’easter on 6 March 2001. Nor’easters are North
America’s most violent extratropical cyclones.
Fig. 8-21, p. 219
Hurricane Alberto spins in the North Atlantic east of
Bermuda. They may be 1,000 km in diameter
and 15 km high.

Fig. 8-22, pp. 218-219

Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air
Mass

The internal structure of a mature tropical cyclone, or

hurricane. (The vertical dimension is exaggerated in this
model of a hurricane.)
© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Tropical cyclones can develop in zones of high humidity and warm
are over a sea surface exceeding 26ºC, the areas shown in red on
the map.
Fig. 8-24, p. 221
Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air
Mass

The dynamics of a tropical cyclone, showing the influence of the Coriolis

effect. Note that the storm turns the “wrong” way (that is, counterclockwise)
in the Northern Hemisphere, but for the “right” reasons.

© 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

 N
Equator

Core of tropical
cyclone rotating to the
left, or counterclockwise
Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air
Mass
Classification of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are classified in accordance with the World
Meteorological Organization's recommendation by their maximum
sustained wind speeds near the centre. In Hong Kong, the classification
is defined in terms of wind speeds averaged over a period of 10 minutes
as follows :

Tropical Cyclone Maximum 10-minute

Classification mean wind near the centre
Tropical Depression up to 62 km/h
Tropical Storm 63 to 87 km/h
Severe Tropical Storm 88 to 117 km/h
Typhoon 118 to 149 km/h
Severe Typhoon* 150 to 184 km/h
Super Typhoon* 185 km/h or above
*New categories starting 2009
 Tropical Cyclones Form in One Air
Mass

The tracks of tropical cyclones. The breeding grounds of tropical cyclones are shown as
orange-shaded areas. The storms follow curving paths: First they move westward with
the trade winds. Then they either die over land or turn eastward until they lose power
over the cooler ocean of mid-latitudes. Cyclones are not spawned over the South Atlantic
or the southeast Pacific because their waters are too chilly; nor in the still air - the
doldrums - within a few degrees of the equator.
A composite of infrared satellite images of Hurricane
Georges from 18 to 28 September 1998.
The greatest natural disaster to strike the United States was the tropical cyclone
that struck Galveston, Texas on the night of 8 September 1900. The combination
of high wind, great waves, and storm surge killed about 8,000 people. Box 8-1, p. 224
The most costly natural disaster in U.S. history

Hurricane Katrina,
at Category 5,
approaches the
coasts of Louisiana
and Mississippi on
28 August 2005

Fig. 8-27, p. 225

Fig. 8-28, p. 226
Because tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
because Katrina was moving quickly northward, storm winds were most intense east
of the eye. The storm’s exceptionally low atmospheric pressure combined with high
wind speed formed a massive storm surge 8 meters (25 feet) high (shown in8-29,
Fig. red).p. 226
Fig. 8-30, p. 227
Fig. 8-31, p. 227
Fig. 8-32, p. 227
The strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic, Hurricane Wilma struck
Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula on 22 Oc to ber 2005. By this time Wilma had become a
Category 4 storm. Damage to the cities of Cozumel and Cancú n was extensive.
Fig. 8-33, p. 228
 Summary

In this chapter you learned that Earth and ocean are in continuous contact, and
conditions in one are certain to influence conditions in the other. The interaction
of ocean and atmosphere moderates surface temperatures, shapes the Earth’s
weather and climate, and creates most of the sea’s waves and currents.

The atmosphere responds to uneven solar heating by flowing in three great

circulating cells over each hemisphere. This circulation of air is responsible for
about two-thirds of the heat transfer from tropical to polar regions. The flow of
air within these cells is influenced by the rotation of the Earth. To observers on
the surface, the Earth’s rotation causes moving air (or any moving mass) in the
Northern Hemisphere to curve to the right of its initial path, and in the Southern
Hemisphere to the left. The apparent curvature of path is known as the Coriolis
effect.

Uneven flow of air within cells is one cause of the atmospheric changes we call
weather. Large storms are spinning areas of unstable air occurring between or
within air masses. Extratropical cyclones originate at the boundary between air
masses; tropical cyclones, the most powerful of Earth’s atmospheric storms,
occur within a single humid air mass. The immense energy of tropical cyclones
is derived from water’s latent heat of vaporization.