fibers

Article
Restrained Shrinkage Cracking of Fiber-Reinforced
High-Strength Concrete
Ashkan Saradar 1 , Behzad Tahmouresi 2 , Ehsan Mohseni 3, * and Ali Shadmani 4
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Campus University, University of Guilan, Rasht 4199613776, Iran;
ashkan.saradar@gmail.com
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Technical Faculty, University of Guilan, Rasht 4199613776, Iran;
behzad.tahmouresi@gmail.com
3 School of Architecture and Built Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
4 Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Higher Education Deylaman, Lahijan 441451174, Iran;
ali.shadmani.p@gmail.com
* Correspondence: Ehsan.Mohseni@uon.edu.au; Tel.: +61-416-468-653

Received: 7 December 2017; Accepted: 1 February 2018; Published: 19 February 2018

Abstract: Concrete shrinkage and volume reduction happens due to the loss of moisture,
which eventually results in cracks and more concrete deformation. In this study, the effect of
polypropylene (PP), steel, glass, basalt, and polyolefin fibers on compressive and flexural strength,
drying shrinkage, and cracking potential, using the ring test at early ages of high-strength concrete
mixtures, was investigated. The restrained shrinkage test was performed on concrete ring specimens
according to the ASTM C1581 standard. The crack width and age of restrained shrinkage cracking
were the main parameters studied in this research. The results indicated that the addition of fiber
increases the compressive strength by 16%, 20%, and 3% at the age of 3, 7, and 28 days, respectively,
and increases the flexural toughness index up to 7.7 times. Steel and glass fibers had a better
performance in flexural strength, but relatively poor action in the velocity reduction and cracking
time of the restrained shrinkage. Additionally, cracks in all concrete ring specimens except for
the polypropylene-containing mixture, was developed to a full depth crack. The mixture with
polypropylene fiber indicated a reduction in crack width up to 62% and an increasing age cracking
up to 84%.

Keywords: high-strength concrete; restrained shrinkage; fibers; cracks

1. Introduction
Concrete is known as one of the most applicable building materials all across the world.
Its economy, the accessibility of its components, its suitable strength under different environmental
conditions, and its high compressive strength are among the desired factors of concrete as a construction
material [1–3]. Over the last several years, the concrete industry has experienced growth and
development, which has led to the generation and development of concretes with high quality
and applicability, such as high-performance concrete (HPC) and high-strength concrete (HSC) [4].
Nevertheless, concrete is weak against tensile strength and high strain, which can be compensated to a
certain extent with reinforcement or fibers [5–7].
In recent years, fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) has received considerable attention in civil
engineering infrastructures such as pavements, bridges, tunnels, slabs, airports, shelters, and explosive
storages. In this regard, concrete’s low tensile strength and brittleness, the high length-to-diameter
ratio of fibers, and the distributed and dispersed concrete volume have been taken into consideration
in recent decades. It is worth mentioning that mixtures containing fibers (steel) or reinforced concrete
(RC) corrode and deteriorate (the load carrying capacity decreases) due to exposure to corrosive

Fibers 2018, 6, 12; doi:10.3390/fib6010012 www.mdpi.com/journal/fibers

Fibers 2018, 6, 12 2 of 13

environments (chloride or sulfate conditions) [8]. This issue leads to the growth and development of
micro- or macro-cracks, resulting in a decreased service life and/or durability due to the increased in
water penetration, chloride ions, or carbonation. At this time and age, RC structure deterioration has
caused the development of new and innovative materials and methods for structural rehabilitation
and strengthening, as replacement of structures would be very costly and is thus prohibitive [9,10].
Employing fibers in concrete and cement-based composites, in order to increase toughness and
ductility in post-crack regions, have seen considerable growth. The collapse and destruction of
concrete is highly dependent on macro- or micro-crack formation under loading or environmental
effects [11–15]. Thermal and humidity changes in cement paste lead to micro-crack formation that
concentrates on coarse aggregate surface. In addition, more loading and environmental problems lead
to more micro-cracks in concrete. Applying different fibers is an influential factor in crack development
as well as in improving energy absorption and concrete toughness, which can lessen the possibility of
concrete structure failure, especially in regions under cyclic or seismic loads [16]. Using fibers plays a
key role in spalling, shrinkage, or thermal crack reduction as a replacement of thermal reinforcement.
Furthermore, the presence of supplementary cementitious material (SCM) such as silica fume and
fly ash, as well as the shape, size, type, volume, and fiber distribution pattern, are influential factors
in concrete’s technical and economic efficiency. A wide spectrum of fibers with various physical,
mechanical, and chemical properties are used for cementitious matrix reinforcement. Among accessible
and applicable fibers in cementitious composites, steel, polypropylene (PP), glass carbon, and basalt
fibers have been taken into account [17–19]. Figure 1 shows a schematic of fiber’s effect on the concrete
fracture process under tensile loading.
In general, shrinkage is divided into four categories: shrinkage at early ages (polyolefin or
capillary shrinkage), autogenous shrinkage, carbonation shrinkage, and drying shrinkage. Shrinkage at
early ages in fresh concrete occurs due to a humidity exchange from surface to environment (by
evaporation) and mass exchange through concrete to its surface. Polyolefin shrinkage at initial hours
is measured after casting that is preventable by optimization of the mix design and suitable curing.
Interactions between hardened cement paste and carbon dioxide lead to carbonation shrinkage [20,21].
Volume reduction due to this phenomenon occurs slowly in the surrounding area, such that it is
inappreciable compared to drying shrinkage. Drying shrinkage occurs due to humidity exchange
arising from relative humidity changes between environment and concrete. The latter case includes
the majority of volume changes due to shrinkage in high- and middle-strength concretes. For this
reason, this type of shrinkage is specifically studied in this research [22–24].
Extensive research has been carried out on the effect of various fiber types such as natural (organic)
and artificial (inorganic) fibers on concrete. The first trial for concrete reinforcement by employing
steel fibers was conducted by Baston and Ramualdiin in 1960 in the US [25]. After that, many studies
and industrial applications on steel-fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRCP) and other fibers were performed
to improve mechanical properties and durability. Based on the previous results, four main factors
are influential in fibrous cementitious composites bearing capacity and strength: matrix quality,
dimensions ratio, volume fraction, and bond strength (matrix–fiber interface). Vandewalle [26] studied
the hybrid fiber-reinforced composites with different lengths and fiber concentrations. Results from
measured crack opening displacement showed that short fibers are more efficient in regions with small
crack openings, while long fibers provide good ductility in wide cracks. Short and long fibers lead
to micro- or macro-crack bridging, respectively, thus resulting in an enhanced ultimate strain and
post-crack bearing capacity. Fiber rupture in a cementitious matrix is caused by elongation (tearing) or
pull-out [27].
In recent years, next-generation polyolefin fibers based on polypropylene show improved
performance. Their diameter and length yield new application possibilities. A couple of studies
have been performed to assess these fibers and their effect on concrete. Some studies have evaluated
the shrinkage of cementitious matrices containing natural fibers such as chopped coconut and sisal
fibers. Moreover, the effect of curing conditions, the materials ratio, and the different additives
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 3 of 13
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

chemical or
including inorganic
chemical ormaterials
inorganic(silica fume,(silica
materials fly ash, andfly
fume, slag) onand
ash, the FRC
slag)shrinkage
on the FRC was investigated.
shrinkage was
It is reported that
investigated. It is an addition
reported thatofan0.2% volumeoffraction
addition 0.2% volumeof sisalfraction
fibers inofcementitious
sisal fibers in mortar leads to
cementitious
reducedleads
mortar polyolefin
to reducedshrinkage.
polyolefinAdditionally,
shrinkage.the presence of the
Additionally, fibers can increase
presence of fibersthecaninitial cracking
increase the
time ofcracking
initial restrained timeshrinkage
of restrainedand shrinkage
control crack andgrowth
control effectively
crack growth at the early age
effectively of cementitious
at the early age of
composites [28].
cementitious A few studies
composites [28]. A concern
few studiesthe concern
impacts the of the polypropylene
impacts fiber on drying
of the polypropylene fiber on shrinkage
drying
of concrete [29–31]. The results indicated that the polypropylene fiber
shrinkage of concrete [29–31]. The results indicated that the polypropylene fiber can significantly can significantly reduce the
autogenous
reduce and total shrinkage
the autogenous and total of concrete.of concrete.
shrinkage
Mostofinejad and Hatami
Mostofinejad and Hatami [32] studied [32] studiedthe the effects
effects of using
of using polypropylene
polypropylene fibers onfibers on cracking
cracking caused
by concrete shrinkage and workability. The results showed that increased fiber contentcontent
caused by concrete shrinkage and workability. The results showed that increased fiber and lengthand
length considerably
considerably reduces reduces
polyolefin polyolefin
shrinkageshrinkage
crack surfacescrackup surfaces
to 86%up to 86% compared
compared to non-fibertospecimens.
non-fiber
specimens. Tassew and Lubell [33] assessed the mechanical properties
Tassew and Lubell [33] assessed the mechanical properties of glass fiber containing concrete. The results of glass fiber containing
concrete. The
indicated that results
addingindicated
fibers hadthat adding effect
no drastic fiberson had no drastic effect
compressive strengthon orcompressive
elasticity modulestrengthbut or
elasticity module
considerably but considerably
increased the flexuralincreased
or directthe flexural
shear or direct
strength. shear
Saghi andstrength.
Delbari Saghi and Delbari
[34] reported the
[34] reported
impact the impact
of polyolefin fibersof andpolyolefin
concrete fibers
strength and onconcrete
crackingstrength on cracking
volume caused volume caused
by polyolefin shrinkage by
polyolefin
in concrete shrinkage
slabs. Theinresultsconcrete slabs.that
showed The increased
results showed that increased
fiber content from 2 fiber
to 3%content
decreases from the2 to 3%
crack
decreases the crack surface of polyolefin shrinkage up to 98%. Not only
surface of polyolefin shrinkage up to 98%. Not only does the higher fiber content decrease the crack does the higher fiber content
decrease
width, butthe crack
it also width, but
increases the it alsorequired
time increases forthe time
crack required for
generation crack
on the generation
concrete surface,on the concrete
respectively.
surface,
In respectively.
one paper, In one paper,
entitled “Prediction Methodentitled “Prediction
of Drying Shrinkage Method
Crackofin Drying
Reinforced Shrinkage
Concrete Crack
Walls,”in
Reinforced Concrete Walls,” Lee and Seo [35] showed that “crack
Lee and Seo [35] showed that “crack width is heavily influenced by concrete compressive strength, width is heavily influenced by
concrete
bars compressive
diameter, strength,
and its ratio but isbars
barelydiameter,
influenced andbyits ratio shrinkage,
drying but is barely influenced
restrain ratio, wall by length,
drying
shrinkage, restrain ratio, wall length, or creep coefficient.” The number
or creep coefficient.” The number of cracks and their predicted shrinkage width were close to the of cracks and their predicted
shrinkageresults
obtained widthfrom werethe close to the obtained
experimental works. results from the experimental works.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic description
description of the effect of fiber on the
the fracture
fracture process
process of
of concrete
concrete in
in tensile
tensile
loading [36]. Reproduced with permission from Löfgren, 2005.
loading [36]. Reproduced with permission from Löfgren, 2005.

AA review
reviewon onthe
theexisting
existingliterature
literature onon fiber-reinforced
fiber-reinforced high-strength
high-strength concrete
concrete (FRHSC)
(FRHSC) reveals
reveals the
the fact that limited studies focus on the risk of cracking under restrained conditions for
fact that limited studies focus on the risk of cracking under restrained conditions for such concrete at such concrete
at early
early ages.ages.
GivenGiven the increasing
the increasing interest
interest in using
in using FRHSCFRHSC as a replacement
as a replacement for strength
for normal normal concrete
strength
in structural applications and construction of transportation infrastructure, there is a need toastudy
concrete in structural applications and construction of transportation infrastructure, there is need
to study the performance of concrete made of various fibers. The aim of the current
the performance of concrete made of various fibers. The aim of the current research was to study the research was to
study of
effect the effect offibers
different different fibers
on early age onshrinkage,
early age compressive
shrinkage, compressive
strength, andstrength, and the
the flexural flexural
strength of
strength of high-strength concrete (HSC). The studied parameters are width and type
high-strength concrete (HSC). The studied parameters are width and type of cracks, as well as cracking of cracks, as
well as cracking age arising from restrained shrinkage. Concrete mixtures containing
age arising from restrained shrinkage. Concrete mixtures containing 0.1% volume fraction fibers with 0.1% volume
afraction fibers
0.38 water to with a 0.38 water
cementitious to cementitious
material material ratio were used.
ratio were used.

2. Experimental Program

2.1. Materials
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 4 of 13

2. Experimental Program

2.1. Materials
In this research, Type I 42.5 Portland cement (with a specific gravity of 3.15 g/cm3 and specific
surface of 3.19 m2 /g) conforming to the requirements of ASTM C150 [37] was used. The supplementary
material included silica fume (with a specific gravity of 2.2 g/cm3 and specific surface of 21.2 m2 /g)
conforming to the requirements of ASTM C1240 [38]. Chemical compositions of the cementitious
materials are given in Table 1. The aggregates were composed of naturally crushed coarse aggregates,
with a specific gravity of 2.67 g/cm3 and 19 mm nominal maximum size, and washed natural sand
with a specific gravity of 2.61 g/cm3 . Figure 2 shows the grain size of the aggregates consumed. In this
research, five different types of fibers were used: polypropylene, steel, glass, basalt, and polyolefin
with a 0.1% volume of concrete mixture. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the fibers.

Table 1. Chemical composition of cementitious materials (% by mass).

Chemical Composition (% by Mass)

Materials
CaO SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MgO K2 O Na2 O SO3
Cement 64.37 21.08 5.36 3.64 2 0.82 0.5 2.2
Silica fume 1.5 92 1.5 2.5 2 - - -

Table 2. Characteristics of fibers.

Length Diameter Density Tensile Elasticity

Fiber Type Shape
(mm) (mm) (g/cm3 ) Strength (MPa) Modulus (GPa)

Steel 13 0.2 7.85 1000 210

Polypropylene 12 0.02 0.91 451 4.5

Glass 12 0.012 2.7 1850 65

Basalt 12 0.01 2.67 2100 79

Polyolefin 12 1.07 0.92 350 6

 Table 1. Chemical composition of cementitious materials (% by mass).

Chemical Composition (% by Mass)

Materials
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO K2O Na2O SO3
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 Cement 64.37 21.08 5.36 3.64 2 0.82 0.5 2.2 5 of 13
Silica fume 1.5 92 1.5 2.5 2 - - -

Figure
Figure 2. Particle
2. Particle size
size distributionofofthe
distribution thefine
fineand
andcoarse
coarse aggregate.
aggregate.

Table 2. Characteristics of fibers.

2.2. Concrete Mixtures
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13
Length Diameter Density Tensile Elasticity
InFiber
thisType Shape mixtures consisting of a control specimen
study, six concrete (mm) (mm) (g/cm3) and five
Strength fibrousModulus
(MPa) concretes with
(GPa)
2.2. Concrete Mixtures
a water-to-cement ratio of 0.38 were designed. Additionally, 10% of cement by weight was replaced by
silica fume. In thistostudy,
Due sixwater-to-cement
the low concrete mixturesratio,
consisting of a control
a P10-3R0 specimen and fivesuperpolyolefinizer
polycarboxilate-based fibrous concretes
Steel
with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.38
13 were designed.
additive was used. Mixture details are given in Table 3. 0.2 Additionally,
7.85 10% of cement
1000 by weight
210 was
replaced by silica fume. Due to the low water-to-cement ratio, a P10-3R0 polycarboxilate-based
Concrete mixes were cast into molds after workability testing, and they were then coated with a
superpolyolefinizer additive was used. Mixture details are given in Table 3.
polyolefin cover to prevent the initial moisture vapor. After 24 h, the concrete samples were demolded
Concrete mixes were cast into molds after workability testing, and they were then coated with a
and cured in a water tank at normal temperature until testing day (Figure 3).
polyolefin cover to prevent the initial moisture vapor. After 24 h, the concrete samples were
Polypropylene 12 0.02 0.91 451 4.5
demolded and cured in a water tank at normal temperature until testing day (Figure 3).
Table 3. Proportions of the investigated concrete mixtures.
Table 3. Proportions of the investigated concrete mixtures.
Aggregate Fibers
MIX ID # Cement Silica fume Aggregate Fibers
Glass W/Bi 12 0.012 2.7 1850
MIX ID W/Bi# Cement Silica fume
Fine Fine
Coarse
Coarse SP
SP PP
PP ST
ST
G B
G P
B65 P
HSC-0 * 0.38 *
HSC-0 405
0.38 405 45 45 781 781 1016
1016 2.322.32 - - - - - -- -- -
HSC-P 0.38
HSC-P 405
0.38 405 45 45 781 781 1016
1016 33 0.91 - - - - -
0.91 -- -
HSC-S 0.38
HSC-S 405
0.38 405 45 45 781 781 1016
1016 2.9
2.9 - - 7.857.85 - -- -- -
Basalt
HSC-G 0.38
HSC-G 405
0.38 405 4512 45 7810.01
781 1016 2.67
1016 2.55
2.55 - - 2100
- - 2.7 2.7- -79
- -
HSC-B HSC-B
0.38 0.38
405 405 45 45 781 781 1016 2.75
1016 2.75 - - - - - -2.67 2.67
- -
HSC-PL HSC-PL
0.38 0.38
405 405 45 45 781 781 1016 2.65
1016 2.65 - - - - - -- 1.3
- 1.3
*: 0: no# :fibers,
*: 0: no fibers,
# : Bi: SP:
Bi: binder, binder, SP: superpolyolefinizer,
superpolyolefinizer, PP: polypropylene,
PP: polypropylene, ST: steel, ST: steel, B:
G: glass, G: basalt,
glass, B:
P: basalt, P:
polyolefin.
Polyolefin
polyolefin. 12 1.07 0.92 350 6

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Concrete mixtures under curing: (a) coated with a polyolefin cover before demolding; (b)
Figure 3. Concrete mixtures under curing: (a) coated with a polyolefin cover before demolding; (b) wet
wet condition after demolding.
condition after demolding.
2.3. Testing Procedure
2.3. Testing Procedure
Unlike workability assessment of ordinary concrete, in which the amount of concrete slump is
Unlike workability
measured after the assessment
lifting of the of ordinary
Abrams cone,concrete, in which
in the fibrous the amount
concretes, of concrete
the concrete slump
flow time in a is
reverse
measured afterAbrams cone of
the lifting under
the the external
Abrams vibration
cone, in theisfibrous
measured. This testthe
concretes, wasconcrete
carried out according
flow time in a
to ASTM C 995 [39].
The compressive strength of concrete mixtures was evaluated using cubic samples with a
dimension of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm according to BS EN 12390-3 [40] at ages of 3, 7, and 28
days. The loading speed used in this test was 1350 N/s. The average of three samples were reported
as the result of compressive strength.
Flexural strength test with a loading speed of 0.5 mm/s in the mid-span of the four-point beams,
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 6 of 13

reverse Abrams cone under the external vibration is measured. This test was carried out according to
ASTM C 995 [39].
The compressive strength of concrete mixtures was evaluated using cubic samples with a
dimension of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm according to BS EN 12390-3 [40] at ages of 3, 7, and 28 days.
The loading speed used in this test was 1350 N/s. The average of three samples were reported as the
result of compressive strength.
Flexural strength test with a loading speed of 0.5 mm/s in the mid-span of the four-point beams,
according to ASTM C1609 [41], was performed on prismatic specimens of 100 × 100 × 500 mm at
28 days. The distance between supports was 400 mm, as shown in Figure 4. Toughness is the property
of a material
Fibers 2018, 6, xthat
FOR expresses
PEER REVIEW its resistance to the rupture under stresses. According to the literature6[42],
of 13
flexural toughness is defined as ratio of the absorbed energy (area under the displacement curve
duringthe
during theflexural
flexuraltest)
test)totothe
the sample
sample cross-section,
cross-section, which
which cancan be calculated
be calculated according
according to Equation
to Equation (1):
(1):
absorbed energy
Toughness =
Toughness (1)
(1)
b×h
wherebbisisthe
where thecross-section
cross-sectionarea
areaofofthe
the prism
prism sample
sample in in (mm)
(mm) and
and h ish the
is the depth
depth of the
of the cross-section
cross-section of
of the prism sample in
the prism sample in (mm). (mm).

(a) (b)

Figure4. 4.
Figure Flexural
Flexural strength
strength machine:
machine: (a) prismatic
(a) prismatic specimenspecimen under
under four- four- point
point flexural; flexural; (b)
(b) configuration
configuration of four- point
of four- point flexural test. flexural test.

The restrained shrinkage test was performed according to ASTM C 1581 [43]. Accordingly,
The restrained shrinkage test was performed according to ASTM C 1581 [43]. Accordingly,
concrete specimens were made in the form of a ring with a height of 150 mm, an inner diameter of 33
concrete specimens were made in the form of a ring with a height of 150 mm, an inner diameter of
mm and an outer diameter of 40.6 mm (Figure 5). In Figure 5, details of the concrete ring specimen
33 mm and an outer diameter of 40.6 mm (Figure 5). In Figure 5, details of the concrete ring specimen
are shown. Concrete rings were placed on a waterproof plate (made of polyolefin). After 24 h, outer
are shown. Concrete rings were placed on a waterproof plate (made of polyolefin). After 24 h,
steel rings were demolded and the upper part of the concrete rings were covered with paraffin wax
outer steel rings were demolded and the upper part of the concrete rings were covered with paraffin
to prevent moisture evaporation. To measure the steel ring strain, two strain gauges were installed
wax to prevent moisture evaporation. To measure the steel ring strain, two strain gauges were installed
in the middle of the steel ring height in opposite directions. A data logger was used to continuously
in the middle of the steel ring height in opposite directions. A data logger was used to continuously
record the data. The process of measuring the shrinkage of concrete rings is shown in Figure 6. The
record the data. The process of measuring the shrinkage of concrete rings is shown in Figure 6.
shrinkage of concrete rings was measured right after demolding. Due to the high dependence of
The shrinkage of concrete rings was measured right after demolding. Due to the high dependence
shrinkage to the environmental factors such as the temperature and humidity in the early ages,
of shrinkage to the environmental factors such as the temperature and humidity in the early ages,
concrete rings were kept in a room with a constant temperature of 22 °C and a humidity of 60%,
concrete rings were kept in a room with a constant temperature of 22 ◦ C and a humidity of 60%,
which were constantly monitored in environmental conditions.
whichAwerehighconstantly monitored in
quality microscope environmental
was applied for conditions.
measuring crack widths in concrete rings. The
apparatus operates by an adjustable lamp unit, andmeasuring
A high quality microscope was applied for the image crack widths
is focused in concrete
by turning rings.
a knob. Its
The apparatus and
magnification operates by an
accuracy adjustable
were 40× and lamp unit,respectively.
0.01 mm, and the image is focused by turning a knob.
Its magnification and accuracy were 40× and 0.01 mm, respectively.
 shrinkage to the environmental factors such as the temperature and humidity in the early ages,
concrete rings were kept in a room with a constant temperature of 22 °C and a humidity of 60%,
which were constantly monitored in environmental conditions.
A high quality microscope was applied for measuring crack widths in concrete rings. The
apparatus
Fibers 2018, 6, 12operates by an adjustable lamp unit, and the image is focused by turning a knob. 7Its
of 13
magnification and accuracy were 40× and 0.01 mm, respectively.

Figure 5. Details of the ring mold listed in the standard.

Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
Figure 5. Details of the ring mold listed in the standard.
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Figure 6. Measurement process of concrete rings.

Figure 6. Measurement process of concrete rings.
Figure 6. Measurement process of concrete rings.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Fresh Concrete Workability
3.1. Fresh Concrete Workability
3.1. Fresh Concrete
The way Workability
fibers are added to concrete mixture affects its balling or clumping. In order to reduce
The
theseThe way fibers
effects, are
fibers areadded
were to concrete
mixed mixturebefore
with aggregate affects its balling or clumping. Insplitting
order to cubic
reduce
way fibers added to concrete mixture affectsadding water,
its balling so that after
or clumping. In order to reduce
these effects,
specimens fibers
with were
an were mixed
age ofmixed with
1 day,with aggregate
and aggregate
fibers were before adding
favorably water,
dispersed so that after splitting cubic
these effects, fibers before adding water, sointhat
the after
cementitious
splittingmatrix
cubic
specimens
volume. Flow
specimens
with an
with
age
times of 1 day,
of each
an age
and
of 1mixture
fibers
day, and
were
arefibers favorably
givenwere
in Figure dispersed in
7. The dispersed
favorably
the cementitious
addition ofinfibers matrix volume.
had no considerable
the cementitious matrix
Flow times
effect on of each
flow mixture
time. In are
mixturesgiven in
containingFigure 7.
steel The
fibers, addition
flow timeof fibers
showed
volume. Flow times of each mixture are given in Figure 7. The addition of fibers had had no
minimal considerable
rise-up. Theeffect
targeton
no considerable
flow time.
slump In
was mixtures
25 mm, containing
which steel
correlates to fibers,
a flow flow
time time
of 15 showed
s. minimal rise-up.
effect on flow time. In mixtures containing steel fibers, flow time showed minimal rise-up. The target The target slump
was 25 mm, which correlates to a flow time of
slump was 25 mm, which correlates to a flow time of 15 s. 15 s.

Figure 7. The flow time of fresh concrete mixtures.

Figure 7. The flow time of fresh concrete mixtures.
3.2. Compressive Strength Figure 7. The flow time of fresh concrete mixtures.
3.2. Compressive
CompressiveStrength
stress testing was performed at 3, 7, and 28 days, and the results are given in Figure
8. It was observedstress
Compressive that the compressive
testing strength
was performed at of theand
3, 7, fibrous concrete
28 days, at results
and the early ages
are increased up to
given in Figure
16%
8. (HSC-G,
It was 3 days)
observed andcompressive
that the 20% (HSC, strength
7 days) respectively,
of the fibrous compared
concrete atto control
early ages concrete,
increasedwhich
up to
increased
16% up to3 3%
(HSC-G, by 28
days) days.
and 20%This shows
(HSC, the positive
7 days) effect of
respectively, fibers at early
compared ages. Despite
to control concrete,thewhich
need
for high-strength acquisition at early ages in the above-mentioned cases, using fibers was positively
increased up to 3% by 28 days. This shows the positive effect of fibers at early ages. Despite the need
 Fibers 2018, 6, 12 8 of 13

3.2. Compressive Strength

Compressive stress testing was performed at 3, 7, and 28 days, and the results are given in Figure 8.
It was observed that the compressive strength of the fibrous concrete at early ages increased up to 16%
(HSC-G, 3 days) and 20% (HSC, 7 days) respectively, compared to control concrete, which increased
up to 3% by 28 days. This shows the positive effect of fibers at early ages. Despite the need for
high-strength acquisition at early ages in the above-mentioned cases, using fibers was positively
efficient. At 7 days, the strength of all mixtures (except for HSC-P) was higher than that of the control
concrete. It seems that the matrix–fiber interface bond quality was weak, which led to a drop in strength.
At 28 days, the polyolefin-fiber-containing mixture dropped in strength. After cubic specimen failure,
it was observed that the balling effect in some portions blocked a smooth stress distribution and an
Fibers optimal
2018, 6, x stabilization.
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

Figure 8. 8.
Figure Compressive
Compressivestrength ofconcrete
strength of concretemixtures.
mixtures.

3.3. Flexural Strength

3.3. Flexural Strength
Flexural strength
Flexural strengthtesting
testingwas performedonon
was performed concrete
concrete mixtures
mixtures at 28and
at 28 days, days,
the and the
results areresults
given are
givenin in Table
Table 4. Load–deflection
4. Load–deflection curvescurves are shown
are shown in Figurein9.Figure 9. The
The fibrous fibrous
concrete concrete
exhibited exhibited
optimal
behavior
optimal and performance
behavior and performancecompared to ordinary
compared to concrete
ordinary under bending.
concrete underAccording
bending. to the volumetric
According to the
fiber content used, the main aim was to improve concrete cracking at early ages.
volumetric fiber content used, the main aim was to improve concrete cracking at early ages. The The flexural strength
of fibrous
flexural specimens
strength wasspecimens
of fibrous 22% higherwas than22%
control specimens,
higher with HSC-S
than control being the
specimens, highest
with HSC-S strength.
being the
Fibers with higher stiffness (steel or basalt) exhibited the highest strength. In this test, after loading,
highest strength. Fibers with higher stiffness (steel or basalt) exhibited the highest strength. In this
two rupture modes emerged: in the first mode, for fibers with low tensile strength, rupture occurred
test, after loading, two rupture modes emerged: in the first mode, for fibers with low tensile strength,
right after fibers tensile rupture; in the second mode, specimens exhibited load–demanding behavior
rupture occurred right after fibers tensile rupture; in the second mode, specimens exhibited load–
after the first tensile crack. Figure 10 shows steel fiber pull-out and fiber bridging. In Figure 9, except for
demanding behavior after mixture,
the steel-fiber-containing the firstnotensile
flexuralcrack. Figure
prismatic 10 shows
exhibits steel
post-crack fiber pull-out
behavior, which could andbefiber
bridging. In Figure
explained by the9,low
except
fiberfor the steel-fiber-containing
content. Figure 11 illustrates themixture, no flexuralwith
prism specimens prismatic exhibits
or without fiberspost-
crackafter
behavior,
flexural which
loading.could be toughness
Flexural explainedand byabsorbed
the lowenergy
fiber content.
are the mostFigure 11 illustrates
important phenomena the prism
that
specimens
measure with or without
the fibrous fiberspost-crack
concretes’ after flexural loading.
strength. In thisFlexural
study, thetoughness and absorbed
control of fibrous energy are
prism specimen
splitting
the most and toughness
important phenomena measurement was not
that measure thepossible.
fibrousOnly the toughness
concretes’ of steel-fiber-containing
post-crack strength. In this study,
mixtures was measured, which exhibits post-crack behavior.
the control of fibrous prism specimen splitting and toughness measurement was Table 4 shows the results of flexuralOnly
not possible.
toughness absorbed
the toughness energy in concretemixtures
of steel-fiber-containing mixtures.was measured, which exhibits post-crack behavior.
Table 4 shows the results of flexural toughness absorbed energy in concrete mixtures.

Table 4. Summary of flexural strength testing.

MIX Ultimate Ultimate Flexural Ultimate Load First Crack Absorbed First Crack Toughness
ID Load (KN) Strength (MPa) Deflection (mm) Energy (KN-mm) (N/mm × 10−4)
HSC0 12.1 4.8 0.9 2.42 2419.5
HSC-P 12.5 5 0.93 2.86 2860
HSC-S 14.6 5.84 1.25 5.3 5281.7
HSC-
13 5.2 0.94 2 1988.1
G
HSC-B 14.7 5.88 0.97 4.2 4284.6
 crack behavior, which could be explained by the low fiber content. Figure 11 illustrates the prism
specimens with or without fibers after flexural loading. Flexural toughness and absorbed energy are
the most important phenomena that measure the fibrous concretes’ post-crack strength. In this study,
the control of fibrous prism specimen splitting and toughness measurement was not possible. Only
the toughness of steel-fiber-containing mixtures was measured, which exhibits post-crack behavior.
Fibers 4 6,
2018,
Table 12
shows the results of flexural toughness absorbed energy in concrete mixtures. 9 of 13

Table 4. Summary of flexural strength testing.

Table 4. Summary of flexural strength testing.
MIX Ultimate Ultimate Flexural Ultimate Load First Crack Absorbed First Crack Toughness
ID Load (KN) Strength (MPa) Deflection (mm) Energy (KN-mm) (N/mm × 10−4)
Ultimate Ultimate Flexural Ultimate Load First Crack Absorbed First Crack Toughness
MIX ID
HSC0 12.1 4.8(MPa) 0.9 (mm)
Load (KN) Strength Deflection Energy 2.42
(KN-mm) (N/mm2419.5
× 10−4 )
HSC-P 12.5 5 0.93 2.86 2860
HSC0
HSC-S 12.1
14.6 4.8
5.84 0.9
1.25 2.42
5.3 2419.5
5281.7
HSC-P
HSC- 12.5 5 0.93 2.86 2860
HSC-S 13
14.6 5.2
5.84 0.94
1.25 5.32 1988.1
5281.7
G
HSC-G
HSC-B
13
14.7
5.2
5.88
0.94
0.97
2
4.2
1988.1
4284.6
HSC-B 14.7 5.88 0.97 4.2 4284.6
HSC-
HSC-PL 13.7
13.7 5.48
5.48 0.98
0.98 2.4
2.4 2406.9
2406.9
PL

Figure 9. Load–deflection of specimens prismatic.

Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 9. Load–deflection of specimens prismatic. 9 of 13
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

Figure 10. Pull-out of steel fibers and fiber bridging.

Figure 10.
Figure Pull-outof
10. Pull-out ofsteel
steelfibers
fibers and
and fiber
fiber bridging.
bridging.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Prismatic samples under flexural loading: (a) specimen without fiber; (b) specimen
Figure 11. Prismatic
containing fibers.samples under flexural loading: (a) specimen without fiber; (b) specimen
Figure 11. steel
Prismatic samples under flexural loading: (a) specimen without fiber; (b) specimen
containing
containing steel
steel fibers.
fibers.
3.4. Shrinkage
3.4. Shrinkage
3.4. Shrinkage
Concrete ring cracking via restrained shrinkage was evaluated, and the relative potential of
Concrete ring
fiber-reinforced cracking
concrete via restrained
mixtures shrinkage
in shrinkage was evaluated,
crack control andwas
at early ages the relative potential of
Concrete ring cracking via restrained shrinkage was evaluated, and theshown. The
relative shrinkage
potential of
fiber-reinforced
test concrete
results are given mixtures
in Table in shrinkage
5 andinFigure crack
12. Three control at early ages was shown. The shrinkage
fiber-reinforced concrete mixtures shrinkage crackparameters wereages
control at early evaluated: (1) cracking
was shown. age, (2)
The shrinkage
test
crackresults
width,areand
given in Table 5type.
(3) cracking and Figure 12.ageThree
wasparameters were evaluated: (1) cracking age, (2)
test results are given in Table 5 andCracking
Figure 12. Three evaluated
parameters using
werestrain–time
evaluated:curves. Two
(1) crackingtypes
age;
crack width, and (3) cracking type. Cracking age was evaluated using strain–time
of cracks were observed: (1) full-depth cracks and (2) superficial cracks. According to Figure 12,curves. Two types
of cracks
cracks were
with fullobserved:
fracture (1)
arefull-depth
associatedcracks
with and (2) superficial
an abrupt cracks.
drop (more According
than to Figureor12,a
30 micro-strain)
cracks
compatiblewithdrop
full in fracture
strain. are associatedsuperficial
Additionally, with an abrupt drop
cracks (the (more
cracks thanare
which 30not
micro-strain)
penetrated or a
fully
compatible drop in strain. Additionally, superficial cracks
in specimen) are associated with strain–time curve as the local drop. (the cracks which are not penetrated fully
in specimen)
It can beare
seenassociated
that, afterwith strain–time
demolding, curve
cracks as the local
generated drop.
on the concrete ring surface developed to
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 10 of 13

(2) crack width; and (3) cracking type. Cracking age was evaluated using strain–time curves. Two types
of cracks were observed: (1) full-depth cracks and (2) superficial cracks. According to Figure 12,
cracks with full fracture are associated with an abrupt drop (more than 30 micro-strain) or a compatible
drop in strain. Additionally, superficial cracks (the cracks which are not penetrated fully in specimen)
are associated with strain–time curve as the local drop.
It can be seen that, after demolding, cracks generated on the concrete ring surface developed to
full-depth cracks by 28 days; however, in polypropylene-fiber-containing mixtures (HSC-P), no signs
of full-depth cracks were observed (Figure 12). This result shows that crack width was reinforced for
this mixture.
Polypropylene- or steel-fiber-containing mixtures exhibited the largest and smallest crack widths,
respectively. Polypropylene-fiber-containing mixtures obtained the best results in terms of width and
time parameters. Cracking age increased from 13 to 21 days (a 62% increase: 13 days for the control
and 21 days for the polypropylene-fiber-containing concrete), and crack width decreased up to 84%
(0.4 mm for the control and 0.065 mm for the polypropylene-fiber-containing concrete).
Steel fibers showed a lower crack width (lower than half, compared to the control concrete) at
first crack (at 11 days). It was seen that, in in vitro conditions, corrosion signs emerged in portions of
steel-fiber-containing concrete ring surfaces. Additionally, cracking width increases compared to the
control concrete as time passes. This could be due to the relatively high flexural strength of fibers used
in the mixtures. Glass-, basalt-, and polyolefin-fiber-containing mixtures experienced higher cracking
time, compared to the control; however, their crack widths were not considerably different from that of
the control concrete. Figure 13 shows a close-up picture of a crack generated on a concrete ring surface
of polypropylene-fiber-containing
Fibers 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW and non-fibrous specimens. 10 of 13

Table 5.
Table 5. The results
results of
of cracking
cracking age
age and
and crack
crack width
width of
of concrete
concreterings.
rings.

MIX ID Crack Width (mm × 10−−22) Average Crack Age (day) Full Depth Crack
MIX ID Crack Width (mm × 10 ) Average Crack Age (day) Full Depth Crack
HSC0 41 13 Y
HSC0 41 13 Y
HSC-P
HSC-P
6.5
6.5
21
21
NONE
NONE
HSC-S
HSC-S 20
20 11
11 YY
HSC-G
HSC-G 45
45 15
15 YY
HSC-B
HSC-B 45
45 14
14 YY
HSC-PL 40 20 Y
HSC-PL 40 20 Y

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Strain–time
Strain–time curves
curves of
of concrete
concrete mixtures.
mixtures.

(a) (b)
Fibers 2018, 6, 12 11 of 13
Figure 12. Strain–time curves of concrete mixtures.

(a) (b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. The
The shrinkage
shrinkage crack
crack width
width of concrete ring:
of concrete ring: (a) specimen without
(a) specimen without fiber;
fiber, (b)
(b) specimen
specimen
containing polypropylene (PP) fiber.
containing polypropylene (PP) fiber.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this study, the effects of polypropylene, steel, glass, basalt, and polyolefin fibers on the
In this study, the effects of polypropylene, steel, glass, basalt, and polyolefin fibers on the
compressive and flexural strength and shrinkage (early ages) of high-strength concrete were
compressive and flexural strength and shrinkage (early ages) of high-strength concrete were evaluated,
evaluated, and the following results were obtained:
and the following results were obtained:
• The presence of fibers at mixing time causes balling in fresh concrete and a relative drop of
• The presence
strength of fibers
in hardened at mixing
concrete time causes
at long-term balling
periods. The inaddition
fresh concrete
of fibersand a relative
caused drop of
an increase in
strength
the compressive strength at ages of 3, 7, and 28 days up to 16%, 20%, and 3%, respectively. in
in hardened concrete at long-term periods. The addition of fibers caused an increase
• the compressive
Among concrete strength
mixtures,atonly
agessteel-fiber-containing
of 3, 7, and 28 days up to 16%, 20%,
specimens underandbending
3%, respectively.
exhibited post-
• Among concrete mixtures, only steel-fiber-containing specimens under
crack behavior, such that toughness indexes of I5 and I110 were 4.1 and 7.7, respectively,bending exhibited
with a
post-crack behavior, such
residual stress of 0.75 MPa. that toughness indexes of I5 and I110 were 4.1 and 7.7, respectively,
• with a residualofstress
The addition fibersofto0.75 MPa. mixtures increased cracking age and decreased crack width.
concrete
• The addition of fibers to concrete
Comparison between shrinkage results mixtures increased
showed that cracking agehigh
fibers with and decreased crackflexural
stiffness (high width.
Comparison
strength), suchbetween shrinkage
as steel or glassresults
fibers,showed
exhibitedthatgood
fibers with high stiffness
performance (high flexural
in providing
strength), suchthey
strength, but as steel or glass fibers,
underperform exhibited
relatively in good
termsperformance
of rate and in providing
time flexuralshrinkage
of restrained strength,
but they underperform relatively in terms of rate and time of restrained shrinkage
cracking. Therefore, fibers such as steel, glass, and basalt are not recommended for restraining cracking.
Therefore, fibers such as steel, glass, and basalt are not recommended for restraining early age
cracking, so that they cause an increased crack width and a decreased cracking age. Polyolefin and
polypropylene fibers exhibit good performance in restraining shrinkage at early ages.
• Two types of cracks were observed in concrete rings: (1) full-depth cracks and (2) superficial
cracks. Over 28 days, cracks generated on concrete ring surfaces developed into full-depth
cracks; nevertheless, in polypropylene-fiber-containing mixtures, no signs of full-depth cracks
were observed. Polypropylene-fiber-containing mixtures had the lowest crack width, causing an
84% decreased crack width as well as a 62% increased cracking age.

Author Contributions: This paper is part of Behzad Tahmouresi and Ashkan Saradar’s work research.
They fabricated and tested the test specimens. All authors contributed to the analysis and interpretation of
data and writing this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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