ABSTRACT

Providing clean, environmentally safe water for livestock in sufficient quantities

continues to be a major concern for farmers and ranchers. Abundant water in remote
locations in needed to insure that grasslands are grazed evenly. A solar powered water
pumping system designed for remote locations was operated to determine the performance
and reliability of the system and components. The system began pumping water (0.25
L/min) when the solar radiation intensity exceeded 300W/m2. Flow increased linearly with
radiation intensity and reached a maximum flow of 4.5L/min at an intensity of 900 W/m2.
Maximum flow was dependent on using the correct controller adjustment as well as the
radiation intensity. Daily water volumes pumped ranged from a high of 1,671 L/day to a
low of 504 L/day and average 1,105 L/day.

Solar water pumping system operate on direct current. The output of solar power system
varies throughout the day and with changes in weather conditions. Photovoltaic module,
the power source for solar pumping, have no moving parts, requires no maintenance and
last for decades. A properly designed solar pumping system will be efficient, simple and
reliable. Solar powered pumping systems are used principally for three applications town
and city water supply, livestock watering and irrigation.

1
INTRODUCTION
A solar powered pumping system methods needs to take account of the fact that demand
for irrigation system water will vary throughout the year. Peak demand during the irrigation
system seasons is often more than twice the average demand. This means that solar pumps
for irrigation are under-utilized for most of the year. Attention should be paid to the system
of irrigation water distribution and application to the crops. The irrigation pump system
should minimize water losses, without imposing significant additional head on the
irrigation pumping system and be of low cost. There are several technology alternatives for
supplying power or lift to groundwater systems including wind turbines, windmills,
generators, solar arrays, and hand powered pumps. The main driving factors for selecting
the appropriate technology are regional feasibility, water demand, system efficiencies, and
initial and long-term costs. Other factors often include the need for power and water
reserves in the form of batteries and storage tanks. Solar-powered systems are often
considered for use in developing countries instead of other forms of alternative energy
because they are durable and exhibit long-term economic benefits.

Solar powered water pumping has been recognized as suitable solution for grid-isolated
rural locations in poor countries where there are high levels of solar radiation. Solar
powered water pumping systems can provide drinking water without the need for any kind
of fuel or the extensive maintenance required by diesel pumps. SPPS is also not adequate
for large-scale irrigation, but can work for small-scale drip irrigation systems. A large-
scale SPPS can be considered one that serves over 240 peoples. Photovoltaic (PV) solar
panels are often used for agricultural operations, especially in remote areas or where the
use of an alternative energy source is desired. In particular, they have been demonstrated
time and time again to reliably produce sufficient electricity directly from solar radiation
to power livestock and irrigation watering systems.

Solar water pumps may be especially useful in small scale or community based irrigation,
as large scale irrigation requires large volumes of water that in turn require a large solar
PV array. As the water may only be required during some parts of the year, a large PV
array would provide excess energy that is not necessarily required, thus making the system
inefficient. Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and drinking water
India. The majority of the pumps are fitted with a 200 watt - 3,000 watt motor that receives
energy from a 1,800 Wp PV array. The larger systems can deliver about 140,000 liters of
water/day from a total head of 10 meters.

SOLAR WATER PUMPING PRINCIPLES

For any solar pumping system, the capacity to pump water is a function of three main
variables pressure, flow, and power to the pump.

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1. Pressure: For purposes of designing a solar pumping system, pressure can be thought of
as the work that the pump must overcome to move a certain amount of water. This is most
often expressed in either feet of head or psi (pounds per square inch). This is also referred
to as pressure loss.

Any elevation difference between the source of water and the final destination will affect
how hard the pump needs to work, or how much pressure needs to be created in order for
water to flow. A pump must create 0.433 psi for every foot of elevation increase, to be
exact. When water flows downhill, the same 0.433 psi per foot of elevation change is
gained. If there is a lot of topography, and water flows up and down and all around, the
elevation difference between the surface of the water at the source and the level of
discharge at the destination is the key figure to use to design a system in terms of how
much pressure the pump needs to produce.

Piping diameter, length, bends and restrictions such as valves also affect how much
pressure is lost and needs to be created by a pump in order for water to flow. Pressure losses
related to piping vary more dramatically with increases in flow as shown in (figure 1,
below).

2. Flow: The amount of water that a system can move during a given time period. It is
usually talked about in terms of gallons per minute (GPM) or gallons per hour. If everything
else remains the same, flow will decrease when pressure increases and vice versa. For

3
example, using the same pump and the same power set-up, if you increase the amount of
work the pump must do by elevating the discharge or using smaller diameter pipe- in other
words increasing the pressure the pump must generate, then the pump will deliver less flow
in gallons per minute (See Figure 2,below).

To determine where a pump will operate, you need to look at both the system curve
(pressure loss due to piping, length and restrictions, e.g., Figure 1) and the pump curve
(GPM of flow the pump will deliver at different pressures, e.g., Figure 2). The operating
point, or the actual amount of work (pressure x flow) the pump will do can be found by
plotting these two curves together on the same scale and axis. See Figure 3, below:

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3. Power to the pump: Every solar water pump can produce a range of flows and pressures.
Solar pumps draw a certain amount of power according to the amount of pressure that
needs to be produced to deliver the water. Power is expressed in Watts, and PV panels are
rated in Watts. When sizing a photovoltaic panel array, it makes sense to supply the amount
of power that is needed. Adding more PV than is needed might enable the pump to turn on
earlier and later in the day or under low-light conditions, but having extra PV power might
not increase the flow rate when the sun is shining in full.

5
MAIN SOLAR WATER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. The Source: Water sources can be deep drilled wells, streams, springs, ponds, rivers, etc.
The main variables, in addition to initial cost, that factor into system design are the recharge
rate of the source and the volume of the source reservoir. Ideally, the source should
recharge faster than pump can take water out of it. For example, if the pump will produce
three gallons per minute, the source should be able to recharge at a rate that is equal to or
greater than three gallons per minute. If the pump takes water away faster than the source
can recharge, the reservoir can run dry, the pump will then be run dry, and that should be
avoided to prevent damage to the pump.

2. The pump: This is the heart and soul of the solar water pumping system. Pumps fall
along a spectrum of high-flow/low-head to low-flow/high-head. In other words, for a given
power input, the pump produces a unique combination of flow and pressure. When
selecting a pump you are basically selecting that combination of performance
characteristics. Solar pumps are rated according to the voltage of electricity that should be
supplied. A 12 volt pump is a small one, 24 volt is more the norm, while 48 volts and
upwards will require more power and might pump more water. Smaller wire sizes can be
used in higher voltage systems without sacrificing power output from panels to pump.
Some pumps require certain accessories to function optimally. These include filters, float
valves, switches, etc.

3. Photovoltaic (PV) panels: The photovoltaic panels make up most (up to 80%) of the
systems cost. The size of the PV-system is directly dependent on the size of the pump, the
amount of water that is required (m³/d) and the solar irradiance available. A panel is rated
in watts of power it can produce. The SPV water pumping system should be operated with
a PV array capacity in the range of 200 Watts peak to 5000 Watts peak, measured under
Standard Test Conditions (STC). Sufficient number of modules in series and parallel could
be used to obtain the required PV array power output. The power output of individual PV
modules used in the PV array, under STC, should be a minimum of 74 Watts peak, with
adequate provision for measurement tolerances. Use of PV modules with higher power
output is preferred. Indigenously produced PV module(s) containing mono/ multi
crystalline silicon solar cells

4. Motor pump-set:
Following types of motor pump sets could be used in the SPV water pumping systems
o Surface mounted DC motor pump-set
o Submersible DC motor pump set
o Submersible AC motor pump set
o Floating DC motor pump set

5. Mounting structures and tracking system: To enhance the performance of SPV water
pumping systems, it is desirable to use a tracking system. Manual, passive and auto tracking
are permitted. The PV modules will be mounted on metallic structures of adequate strength
and appropriate design, which can withstand load of modules and high wind velocities up
to 150 km per hour. The support structure used in the pumping system will be hot dip

6
galvanized iron (G.I). The G.I. structures for mounting the Solar panels could be so
designed, that these can be manually/ auto adjusted for optimal tilt throughout the year.

6. Controller: The purpose of the controller is twofold. Firstly, it matches the output power
that the pump receives with the input power available from the solar panels. Secondly, a
controller usually provides a low voltage protection, whereby the system is switched off,
if the voltage is too low or too high for the operating voltage range of the pump. This
increases the lifetime of the pump thus reducing the need for maintenance.

7. Inverter: It changes the direct current from the solar panels into alternating current for
the pump. The supported power range of inverters extends from 0.15 to 55 kW and can
be used for larger irrigation systems. However, the panel and inverters must be sized
accordingly to accommodate the inrush characteristic of an AC motor.

8. The water distribution system: In many countries of the world, trenches are dug to
gravity feed water through an intricate network of irrigated plots or holding tanks. Here
farmers tend to use black polyethylene piping. Whatever the system is to get water from A
to B, there important thing to consider is the smaller the diameter piping and the longer the
piping run, the harder a pump has to work and the more pressure the pump must create.

SOLAR POWERED WATER PUMPING SYSTEM WORKING

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 A solar powered water pumping system is composed of several PV (photovoltaic)
panels. Solar cells are the building block for solar panels. Each solar cell has two or more
specially prepared layers of semiconducting material (generally silicon) that produce direct
current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. The DC current is collected by the
wiring in the panel. This DC current is converted to AC current by using an inverter and
this AC current is used to run an AC pump which pumps water whenever the sun shines
and the excess water could be stored in an overhead water tank for the later usage.

BENEFITS OF SOLAR WATER PUMPS

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  Solar water pumps are used for irrigation of crops, water livestock and provide
portable drinking water.
 Solar water pump uses peak solar array output which frequently coincides with high
water demand during long, dry summer days.
 In the event of cloudy weather solar water pump systems often use storage tanks to
store excess water.
 Solar water pumps do not require fuel or constant maintenance.
 Solar water pumps can also be designed for portability to be moved based on water
demand or change of season requires.
 Their operating cost is less compared to diesel pumps.
 Recent fuel price increases and generally intensive maintenance schedules however
can make diesel pumps expensive.

HOW SOLAR POWERED PUMPS SCORE OVER DIESEL PUMPS

 Simple to install
 Solar pumps are good for bore holes as they pump over the whole day
 Weak boreholes can be used effectively with a low volume pump due to pumping
8 to10 hours a day
 Require minimal attention since they are self-starting
 To increase daily water pumping rates, tracking arrays can be used
 Environment friendly
 Solar pumps offer clean solutions with no danger of borehole contamination

TYPE OF PUMPSET
1. Submerged multistage centrifugal motor irrigation pumpset: This type is probably
the most common type of solar pump used for town and city water supply. The
advantages of this configuration are that it is easy to install, often with lay-flat
flexible pipework and the motor irrigation pumpset is submerged away from
potential damage. Either ac or dc motors can be incorporated into the irrigation
pumpset although an inverter would be needed for ac systems. If a brushed dc motor
is used then the equipment will need to be pulled up from the well (approximately
every 2 years) to replace brushes. Brushless dc pump motors would require

9
 electronic commutation. The most commonly
employed system consists of an AC irrigation pump
and inverter with a solar PV panel photovoltaic array.

2 Submerged irrigation pump with surface mounted

motor: This configuration was widely installed with
turbine pumps. It gives easy access to the pump motor
for brush changing and other maintenance. The low efficiency from power losses
in the shaft bearings and the high cost of installation has been disadvantages. In
general this configuration is largely being replaced by the submersible motor and
irrigation pumpset.

3 Reciprocating positive displacement irrigation pump:

The reciprocating positive displacement pump (often
known as the jack or nodding donkey) is very suitable
for high head, low flow applications. The output is
proportional to the speed of the irrigation pump. At
high heads the frictional forces are low compared to
the hydrostatic forces often making positive
displacement pumps more efficient than centrifugal pumps for this situation.
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps create a cyclic load on the motor
which, for efficient operation, needs to be balanced. Thus, the above ground
components of the solar pump are often heavy and robust, and power controllers
for impedance matching often used.

4 Floating motor irrigation pump sets: The versatility of the floating unit set, makes
it ideal for irrigation pumping for canals and open wells. The pumpset is easily
portable and there is a negligible chance of the irrigation pump running dry. Most
of these types use a single stage submersed centrifugal irrigation pump. The most
common type utilizes a brushless (electronically commutated) dc motor. Often the
solar PV panel array support incorporates a handle or 'wheel barrow' type trolley to
enable transportation.

5 Surface suction irrigation pumpsets: This type of irrigation pumpset is not

recommended except where an operator will always be in attendance. Although the
use of primary chambers and non-return valves can prevent loss of prime, in
practice self-start and priming problems are experienced. It is impractical to have
suction heads of more than 8 meters.

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SOLAR POWERED PUMPING SYSTEM DESIGN SETPS

1. Determine needed flow,

2. Determine needed pressure
3. Select a pump that will provide the needed flow and pressure
4. Supply enough PV capacity to power the pump to provide the needed flow and
pressure.

Step one: Determine needed flow

Flow is the amount of water you need, and how much water you need to irrigate or
supply to your animals in one minute or one hour. Think of your needed flow in terms of
gallons per hour or gallons per minute

Step two: Determine needed pressure

Determine this as total pressure in psi (pounds per square inch) or feet of head. Total
pressure needed is a combination of:

A) Psi to overcome elevation difference (equivalent to 0.433 times the elevation difference
in feet between the water level of the source and the discharge at destination).
B) Psi needed to force water through any filters, special valves, or irrigation fittings.
C) Psi needed to overcome friction loss in piping.

Consult the filter, valve or fitting manufacturers for estimates of psi needed to force
water through these components at the desired flow rate. Friction loss through piping
depends on how much water flows through the pipe, what type of piping, the length of
pipe, number of bends or restrictions and what diameter of piping is used.

Step three: Select a pump that will provide the needed flow and pressure

Pumps are rated to produce a certain flow at a certain pressure when supplied a certain
amount of power. When referencing the pump specs, first make sure that the pump will
provide the amount of pressure you determined is needed. Then move along the table or
pump curve graph to determine whether or not the pump will produce the required flow
at the needed pressure. If flow is not sufficient at the particular pressure you need the
pump to produce, then you will need to use a different model or different type of pump.

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CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDY 1

1.1 OBJECTIVE

Photovoltaic water pumping for livestock watering in the southern plains

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Traditionally man has supplied water for his domesticated livestock by using springs,
flowing streams and hand dug wells. One of the early uses of solar power in the form of
wind power was to water from shallow wells using bucket pumps. In the late 1800’sthe
American multi bladed windmill as developed to pump water from deep wells. These
systems provided a year round water supply and allowed settlement of the area known as
the Great Plains. With the deployment of electrical utility systems into rural America, many
of these mechanical wind mill have disappeared. Many windmills have been in use for over
50 years and are simply worn out. Farmers and ranchers are seeking replacements for these
windmills for remote water pumping. Additions of remote water pumps to the electrical
grid are discouraged by electric utilities because of the cost of maintenance of rural electric
lines. A high connect fee often exceeds the cost of other fuel alternatives. An adequate year
round water supply is still a major stumbing block in livestock grazing in many regions.
Ranchers have found that if sufficient watering places are not provided, livestock do not
move to areas of the pasture here grass may be abundant. Cattle will graze about one
kilometre from a water supply therefore, several water supplies are needed in most large
pastures. Many ranchers continue to haul water for livestock in remote areas.
Livestock animals require various amount of water depending on their size and weight.
Chickens and turkeys require the least amount of water with cattle and horses requiring the
most. Table 1 contains a range of water use data for various livestock with smaller amounts
applying to smaller animals or cool weather use and the larger amount applying to larger
animals or hot weather use. The amount listed for dairy cattle includes the water used for
cleaning the milking barn. For most remote areas, water storage for 3-5 days is usually
provided. If water is stored in an open tank, then the amount of water lost to evaporation
must be considered in determining the volume of water required to meet demands of the
livestock.
Many farmers and ranchers depend on surface waters that are polluted and harmful to
the health of their animals. Water cannot be pumped because often times energy and labour
for servicing Engine driven pumps is unavailable or too costly. The availability and cost

12
for new electrical grid service are often prohibitive. New developments with solar
photovoltaic water pumping systems have provided a new potential for pumping water in
remote areas. A solar photovoltaic water pumping system for remote areas has been
evaluated by the USDA, Agricultural research Service, Bush land, TX. The objective of
the evaluation were
1. To measure the system performance of a photovoltaic system
2. To the determine daily water pumping volumes at various pumping depths
3. To evaluate the reliability of photovoltaic water pumping systems
4. To evaluate the effectiveness of passive tracking systems.

1.3 DESCRIPTION

The system consisted of a photovoltaic panel(PV )array, mounting apparatus, controller,

pump and electric motor. A schematic of a pumping system are shown in Fig 1. PV arrays
are comprised of multiple panels containing 30 to 40 individual solar cells, rated

13
approximately 50 W and usually wired in 12 or 24 V configurations. For this study, two
53 W panels were wired in series to produce a nomianal output of 24 V. The panels were
mounted on a tilting frame that allowed the surface to be rotated back and forth to keep the
panel surface perpendicular to the sun. Two liquid filled cylinders were used to move the
tracker by heating the fluid and causing the hot liquid-gas mixture to move from the hot
side to cooler side. The manufacturer claims 55% more energy is collected with the tracker.

The submersible motor was a DC electric motor rated for 24 V and had a peak current
draw of 3.1 A and was mounted directly to the pump. The pump was a diaphragm type
pump constructed of marine bronze and stainless steel. The pump-motor combination
weighed 6.4 kg and outside diameter 96 mm. The pump-motor combination was 273 mm
long. The pump fit easily inside of 102 mm diameter pipe which is often used for small
well casing. Fig 2 shows the head-flow and head-current relationships for the pump. Curves
representing the manufacture’s data and curves from data measured by USDA are given.
The measured flow was slightly higher than the flow presented by manufacturer,but the
two currents were identical.

14
 A controller was used to boost the current to match the load requirements in low
sunlight, boost the voltage for maximum pump output when the sunlight was good, and
provide voltage regulation of the PV array around its maximum power point. The controller
increased the voltage in low sunlight to above 16 V so the pump would operate, thus
providing small amount of water. In excellent sunlight, the controller limited the voltage
at 24 V and increased the current to increase the flow.
The pumping system was operated for several months at the USDA conservation and
production research laboratory, Bushland,TX. The laboratory is located at a latitude of
35011’ north and a longitude of 10205’ west, with an elevation of 1164 m (3819ft). The
pump was operated at simulated pumping depths of 20,30,and 40 m. pumping depths were
simulated using a back pressure regulating valve and pressure tank to maitain the desired
pressure. Water pressure was measured with a pressure transducer and flow was measured
with a turbine meter equipped with an electronic output. All data were sampled every 2 sec
and the averageing interval was 1 min. Data were recorded on a personal computer systems
using a data acquisition board. The 1 min averages were stored for further processing and
real time data were displayed on the monitor. All equipment used was commercially
available.

1.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Incoming solar radiation was measured with a pyranometer mounted directly on the
tracking rack. The pyranometer was always at the same sun angle as the PV panels to insure
that a correct measurement of incoming radiation was recorded. A 3 day average incoming
radiation intensity for August, September, October, and November is shown in Fig 3. The

15
intensity level for August was lower because the moisture content in the atmosphere was
higher in August resulting in more radiation being reflected. The intensity level was about
the same during the other months. The effect of shorter days is clearly seen in these data.
Data were recorded from 7:45 am to 5:45 pm to reduce the volume of data stored. This
time period accounted for over 98% of the pumping volume.

The average flow rate during the same four months described above is shown in Fig 4.
The flow for August reflects the lower radiation intensity, but shows the effect of longer
days. Some of this reduced flow may be attributable to the lower efficiency of PV panels
with increases in temperature. With an increase in temperature from 250c to 750c, the output
voltage of PV panel drops by 4 volts. This reduced voltage could easily account for the
lower pumping rates for August. The low pumping rate for September was probably caused
by a miss adjustment of the controller. Several attempts were made to adjust the controller
per manufacturer’s instructions during this period. The controller was correctly adjusted in
early October and these data verify the criticalness of a correct controller adjustment.

16
CONCLUSION

A photovoltaic water pumping system was operated for over a year at Bushland. TX to
determine the performance of the system and each of the components. The system began
pumping water when the solar radiation intensity exceeded 300 W/m2. At this intensity,
the flow was usually between 0.25 and 0.50 L/min. Flow increased linearly with radiation
intensity and reached its maximum flow of 4.0 to 4.5 L/min at an intensity of 900 W/m 2.
Maximum flow dependent on using the correct controller adjustment as well as the
radiation intensity. Daily water volumes pumped ranged from a high of 1671 L/day in June
to a low of 504 L/day in December and averaged 1105 L/day. This average water volume

17
compares to 8600 L/day for a mechanical windmill, however the mechanical windmill cost
about twice as much as this solar pumping system.

CASE STUDY 2

2.1 OBJECTIVE

Usage of photovoltaics in an automated irrigation system

2.2 INTRODUCTION

The water needs of Saudi Arabia are met by desalination water plants, which are located
in the coastal regions of the Kingdom. The cost of potable water is very high due to the
costs of production and transportation. In major cities the water is transported through
water pipelines. This water cannot be used for irrigation purposes due to the high costs.
There are many fields in the eastern, central and northwestern parts of the Kingdom where
farming is being encouraged by the administrations. The fields are developed and the water
is either pumped from the ground or through scarcely available natural water streams.

18
 One such natural source of water is being used in Al-Hassa for irrigating the farming
fields. At present these fields are irrigated through a network of canals, which are operated
manually to provide water to farmers according to their needs. Sometimes these fields are
over irrigated and sometimes under irrigated. In this way, a lot of water, which is precious
commodity for the Kingdom, is lost. Hence there is a need to optimize this source of water
through the usage of affordable technology.
This study presents the design, implementation, and testing of an automatic irrigation
system, which can optimize the usage of water and at the same time provide cost effective
and efficient operation. This system utilizes photovoltaic cells to generate the electricity
directly from the sun’s rays to run the whole control system. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
has a continuous source of abundant solar energy reaching the ground throughout the year.
The daily average bright sunshine duration, as mentioned by Rehman and Halawani [1], is
8.89 h and the average daily value of global solar radiation on a horizontal surface is 5591
Whm-2.
Automation has become essential to provide optimal and efficient usage of the devices
and systems, and to conserve resources. Masheleni and Carelse [2] used a microcontroller-
based charge controller for stand-alone photovoltaic systems to improve the efficiency of
the system and to protect the storage batteries with special reference to automotive
batteries. Koner [3] presented a design for a switching device for reconfiguration of
photovoltaic modules used for the optimization of the photovoltaic modules. Recently
Hammad [4] presented a study related to the usage of photovoltaic generated electricity for
pumping water from 13 wells spread across the east and south east desert which is far from
the national grid, as well as in the southern parts of the Jordan which has a complicated
topographical situation. These pumps are capable of pumping 40–100 m3 of water per day
individually to meet the daily demands of individuals living in those areas. Hamerski et al.
[5] presented the usage of solar energy through a photo catalytic process for the purification
of contaminated soil. Other applications of photo catalytic processes are detoxification [6],
water purify cation [7–12], decomposition of crude oil [13] etc. One of the most important
applications of photovoltaic driven electricity is refrigeration for meeting health
requirements [14] in developing countries.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup developed and used in this study consists of four major parts, viz.:
solar power supply, controller, input devices, and output devices.

 Solar power supply

The solar power supply used consists of two photovoltaic (PV) solar panels and two back
up batteries. Each PV solar panel consists of 36 solar cells. The specifications of the solar

19
panels are shown in Table 1. In Table 1, Vpp is the voltage at peak power, Ipp is the current
at peak power, Vcc is open circuit voltage, Isc is short circuit current, and L, W, T, are the
length, width, and thickness of the PV panel, respectively. Each solar panel generates a
maximum of 17.5 V DC. A regulator is used to adjust the cell output to 12 V DC. Two PV
panels were connected in series to
Generate a total of 24 V DC that is required to supply the 24 V DC controller’s power
supply. The two 12 V batteries, which are used as backup supply in the absence of sunlight
due to overcast skies or rain, are rechargeable, sealed, and lead–acid type. The batteries are
charged from the PV cells. A blocking diode is used to safeguard the system from excessive
voltage. Fig. 1 shows the basic block diagram of the solar power supply system that was
used in the study. The load in the figure refers to the controller and the input/output devices.

 Controller

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 The controller which is used in this study, is the new universal logic module from
Siemens (also known as logo). It provides control functions, operating and display unit,
power supply, 6 inputs and 4 outputs and interface capability with a personal computer
(PC). The control functions that are utilized in this project are On/Off delay, real-time
clock, counters, latching relays, and series/parallel functions. The most important function
is the real-time clock, which is programmed to energize and de-energize any output at any
time of the day or any day of the week based on the input from the field. The logo system
is capable of accepting both the DC and AC supply. In this project, module 24RC is used.
This module operates on 24 V DC. It has 6 digital inputs and 4 digital outputs, consumes
3 W of power, and switches up to 10 A load at 24 V DC rate.

 Input and output devices

Table 2 shows the input/output assignments used in running the experimental setup. Fig.
2 shows the system hardware layout and connections used in the prototype built in the
laboratory. The logo has provision for six inputs and four outputs and they have been
utilized as follows (Table 2):

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  Three input operation switches are used to operate the system in three different
modes, viz. manual, auto and sensor mode.
 One digital level senor is used to feed the logo with the water level of Field-1 and
operate as a digital sensor.
 One analog moisture sensor is used to feed the logo with the soil moisture of Field-
2 and operate as an analog sensor.
 One digital level sensor is used to feed the logo with water level in the reservoir
tank.
 Output number 1 is connected to the valve that irrigates Field-1
 Output number 2 is connected to the valve that irrigates Field-2
 Output number 3 is connected to the alarm lamp to indicate when the water level in
the reservoir water tank becomes less than the pre-specified water level.

2.4 DISCUSSION AND WORKING OF THE PROTOTYPE

The system is designed and prototyped to irrigate two fields (Field-1 and Field-2). Field-
1 is to be irrigated by opening valve-1 via the logo output No. 1 and the water level in the
field is sensed by a digital level sensor that is connected to the logo input No. 1. Field-2 is
to be irrigated by opening valve-2 via the logo output No. 2 and the water humidity in the
field is sensed by the analog moisture sensor that is connected to the logo input No. 2. The

22
analog moisture sensor is connected via a comparator circuit that can be adjusted manually
for the required moisture level
depending on the season by the farmer or user. The third output is used to indicate the water
level in the reservoir tank, which flashes the light on/off when the water level in the tank
goes below a predefined level. A feedback from the tank is sent via a digital level sensor
to the logo input. The system has four modes of operations i.e. manual, auto, sensor and
emergency modes. A brief description of operation in each mode is given below.

 Manual mode

In this mode, the farmer or the user can irrigate both fields (Field-1 and Field-2) by
switching on this input. The water valves of both fields will be activated as long as this
switch is on. Turning this switch off manually will shut off both valves.

 Auto mode

In this mode, the real-time clock of the logo, which is programmed to turn the water
valves on/off at specific times and days, operates automatically with the real time clock. It
can also be programmed to turn any of the valves independent of each other. The built-in
real-time clock is capable of working at any time of the day and any day of the week and
for any desired period. For testing purposes, the system was programmed to irrigate Field-
1 three times a week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) between 10:00 a.m. and 11:00
a.m. and Field-2 two times a week (Sunday and Thursday) between 3:30 p.m. and 5:00
p.m. The farmer or the user can change the time, period and day/s of the week using the
built-in key-pad and display system. A short list of 1–2–3 steps can be supplied to the user
as an operation manual to program the system.
 Sensor mode

This mode has two feedback signals coming from the fields (Field-1 and Field-2). Field-
1 is designed to operate based on the water level in the water storage tank and Field-2 is
designed to operate using an analog sensor that measures the soil humidity. The water will
flow to any field based on a signal from the corresponding sensor and stay on until the
digital level sensor trips or the moisture sensor gets wet enough.

23
  Emergency mode
The emergency mode operates based on the water level in the reservoir tank. If the water
level falls below the predefined level, the lamp will start to flash on–off and turn on the
irrigation system for automation mode, but for 15 min only, rather than the predefined time
which was programmed in the normal auto mode. Table 3 shows the operation modes
summary. It is worth mentioning that the above system hardware and software scenarios
have been implemented in such a configuration for testing proposes that the system can be
extended and modified to handle more inputs and outputs using different logo modules,
sensors, and valves, as well as operation modes. Fig. 3 shows the system algorithm
flowchart. The ladder diagram of the software program developed and used in this
prototype is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows the actual prototype that was built in the
laboratory.

24
25
26
CONCLUSION

A fully automated irrigation system is designed, built and tested using solar PV cells and
a digital controller. The system is economical, reliable, portable, and compact. Savings in
electricity bills and water bills can justify the initial cost, which may be a bit more than the
conventional system, over a period of time. It causes less damage to the environment and
releases the public utility from an extra load. It can be used in small or big farms, gardens,
parks and lawns. Also, it can be used as a universal solar-based-controller to control
building doors, water heaters, and air-conditioning control systems.

CASE STUDY 3

3.1 OBJECTIVE

Solar-powered groundwater pumping systems for domestic use in developing countries

3.2 INTRODUCTION

27
Solar-powered pumping systems have been in use long enough that a preliminary
assessment can be conducted related to their efficiency and cost compared to other
alternative powered pumping systems. This preliminary assessment should be completed
before deciding if solar power is the best source of alternative power for a village water
supply system. Generally, alternative power is only considered when the cost of tapping
into the closest public power grid far outweighs the costs of using alternative power. There
are several technology alternatives for supplying power or lift to groundwater systems
including: wind turbines, windmills, generators, solar arrays, and hand powered pumps.
The main driving factors for selecting the appropriate technology are regional feasibility,
water demand, system efficiencies, and initial and long-term costs. Other factors often
include the need for power and water reserves in the form of batteries and storage tanks.
Solar-powered systems are often considered for use in developing countries instead of
other forms of alternative energy because they are durable and exhibit long-term economic
benefits.

This paper briefly covers the selection process needed before choosing solar power as
the appropriate alternative power source for a groundwater pumping system. Preference is
given to the drinking water supply of a small village. The paper also covers the design
process and the components of a SPPS when used with a well and submersible pump. A
significant amount of detail is directed towards selecting a pump when solar power is
selected as the appropriate technology.

3.3 FEASIBILITY

The selection of SPPS should only follow a thorough look at the feasibility and future
prospect of the technology. There are several important steps in this process. Not all of
them are covered here, but the key considerations are mentioned below.

 Water Source

Selecting a water source involves making a detailed site map which shows changing
elevations, layout of the land, available water resources running through the site or near
the site, and present structures. If the selected water source is gravity-driven, like an upper
river or spring, the power supply can be avoided by the proper layout of a distribution
system. However, if the source is a well or surface water at a lower elevation than the site,
a powered pump or possibly even a ram pump will be needed.

Once the water source has been narrowed down to a well and alternative power is
needed, the village water demand needs to be determined. The average rate of consumption
for villagers used to traveling to get their water and carrying it home is 10 gallons per day

28
per capita. It is general practice to add at least three days of storage to a SPPS for cloudy
days, nights, and emergencies.

 Power Source
The next step is to rule out other sources of power or pumping devices. If the public
power grid is reliable and in proximity to the site, preferably less than 1/3 mile, then solar
power would most likely be a poor choice. The cost of implementing a SPPS could be
significantly more than the cost to hook up to the local power grid and purchase an AC
pump. A 1/3 to 1/2-mile power line extension in the U.S. alone can cost $5,000 or more.
With the exception of the storage tank, the most expensive element of a solar-powered
system is usually the photovoltaic modules or panels. Table 1 lists the pros and cons
associated with different sources of alternative energy for water pumps and gives a good
comparison for SPPS.

A preliminary guidance for the feasibility of using a SPPS versus a generator powered
system or hand pump can be found in Table 2 by Green Empowerment. This table is based
on water demand and required pumping head. Note that this table does not appear to
account for all of the recent advances in SPPS technology and may be very conservative.

29
Table 1

Pros and Cons of Alternative Forms of Energy for Pumps

30
Table 2

General Feasibility of SPPS Compared to a Hand Pump and Diesel Generator

33
  Realistic Expectations and Costs for a SPPS
A solar-powered pumping system is not recommended for community indoor plumbing needs.
Most economical SPPS will not provide enough water and pressure for the required demand of
community indoor plumbing, but can meet the demands of a single building similar to a small
community center or medical center. SPPS is also not adequate for large-scale irrigation, but can
work for small-scale drip irrigation systems. A large-scale SPPS can be considered one that serves
over 240 peoples or serves a water demand of over 2,400 gpd. The cost of a system that serves
500 people or more can easily reach $34,300. If the village is over 500 people it may be more
practical to use a generator and AC pump. As the size of the village population approaches 500
people, the costs of the required storage starts to rise sharply due to the recommended backup
storage volume for three days of demand and the limited daylight hours of water pumping.

For a basic comparison of running a pump on a diesel generator compared to solar power refer
to the study conducted in the United States and Bangladesh where a 1 kW, 50 meter pump head
SPPS is compared to a 2 kW, 50 meter pump head conventional diesel generator pumping system.
The main assumptions in the cost comparison are as follows:

1. The projected costs were for a 25 year project lifetime of each system.
2. Net profit is calculated as the difference between the variable costs of a diesel-powered
pumping system and variable costs of a SPPS.
3. All costs are given in US dollars, where US $1.00 = 69.49 Bangladesh Taka.
4. Local materials and local skills are used wherever possible.
5. Cost of PV modules are approximated at US $4.5/Watt power.
6. Manual labor costs are significantly less in Bangladesh than the USA.
7. Diesel fuel costs and original equipment costs (excluding local accessories) are the same
in both countries.
8. Diesel fuel prices increase 10% every year.
9. Transportation costs are significantly less in Bangladesh and expected to increase by only
1% per year.
10. Operation and maintenance costs per year are considered constant for the systems.
11. Diesel generator system is maintained every day for turning off/on and refueling.
12. SPPS system is checked once per week.
13. Costs of replacement items such as pumps and generators are considered constant through
the projected lifetime of the systems.
14. The SPPS pump and controller are replaced every 10 years.
15. The diesel generator is replaced every 5 years.
16. The excess water storage recommended for a SPPS is not accounted for in the cost
comparison.

34
 The report indicates that although the initial costs of the generator powered system were much
less than the SPPS, based on total costs of operation, after 10 years of operations the SPPS system
cost less to operate annually than the generator system (see Figure 1). This cost difference is
mostly attributed to the long-term fuel costs associated with operating a diesel-powered system.

Figure 1: Year by Year Total Cost Comparison for SPPS versus a Diesel Generator System

 Site Location
The site location plays a major part in the feasibility of a SPPS. Peak sunlight hours (PSH)
differ widely across the globe. The PSH is based on the number of equivalent daily hours that
provide solar irradiance equal to 1 kW/m2. If a graphical plot of sun radiation versus hours of the
day is created and the area under the curve is integrated and divided by 1,000 W/m2, the resulting
value would be PSH. It is difficult to find in the literature a recommended cut-off value for PSH
at which point a SPPS is not practical. The general guidance is that the less PSH available, the
more expensive the required photovoltaic (PV) array and pump. System costs also increase when
more storage is needed to compensate for the very limited exposure of the PV array to peak
sunlight hours. The majority of the successful SPPS systems installed in developing countries
appear to be located in areas where the PSH is at least 4. The maps accessible from this website
give yearly low peak sunlight hours. Another factor is the climate of the region. Solar-powered
systems are not typically designed for extremely cold weather (temperature less than -200C).

35
However, the systems can be well insulated to handle fairly cold winters. For example, with the
proper insulation they have proven effective in the northern United States in places like New York
State.

 Community Involvement & Ownership

Local acceptance is an important factor to consider. A survey and assessment should be
conducted among the village leaders and some of the households to determine if the villagers will
be willing to embrace the technology and use it wisely. The assessment should consider local
skills, materials, and labor in order to estimate how the community could be involved in the
installation, operation, and maintenance of the system. It is also generally a good idea to contact
the local government officials in the country and make sure that they are accepting of the solar
system and aware of what it is being used for.

Solar-powered-pumping systems are gaining ground in developing countries, but rarely are they
installed without the funds and supervision of non-government organizations (NGOs). There are
significant upfront costs and community training required for the successful implementation of a
SPPS. NGOs will usually be involved in the initial phases of the project including design,
installation, and training needed to operate and maintain the systems.

Community ownership is key to the longevity of the SPPS. The community should take pride
in their water system and gain a sense of ownership from the service it provides. Most NGOs
recommend a fee based system for the water users, even if it is only equivalent to 2 to 3 $U.S. per
family per month. The fees are used to pay a water system manager in the village and to maintain
and upgrade the system as needed. NGOs like AsoFenix, based out of Nicaragua, will also help
with the training of villagers to install the system and to understand its basic operation. Other
NGOs may require a water committee or water management system to be in place before they will
complete installation tasks or do additional work on the SPPS.

Other concerns often overlooked are the community socio-economic needs. If having water
delivered to them more conveniently significantly takes away from their socio-economic structure,
the village may begin to resent the system, making it more prone to vandalism or unintended uses.
There are several good guides for considering socio-economic factures published by USAID and
NGOs like Life Water International.

 Sustainability of System
The long-term costs and ability of the SPPS to be adaptable to changing demands should be
implemented into the feasibility of the system. This process is also significantly related to the
ability of the village to adapt to changing demands. Photovoltaic modules should last 20 – 25
years. This is dependent on being maintained (kept clean and securely mounted) and protected
from strong winds, lightning and hail storms, and falling objects such as tree branches. The solar
pumps should be expected to last about 10 years. The other electronics and controls should be
designed to last at least 10 years with little electrical maintenance. The overall lifetime of the

36
complete system should be designed and maintained to last 25 years taking into account future
growth projections of the community. The system should be inspected at least once per week
checking the pumping rate, operation of controller, condition of PV modules, tanks, wires, and
pipes (for leaks/corrosion). More information can also be found in the Life Water International
technical notes. Table 3 shows a list of some of the NGOs that provide support for water resource
projects in developing countries.

Table 3
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) Involved in Supporting
Water Resource Projects in Developing Countries

NGOs Base Type of Aid Web Site

Country
Green Empowerment U.S. financial, build, design http://www.greenempowerment.org
Asofenix Nicaragua design (no website)
New Earth Foundation U.S. financial http://www.newearthfoundation.org
EnerGreen Foundation U.S. financial http://www.energreen.org
UNICEF U.S. financial http://www.unicef.org
Fundacion Natura Ecuador design http://www.fnatura.org/index.htm
Greenstar U.S. design http://www.greenstar.org
Sustainable Village U.S. design, research http://www.sustainablevillage.com
EWB U.S. design, build http://www.ewb-usa.org
Enersol U.S. owns & maintains system http://www.enersol.com
villagers pay back over time

 System Security

Another important aspect to consider is security. Can the PV array be secured properly or will
it be stolen or vandalized? It is obvious that without a functioning PV array, a SPPS is worthless.
The PV array is one of the most expensive components of the system (~50-75%) and should be
protected from theft, vandalism, and livestock. For instance, due to the realized value of the
modules in South Africa, there have been several reported cases of modules being stolen in the
region. It is strongly recommended that provisions be made to put a fence with a lockable gate
around the array. The fence needs to have enough set-back that it does not cast a shadow on the
array.

37
2.4 SPPS COMPONENTS
A solar-powered pumping system for a village should consist of the following minimum
components:

1. water well
2. PV array
3. array mounting bracket and rack
4. pump controller
5. electrical ground for controller
6. DC pump with safety ropes, mount, and well seal
7. wiring
8. discharge tubing or piping
9. storage tank
10. tank floatation switch
11. water taps or access points
12. security

The flotation switch is used in the tank to turn off the pump when the tank is full. The pump
should be specifically designed for solar power. It is strongly recommended to have the pump
controller purchased from the same manufacturer as the pump. To use another manufacturer could
cause several unforeseen problems and even invalidate the pump’s warranty. If the pump does not
contain a built-in check valve, one should be installed in the system to keep the water from flowing
back into the well. Very few pumps can handle reverse flow without reducing the life expectancy
of the pump. The pumps that are designed to drain during non-operation are meant for extremely
cold conditions to keep water from freezing in the lines. The pump should be no deeper than 2
feet above the bottom of the well to help prevent heavy silt and sand from entering the pumps
intake and causing it to seize. The storage tank should be sized to hold at least three days’ worth
of water demand to account for evenings and cloudy days. A security fence should be placed
around the PV modules and controller. If the controller is not attached to the array mounting
bracket it can be placed in a secure shed or pump house, preferably water tight and dust free. See
the following figure for a schematic diagram of a typical system.

38
Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of a Typical SPPS

 Well
The entire solar system design depends on the yield of the well and the water demand of the
village. Therefore, all precautions should be taken to place the well into a clean, high yield,
groundwater aquifer. It is also recommended to avoid extremely shallow water tables. The
diameter of the well should be at least 6 inches. This allows enough tolerance for the addition of
a sand shroud on a 4 inch pump. In developing countries, threaded 40-schedule PVC casing and
screen are usually used. The screen slots are sized appropriately for the filter pack and native
material. The well should be sealed at the surface to prevent surface water intrusion. This guide
does not go into the details about installing a well, but appropriate guidelines should be followed
to ensure the best possible installation, development, and pump test the project budget can afford.
Having a bad well is equivalent to having an unreliable power source. If at all possible, it is
recommended to use standard practice procedures used in developed countries to install the well,
like ASTM standard (ASTM DRILL99-99). These standards are not specifically intended for
supply wells, but do cover the essential aspects of installing a well and conducting a groundwater
investigation.

 Pump
Pumps designed specifically for solar power utilize direct current (DC) and tend to be very
energy efficient, but they usually cost more than their otherwise equivalent alternating current

39
(AC) pump. Surface mounted pumps can be used for a SPPS, but are discouraged because of their
suction limitations when used in deep wells compared to the achievable lift of a submersible pump.
Based on the specifications from several manufactures such as Shurflow, Gaiam, and Dankoff, the
typical suction abilities for surface pumps designed for solar power are between 10 and 20 feet.
Surface pumps also have greater exposure to the climate making them more vulnerable to freezing
and harsh weather. Submersible pumps are more protected from the climate and use the
groundwater as a natural priming fluid.

The reliability and efficiency of submersible pumps designed for solar power have increased
tremendously over the last 10 years. Solar powered pumps are designed to have a low starting
torque requirement. Modern solar powered pumps have an average daily solar energy to hydraulic
efficiency of more than 4%. Energy efficiency in its most basic definition is output/input. In
regards to pumps, it is more appropriately considered the product of the motor and lift mechanism
efficiency. For example, if the motor is 80% efficient and the lift mechanism is 50% efficient,
than the overall pump efficiency is 40%. Most submersible pumps designed specifically for solar
power have an overall efficiency of 40 to 70%.

Currently, there are four main types of lifting mechanisms used in submersible solar-powered
pumps: diaphragm, reciprocating piston, centrifugal, and helical rotor (screw- type device). Some
of them are more efficient and easier to maintenance than others, like the helical rotor, but sacrifice
other abilities like flow rate. The four main types of lift mechanisms are listed below:

 Centrifugal pumps elevate the water through a series of spinning impellers (commonly
called stages) that suck the water in and force it up the pump. Centrifugal pumps are usually
used with high lift and flow demands.
 Helical rotor pumps rely on one moving part that acts as a screw type approach to trapping
the water in the suction side of the pump and moving it upwards.
 A diaphragm pump uses sealed diaphragms and often consists of 3 chambers to move
water.
 A piston pump relies on a piston to draw water into a chamber using an inlet valve and
forces it to the outlet using the outlet valve.

The centrifugal and helical rotor pump are less susceptible to high ambient pressures created
at submersion depths greater than 164 feet compared to the piston and diaphragm pumps. Most
piston and diaphragm pumps display observable pumping efficiency losses and escalating starting
torque requirements in submersion at depths of 33 feet or more.

There are also different motor devices in the pumps. However, most of the solar-powered
pumps either rely on a brush or brushless permanent magnet (PM) and most centrifugal pumps
also have a variable speed motor. The brushless PM motors are designed to reduce the frictional
wear forces created in other conventional pumps and seem to be the most durable and energy

40
efficient. Several of the more common submersible solar-powered pump manufacturers are listed
in Table 4. This table also indicates general operating parameters for selecting a pump. If using
this table, particular attention needs to be given to the footnotes. Following are pictures of a
Grundfos SQFlex centrifugal and helical rotor pump.

Figure 3: Grundfos SQFlex Centrifugal Pump

The size of the pump will depend on several factors including: available water supply,
available power, available storage, total dynamic head (TDH), diameter of well, and village
demand (including 25 year growth projection). Assume that the pump will only be operating
during peak sunlight hours. Try to install the most efficient and simplest system that meets the
project demands. Before the village starts using the system, the storage tank should be filled. This
allows the rest of the distribution system to be designed with a semi-constant pressure head. It
also reduces the demand on the pump by allowing it to cycle, starting again when the volume in
the tank is approximately ½ depleted.

It is important to determine the total dynamic head. For a SPPS, total dynamic head can be
referred to as the head pressure required to overcome the sum of the static lift of the water, the
static height of the storage tank, and the frictional losses in the pipe network. Following are some
preliminary calculations for determining TDH and the flow rate of the pump needed:

TDH = (depth from static water table to top of well + drawdown at sustainable or desired

Pumping rate + elevation difference from top of well to top of storage tank) x 1.1

o Accounts for other head losses and frictional losses in system. For a more accurate
measurement of frictional losses, Hazen-William’s equation should be used along
with tables that show the frictional loss per foot of pipe length. Minor and local
losses in fittings should also be accounted for.
o The desired pumping rate should not be greater than the sustained well yield.

41
An estimate of the required flow rate of the pump can be determined by the following equation :

demand in gpd hr
Flow Rate (gpm)  x
PSH per day 60 min

The next step is to take the well diameter, TDH, and desired flow rate and refer to Table 4 or
other manufacturers not listed to determine what type of pump will fulfill the system needs. The
final selection of the pump should be based on a system parameter match with the manufacturer’s
pump curve.

 PV Array & Photovoltaic Cells

Solar power comes from photovoltaic (PV) cells that convert the sun’s energy into usable DC
electricity. A module consists of PV cells and an array consists of several modules. PV cells are
primarily made from silicon and come in three different types: monocrystalline, polycrystalline
(multicrystalline), and amorphous. The following figure shows the three types of cell modules.

Figure 5: Types of PV Modules

The efficiency of the PV module relates to the area of active cell area exposed to the sunlight.
Monocrystalline are the most efficient, converting approximately 15% of the sun’s energy to
electricity, but they are also the most expensive of the three. Photovoltaic modules have typical

42
warranties of 20 – 25 years, with life expectancies approaching 30 years. The following table
relates the differences between the three main types of PV cells:

Table 5

Types of PV Cells and their Efficiency

Type of cell Efficiency range Comments

Monocrystalline 14 to 16% Highest price, affected by temperature
Polycrystalline 12 to 14% Medium price, affected by temperature
Amorphous Silicon 8 to 9% Medium to low price, not affected by
temperature

Modern research is developing PV cells that have cell efficiencies approaching 30%, but
modules containing these cells still are not easily available in the global market. The design of the
PV array is fairly straightforward and depends on PSH, energy losses, and the desired power
supply to the pump. A factor of 1.25 times the pump wattage requirements is often used to
determine the preliminary size of the required array. This accounts for the energy losses in the
modules and controller. If batteries and a regulator are added into the system, the PV array demand
will be higher. The addition of an inverter to run an AC pump would also increase the demand on
the PV array. Some of the pump manufacturers listed in Table 4 also sell compactable PV arrays
and should be consulted for the final size of the needed array. How the PV modules are connected,
series versus parallel will depend on the required output voltage and current. If they are all
connected in parallel, it will increase the available current. If they are all connected in series, it
will increase the available voltage. It is best to get the recommended layout of the modules from
the distributor of the pump and controller.

43
 The PV array needs to be mounted securely to a tilted rack that is fixed to the ground. A tracking
system can be used, but as mentioned earlier, a tracking system mount is not always recommended.
The selection of the mount should include all factors of maintenance, latitude of region, wind, and
the project budget. If the modules are fixed, the orientation of the tilt is to the south and should be
equal to the site latitude. If they are on an adjustable mount, the tilt should be the latitude minus
10 to 15 degrees in the summer and the latitude plus 10 to 15 degrees in the winter.

 Pump Controller

The pump controller is a highly specialized item and can vary significantly between pump
manufacturers. A technical term for a pump controller is a linear current booster. The purpose of
the pump controller is to regulate and match the flow of DC electricity to the needs of the pump.
The pump controller also contains the recognition components for the storage tank floatation
switch and the low-well switch. The controller should be expected to last approximately 10 years.

 Storage Tank

The storage tank should have enough volume to hold at least three days’ worth of average
demand. This is not only to account for peak demands, but primarily to compensate for nights and
cloudy days, especially when other backup systems are not used. The general cost for water
storage is estimated to be between 1 and 2 $U.S. per gallon. All pressure analyzes and standard
distribution calculations should be accounted for, including water hammer effects. Make sure the
internal velocities and pressures are appropriate for the pipe material and desired flow rates.

3.5 ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS

There can be several additional components to a SPPS that can enhance the performance of the
system or add backup energy reserves:

1. Batteries: Deep-cycle batteries are often used as a power backup. They are recharged
during the day through the PV array and drained at night or during cloudy days. The
batteries should be lead-acid so they can be trickle charged indefinitely once they reach
full charge. The pump controller is usually installed after the batteries. The addition of
batteries requires a charge regulator between the batteries and the PV array. The charge
regulator needs to monitor the battery voltage to prevent over-charging because the DC
solar energy fluctuates throughout the day. It is also recommended to install blocking
diodes before the charge regulator. A diode in the system should prevent the PV array
from draining the batteries in low light conditions. A diode is usually just a two-element

44
 electron tube or a semi-conductor through which current can pass freely in only one
direction.

2. Wind Turbine: Wind turbines can be a very cost effective backup to solar power in areas
with average wind speeds above 7 mph. Usually wind turbines are low maintenance and
tend to perform best during the winter and spring.

3. Generator: If sufficient water storage is not available, some systems may need a backup
generator to run the pump during low sunlight periods. If a generator is used with a DC
pump, an inverter is usually required. However, generators are directly compatible with
some pumps like the Grundfos SQ Flex pumps. Grundfos does recommend an interface
controller when using a generator to automatically switch back to solar power when it is
available (see Table 4). The life expectancy of a generator is typically 5 years.

4. AC Pump: An AC pump can also be used instead of a DC pump but this will require an
inverter when used with solar power.

5. Solar Tracking System: A solar tracking device can be added to the PV array to increase
the power yield. Tracking systems are often sold by the manufacturers of PV modules.
Trackers are attached to the mounting bracket and control the degree to which the array is
tilted towards the sun. They can either be controlled passively (sun’s heat exposure) or
electronically through part of the converted energy from the PV array. Passive trackers
contain liquid (often Freon) that when heated from the sun moves from one cylinder to
another causing the rack to tilt more into the sun. Tracking devices have been reported to
increase the daily energy yield up to 40% at certain latitudes in New York State. However,
they are not recommended for areas near the equator or which are susceptible to high winds.
They can also add approximately 25% of additional maintenance costs.

6. Weather Insulation: Weather proofing and insulation should be added for extremely harsh
environments, especially in areas where temperatures reach minus 200C, which is the
minimum temperature rating of several pumps.

7. Low Well Switch: In low yield wells, where the drawdown of the well exceeds the pumping
capacity, the addition of a shutoff switch is needed in the well to keep the pump from
running dry. Some pumps advertise they can run dry without damage to the pump, but
allowing any pump to continually run dry is a bad idea. Ideally, the pump should shut off

45
 when the water level gets within 2 feet of the pumps intake to reduce air intake and
turbulence. Some pumps come pre-installed with a safety shut-off switch.

8. Sand Shroud: A sand shroud may be needed around the intake zone of the pump. Sand
shrouds are recommended for use in wells that have high sediment loads or that were not
properly installed. They are particularly recommended in open boreholes which are not
screened through the saturated zone of the well. This type of drilled well is often installed
in places like Uganda where the water is coming in through rocky areas. The pump
manufacturer can usually provide a compatible sand shroud.

9. Hand Pump: If the water table is fairly shallow and only low yields are needed, a simple
hand pump could be installed in the same well as the solar-powered pump to act as an
additional backup. This would only be practical if space allows, such as in a large
diameter well or hand-dug well. It would also require a solid concrete slab over the well
and a drainage system.

Both inverters and batteries significantly reduce the efficiency of an SPPS and should be avoided
if at all possible. Batteries along with the charge regulator can produce a power loss of up to 25%
of the total array output. If plenty of water storage is available, the batteries may not be necessary.
The initial cost of an efficient DC pump (designed for PV power) is usually greater than an
equivalent AC pump. However, compared to running and maintaining an AC pump off a
generator, the cost should be regained in 5 to 10 years of operation.

CONCLUSION
Solar-powered pumping systems are making headway in becoming leading and appropriate
technology for small-scale water systems in developing countries. This is partly due to the many
NGOs funding and supporting the effort. However, other important reasons for the global use of
the technology are cost reductions in the equipment, greater output efficiencies, low maintenance
requirements, and durability of the systems. Not including the recommended three days of demand
water storage, the PV modules are usually the most expensive element of the system, but the
average 25 year life span of well-constructed PV modules may be the most attractive aspect of a
SPPS. The technology has also been around for over 20 years, so many of the once common and
costly installation mistakes can be avoided through a thorough feasibility study, research, and
appropriate training.

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CONCLUSION

Solar powered irrigation is a highly beneficial alternative method, especially in high sunlight
receiving areas and which are at remote points. In India this system is not grown wide because of
high initial installation costs and scarcity of able technology and technicians. In future, while the
prices of fossil fuels rise it is expected that the cost of the photovoltaic cell will decrease and this
system will become more cost competitive and more common. Today, an efficient solar pump
system has an average daily solar energy power to hydraulic efficiency of more than 4%. Solar PV
panel photovoltaic modules of the monocrystalline type now have efficiencies in excess of 12%
and more efficient motor and irrigation pumpsets are available.

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REFERENCE

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Renewable Energy. 6: 53–62.
3. Meah K. et al. Solar photovoltaic water pumping–opportunities and challenges.
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Feasibility Guide. Green Empowerment, no date indicated: 1-64.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-powered pump
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8. NYSERDA: Guide to Solar-Powered Water Pumping Systems in New York State

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