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Quality in Higher Education

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An empirical investigation of students’

motivational impact upon university
service quality perception: a self-
determination perspective
a a
Yit Sean Chong & Pervaiz K. Ahmed
a
School of Business, Monash University, Sunway Campus ,
Selangor , Malaysia
Published online: 30 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: Yit Sean Chong & Pervaiz K. Ahmed (2012) An empirical investigation of
students’ motivational impact upon university service quality perception: a self-determination
perspective , Quality in Higher Education, 18:1, 35-57, DOI: 10.1080/13538322.2012.667261

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 Quality in Higher Education
Vol. 18, No. 1, April 2012, 35–57

An empirical investigation of students’ motivational impact

upon university service quality perception: a self-
determination perspective
YIT SEAN CHONG* and PERVAIZ K. AHMED
Downloaded by [Flinders University of South Australia] at 13:50 30 December 2014

School of Business, Monash University, Sunway Campus, Selangor, Malaysia

Based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, this study examines

the impact of an individual’s motivation in pursuing higher education
towards university service quality perception, with the individual’s learn-
ing style posited as the moderator of the proposed relationship. The con-
sequent effects upon satisfaction and behavioural intentions are also
assessed. From a large-scale questionnaire survey with a sample of 1919
business undergraduate students in Malaysia, this study found that those
who are more self determined to participate in higher education tend to
have a more favourable university service quality perception, which then
leads to a greater level of satisfaction and student loyalty. The moderat-
ing effect of learning style was also found in the interaction between a
student’s motivation to participate in higher education and university ser-
vice quality evaluation. The implication of this study underscores the
complexity of the service quality construct as well as the effect of moti-
vational differences and learning style upon university service quality
evaluation.
Keywords: student motivation; self-determination; university service
quality; structural equation modelling

Introduction
Trade in higher education services is a billion dollar industry that includes
recruitment of international students, establishment of university campuses
abroad, franchised provision and online learning (Knight, 2002). The growth
in numbers of international students is one manifestation of the global
higher education market place (Greenaway & Haynes, 2000). As public
funding has depleted over recent decades, these full-fee paying international
students play a significant role towards the budgetary health of educational
institutions (Oldfield & Baron, 2000).
In an increasingly competitive environment, service quality is a critical
component in the sustainability of the higher education sector, as students

*Corresponding author. Email: chong.yit.sean@monash.edu

ISSN 1353-8322 print/ISSN 1470-1081 online
Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13538322.2012.667261
http://www.tandfonline.com
 36 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

seek evidence of service quality when choosing a university in which to

enrol (Abdullah, 2006; Pereda et al., 2007; Angell et al., 2008). The impor-
tance of understanding students’ service quality perception is also under-
scored by the potential benefits from the long-term relationship between the
higher education institutions and their students, such as positive word-
of-mouth communication and possible collaboration with the institutions
after graduation (Alves & Raposo, 2007). In the Malaysian context, the
strengthening of quality assurance in higher educational institutions contin-
ues to gain primary attention in the Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011–2015). The
priority of raising quality higher education service delivery is emphasised as
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Malaysia seeks to advance from a stopover location education to a major

education centre of choice and a pivotal hub in the global education network
(PEMANDU, 2010).
In response to these developments, this study examines students’ motiva-
tion for participating in higher education as an antecedent towards university
service quality (USQ) evaluation and the consequent effects of service qual-
ity evaluation upon student satisfaction and student loyalty. A large-scale
questionnaire survey was carried out to elicit responses from business under-
graduate students in public universities, local private universities and foreign
branch campuses in Malaysia. The results obtained from the structural equa-
tion modelling provide responses to all the research questions set for this
study.

Scope of the investigation

While the relationship between perceived quality, satisfaction and behav-
ioural intention has largely been explored in the services literature where
satisfied customers are found to be more likely to repurchase a given prod-
uct or service (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Dabholkar et al., 2000; Alves &
Raposo, 2007), in reality the relationships are complex and not fully under-
stood by marketing academicians or practitioners. The study of associated
antecedents of perceived quality in a high-involvement setting is challenging
as each customer has a unique individual cognitive process that influences
perceptions relative to satisfaction, loyalty and behavioural intention (Ken-
ney & Khanfar, 2009). In an attempt to bridge this gap, a psychological per-
spective was adopted to examine students’ motivation for participating in
higher education as an antecedent of perceived USQ and its consequences
in the form of satisfaction and behavioural intentions. Therefore, the study
seeks to provide responses to the following research questions:

(1) Does motivation for higher education participation have an impact

upon USQ evaluation?
 Quality in Higher Education 37

(2) Is the relationship between motivation for higher education participa-

tion and USQ evaluation moderated by learning styles?
(3) What is the relationship between USQ evaluation, student satisfaction
and behavioural intentions?

Background of literature and conceptual framework

In conceptualising the antecedents and consequences of higher education
service quality, relevant constructs are identified from a wide spectrum of lit-
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erature covering research in service quality, teaching and learning and cus-
tomer loyalty. The integrative approach in drawing insights and variables
from various dimensions of the literature is intended to allow for a more
comprehensive understanding on perceived quality in the educational con-
text. This study posits that perceived USQ is influenced by a student’s moti-
vation in participating in higher education and this effect is dependent upon
the learning approach undertaken by the student. The outcome of this effect
has bearing upon the student’s satisfaction and behavioural intention. A con-
ceptual framework is developed to examine the antecedents and conse-
quences of USQ perception (Figure 1). In the following subsections, the key
constructs and associated research hypotheses are discussed.

Motivation for higher education participation

In this research, students’ motivation for participating in higher education is
investigated as an antecedent for service quality evaluation because the
motivation behind students’ enrolment is deemed to influence expectation
formed before enrolment and affects their study experience in the university

Antecedents Consequences
Learning
Style
H3.0

Degree of University
Self-Determination H1.0 Service H2.0 H2.0 Behavioural
Quality Satisfaction
in Higher Education Intentions
Pursuit Evaluation

Note:

(1) The Self-Determination Index in this study measures the extent to which a student’s decision to undertake a higher
education pursuit is primarily driven by his/her own free will or by certain controlling factors.
(2) H2.0 predicts the full mediation of Satisfaction in the link between University Service Quality Evaluation and Behavioural
Intentions.
(3) H3.0 postulates the moderating effect of Learning Style in the link between Motivation in Higher Education Participation and
University Service Quality Evaluation.

Figure 1. Antecedents and consequences of university service quality evaluation.

 38 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

(Vallerand et al., 1992; Athiyaman, 1997; Bennett, 2004). For example, a

student whose motivation for pursuing higher education is merely to obtain
a paper qualification may not take learning seriously and hence may not
appreciate the rigorous learning expected in higher education. This would
then lead to an unfavourable service quality perception towards the univer-
sity. The consideration with regards to student’s motivation in higher educa-
tion pursuits corresponds to Tinto’s (1982) work, which establishes that a
student’s retention in an academic institution requires goal commitment (to
obtain a college degree) and institutional commitment (to obtain a degree at
the particular college or university).
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Congruent with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008), this

study postulates that students who possess a greater degree of self determi-
nation (for example, those who are more instrinsically driven) tend to have
a higher quality of learning and report a more favourable learning experi-
ence. To test the degree of self determination in higher education participa-
tion as the antecedent of USQ evaluation, the following hypothesis was
developed:

H1: The degree of self determination in higher education participation will

positively influence university service quality evaluation.

University service quality evaluation

Generally, customer orientation forms the cornerstone of quality manage-
ment (Juran 1988). With reference to Peters (1987), Schwartzman (1995)
pointed out that ‘quality’ is defined by customer satisfaction; the customer’s
judgement determines not only how quality is measured but how it is
defined in the first place. To provide a more extended interpretation of qual-
ity, Parasuraman et al. (1988) suggested that customers judge quality by
comparing their perceptions of what they receive to their expectations of
what they should receive. Zeithaml (1987) further explained that perceived
quality refers to a consumer’s judgement about an entity’s overall excellence
or superiority.
It is observed that research efforts in higher education service quality are
often based on the SERVQUAL model, which proposes that customers
assess service quality based on five dimensions: responsiveness; reliability;
tangibles; assurance; and empathy (Cuthbert, 1996; Soutar & McNeil, 1996;
O’Neill, 2003; Barnes, 2007). Although the SERVQUAL model is widely
used in service quality research across industries, it is contended that the
SERVQUAL model is not appropriate for the higher education sector as
higher education services are more complex than other retail services such
as banking and restaurants (Abdullah, 1996; Cuthbert, 1996; Joseph &
Joseph, 1997).
 Quality in Higher Education 39

This research study employs a hierarchical conceptualisation of service

quality in the higher education environment based on the model proposed
by Brady and Cronin (2001) to capture the complexity of student perception
in the higher education service offering. The psychometric properties of the
model of Brady and Cronin (2001) were validated in various studies such as
Ko and Pastore (2005), Caro and Garcìa (2007) and Dagger et al. (2007).
To provide specific contextual relevance, modifications were made to the
model to incorporate ‘academic service quality’, ‘administrative service
quality’ and ‘general services quality’.
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Satisfaction and behavioural intentions

Much debate is found in the service literature pertaining to the causal order
of satisfaction and service quality (Bitner, 1990; Bolton & Drew, 1991;
Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Oliver, 1993; Dabholkar et al., 2000), where some
researchers argued that satisfaction is an antecedent of service quality
(Bitner, 1990; Athiyaman, 1997) while others argued for the reverse (Cronin
& Taylor, 1992; Oliver, 1993; Gotlieb et al., 1994; Dabholkar et al., 2000).
However, a dominant view, which has prevailed through the conceptual argu-
ments on the relationship between satisfaction and service quality, posits that
satisfaction is a consequence of service quality and serves as a mediating role
between service quality and behavioural intentions (Cronin & Taylor, 1992;
Oliver, 1993; Gotlieb et al., 1994; Dabholkar et al., 2000; Ting, 2004).
Paralleling the concept of customer loyalty, student loyalty can be viewed
from the aspect of behavioural intentions. The behavioural component
would encompass positive word-of-mouth communication (Athiyaman,
1997; Kotzé & du Plessis, 2003; Helgesen & Nesset, 2007), ‘repurchase’
behaviour in the form of returning to the same university for further studies
(Helgesen & Nesset, 2007), student participation in alumni activities
(Hennig-Thurau et al., 2001) or assuming a ‘brand ambassador’ role to
promote the corporate image and marketing activities of the university
(Vallaster & de Chernatony, 2006; Helgesen & Nesset, 2007; Voight, 2007).
From the above discussion, this study proposes that student satisfaction
mediates the influence of USQ evaluation upon students’ behavioural inten-
tions.

H2: Satisfaction will fully mediate the link between university service quality
evaluation and behavioural intentions.

Moderating effects of learning style

As discussed in an earlier section, students’ motivation for participating in
higher education is proposed to form their initial expectations on their study
experience at the university, which would influence the USQ evaluation due
to disconfirmation or confirmation of prior expectation and the perceived
 40 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

service performance experienced in the course of study. From the review of

the literature (Kember & Leung, 1998; Entwistle, 2001; Lizzio et al., 2002;
Diseth et al., 2006; Wilding & Andrews, 2006; Ballmann & Mueller, 2008),
it is posited that learning style may moderate the influence of motivation for
higher education participation upon USQ evaluation. This observation is
based on the argument that students’ dispositional tendencies towards a par-
ticular learning style would have implication on their academic achievement
and overall learning experience. For example, students who are intrinsically
motivated (those with a greater degree of self determination) tend to adopt a
deeper learning approach that contributes to a favourable learning experience
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(Diseth et al., 2006; Ballmann & Mueller, 2008).

Therefore, in this study, learning style is identified to be a moderating
variable between motivation for higher education participation (measured by
the self-determination index) and USQ evaluation, with a stronger relation-
ship expected for individuals who adopt a deeper learning approach.

H3: A student’s learning style will moderate the relationship between self-
determination index and university service quality evaluation, such that
the positive relationship is stronger for individuals who adopt a deeper
learning orientation.

Research methodology
Sampling unit
The subjects for this study were a representative cross-section of university
students pursuing a business bachelor degree in public universities, local pri-
vate universities and foreign university branch campuses operating in Malay-
sia. Full-time undergraduate students were the subjects for this study as they
offered a more holistic evaluation of a university’s service quality due to
their extended engagement with the institution as compared to part-time or
online students who may have relatively limited experience with university
facilities.
A sampling frame, which consisted of a list of universities in Malaysia,
was obtained from the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and per-
mission was sought from the selected institutions for administration of the
survey. A total of nine universities (four public universities, three local pri-
vate universities and two foreign branch campuses) agreed to participate in
the questionnaire survey. The questionnaires were administered at the faculty
of business of the participating universities via convenience sampling where
students were largely approached in the class setting. Although this conve-
nience sampling was administered with conscious effort to ensure balanced
representation of student samples from different types of universities and
year of study, this procedure introduced limitations in the form of a non-
randomised sample, which may consist of a more engaged student sample
as inferred from their class attendance behaviour. A total sample consisted
 Quality in Higher Education 41

Table 1. Sample characteristics of respondents.

Public Local private Foreign university Total
universities universities branch campuses
Gender
Male 139 254 223 616
Female 505 405 382 1292
Nationality
Local students 630 540 462 1632
Foreign students 14 118 142 274
Age
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Less than 20 50 54 154 258

years
20–24 years 557 568 442 1567
25–29 years 36 36 9 81
More than 29 1 1 0 2
years
Year of study
First-year 202 189 149 540
undergraduates
Second-year 238 180 294 712
undergraduates
Final-year 208 290 162 660
undergraduates

of 1919 students represented by a broad cross-section of gender, nationality,

age and different cohorts (Table 1).
The data gathered were then analysed using structural equation model-
ling, which is regarded as a powerful multivariate technique as it offers
advantages in (1) simultaneous estimation of multiple and interrelated
dependence relationships, (2) representation of unobserved concepts or latent
variables in examining these relationships and (3) accounting for measure-
ment error in the estimation process (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). As this
research study is interested in conducting a simultaneous testing of a series
of relationships between dependent and independent variables, structural
equation modelling is regarded as an appropriate method for the analysis of
the antecedents and consequences model.

Measurement scales
The questionnaire design in this study consists of key constructs, which are
‘motivation of higher education participation’, ‘individual’s learning style’,
‘university service quality evaluation’, ‘satisfaction’ and ‘behavioural
intentions’. The measurement scales used for these constructs are discussed
as follows.
 42 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

Motivation for higher education participation

The academic motivation scale (AMS) by Vallerand et al. (1992) was
adapted in this research study to measure students’ motivation for higher
education enrolment. The subscales provided in the AMS are used to
determine the level of autonomous motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, which is based on identified regulation), controlled motivation
(extrinsic motivation, which is based on external regulation, and introject-
ed regulation) and amotivation. From the mean of the AMS subscales, a
self-determination index (SDI) was computed to indicate an individual’s
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degree of self determination in participating in higher education (Fortier

et al., 1995). In other words, the SDI in this study measures the extent
to which a student’s decision to undertake a higher education pursuit is
primarily driven by his or her own free will or due to certain controlling
factors.
The index consists of a summation of specifically weighted scores which
is used to integrate the information from the different motivational subscales
under one score (Fortier et al., 1995). Intrinsic motivation and identified reg-
ulation items are assigned positive weights as they are considered to be
autonomous forms of motivation, with intrinsic motivation given a higher
weight (+2) as it reflects the highest quality of autonomous regulation while
extrinsic motivation of identified regulation, which is of lesser degree of
autonomous motivation, is assigned (+1) weight. On the other hand, for
amotivation and extrinsic motivation items (i.e. introjected and identified
regulation) they are assigned weights of –2 and –1, respectively, as they are
conceptualised as less self-determined forms of motivation. To arrive at an
individual’s score on the AMS, the mean responses for the seven subscales
are used in the following formula to calculate the SDI. Valid scores com-
puted with the above formula ranged from –18 and +18, with higher scores
indicating greater level of self determination.

Self-determination index = 2((IMKNW+IMACM+IMSTM/3)) + EMIDN –

((EMINT+EMEXR/2)+2AMOT)
where IMKNW = Intrinsic Motivation: To Know; IMACM = Intrinsic Moti-
vation: Towards Accomplishment; IMSTM = Intrinsic Motivation: To Expe-
rience Stimulation; EMIDN = Extrinsic Motivation: Identified Regulation;
EMEXR = Extrinsic Motivation: External Regulation; EMINT = Extrinsic
Motivation: Introjected Regulation; AMOT = Amotivation.

Learning style (LS)

For the purpose of this study, the Revised Two-Factor Study Process
Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) was utilised to measure learning style as a
moderator towards the relationship between motivation for higher education
 Quality in Higher Education 43

participation and USQ evaluation. The R-SPQ-2F instrument consists of a

deep approach (relating to students’ intentions to understand and construct
the meaning of the content to be learned) and a surface approach (referring
to students’ intentions to learn by memorising and reproducing the factual
contents of the study materials approach), with motive (five items) and strat-
egy (five items) subscales. These are answered on a seven-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 (‘always true of me’) to 7 (‘only rarely true of me’). Apart
from stronger psychometric properties (Phan, 2008), the construct was cho-
sen due to its greater relevance to the educational learning context, while
providing a more user-friendly administration of learning style survey (Biggs
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et al., 2001).

University service quality evaluation (USQ)

The questionnaire items used by Brady and Cronin (2001) were adapted to
assess the hierarchical construct of higher education service quality evaluation.
The university service evaluation quality is conceptualised as three primary
dimensions consisting of academic quality, administrative quality and general
services quality, while secondary dimensions and corresponding subdimen-
sions largely consist of variables proposed by Brady and Cronin (2001).
The design of questionnaire items for the three primary dimensions for
this proposed model were based on the primary dimensions used by Brady
and Cronin (2001) (that is, interaction quality, physical environment quality
and outcome quality). Adjustments were made to the subdimensions of ‘out-
come quality’ for academic and administrative quality as the service out-
come for these services was considered to be different from the retail
industries investigated by Brady and Cronin (2001). For academic quality,
the subdimensions that differed from Brady and Cronin (2001) are ‘learning
outcome’ and ‘employability’, while for administrative quality, the subdi-
mensions were ‘policy’ and ‘operation’.

Satisfaction
The scale proposed by Cronin et al. (2000) was adapted to measure stu-
dent’s satisfaction (SAT) with university services. In an earlier study, Brown
(2006) adapted the scale proposed by Cronin et al. (2000) in assessing the
drivers to student satisfaction and loyalty in the Australian higher education
context. The evaluative component consists of three items, which are ‘My
choice to study in my university was a wise one’, ‘I think I did the right
thing to enrol in my university’ and ‘This university is exactly what I
needed in order to study my chosen course’. The emotion-based scale
measures five emotional feelings, which are ‘interest’, ‘enjoyment’,
‘surprise’, ‘anger’ and ‘shame’.
 44 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

Behavioural intentions
Measurement items for behavioural intentions (BIT) in the context of stu-
dent loyalty were adapted from Helgesen and Nesset (2007) and Hennig-
Thurau et al. (2001) whose research studies have concentrated on modelling
and managing student loyalty in the higher education context. Measured on
a seven-point Likert Scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly
agree’, the measurements items included ‘I would be willing to recommend
this university to people I know’, ‘I would be willing to be this university’s
ambassador to promote the university in road shows, advertisements or exhi-
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bitions’ and ‘I would be willing to become a member of any alumni at this

university or at my faculty’.

Data analysis
The internal consistency of the scales and subscales for each construct was
preliminarily assessed with the use of the Cronbach’s alpha (> 0.7 accept-
able) and corrected item-total (> 0.3 for items to be retained) to identify
indicators that were not considered to represent a significant theoretical
dimension (Pallant, 2007) and identification of potential improvement in the
Cronbach’s alpha if the item is deleted. For a more detailed analysis of con-
struct reliability, confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken to assess the
relationships between observed variables and their underlying latent con-
structs. Upon confirming the unidimensionality of the constructs, the mea-
surement model was examined to ascertain the model fit.
To assess the model fit, evaluative criteria are centred upon goodness-of-
fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), Tucker–Lewis index
(TLI), comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean square error of approxima-
tion (RMSEA). Due to the large sample size in this study, the chi-square
value was not relied upon as the main evaluative criterion. For the model fit
to be acceptable, the benchmark set is for GFI and AGFI to be > 0.8; TLI
and CFI > 0.9 while RMSEA < 0.08.
In assessing construct validity, primary focus rests upon the assessment
of convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity
assesses the extent to which different constructs concur in their measurement
of the same trait while discriminant validity establishes the divergence of
different constructs in measuring different traits (Bryne, 2010). To ascertain
that convergent validity was present among the constructs of interest, vari-
ance extracted value is expected to be > 0.5 and the construct reliability
indicator is expected to be > 0.7 for an acceptable model. The discriminant
validity was assessed for each construct by examining the constructs in sets
of two (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). For example, ‘USQ’ was tested against
‘BIT’ to ensure that these two constructs did not measure the same traits.
Then, another test was performed upon ‘SAT’ and ‘BIT’ and so forth until
 Quality in Higher Education 45

every pair of constructs was tested. Discriminant validity was established by

constraining the estimated correlation parameters between each pair of con-
structs to 1.0 and then performing a χ2 difference test on the values obtained
from the constrained and unconstrained models (Chu, 2008).
The output of fit indices supported the adequacy of the measurement
model (χ2 (750) = 4258.364; p < 0.01; GFI = 0.894, AGFI = 0.878, CFI =
0.952, TLI = 0.948, RMSEA = 0.049). The construct correlation matrix gen-
erally indicated acceptable correlation between constructs while the variance
extracted and construct reliability exceeded the minimum threshold, which
was 0.5 and 0.7, respectively (Table 2). In evaluating discriminant validity,
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all χ2 differences of the pairs of constructs tested were significant at p <

0.05 (Table 3). The results from these evaluative procedures indicated that
all constructs examined in this study are valid and the measurement model
fits the data gathered in this study.

Model analysis and discussion

After assessing the measurement model, the next step was to examine the
model fit of the structural model and test the potential relationships between
variables by assessing the path coefficients and their statistical significance
(Koufteros et al., 2009). The structural model analysis focuses on examining
the directional relationship between constructs, which therefore enable the
test of theoretical propositions established in this study. To examine the pro-
posed research model, analysis was conducted to assess the following
hypotheses:

H1: The degree of self determination in higher education participation (SDI)

will positively influence university service quality evaluation (USQ)

H2: Satisfaction (SAT) will fully mediate the link between university service
quality evaluation (USQ) and behavioural intentions (BIT).

Table 2. Construct correlation matrix, variance extracted and construct reliability.

Construct/variable SDI USQ SAT BIT
SDI 1.000 0.029 0.113 0.071
USQ 0.169 1.000 0.583 0.521
SAT 0.336 0.764 1.000 0.728
BIT 0.267 0.722 0.853 1.000
Construct reliability NA 0.987 0.966 0.894
Variance extracted NA 0.687 0.608 0.680
Note: Values below the diagonal are correlation estimates (all significant at p < 0.001). Values above the diag-
onal are squared correlations. The variance extracted and construct reliability values were quoted from the
confirmatory factor analysis results for individual constructs. Key: SDI, Self-determination Index; USQ, Uni-
versity Service Quality Evaluation; SAT, Satisfaction; BIT, Behavioural Intentions.
 46 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

Table 3. Results of discriminant validity tests.

Constrained Unconstrained χ2 difference test
(fixed) model (free) model
Constructs χ2 df χ2 df Δχ2 Δdf
SAT vs. BIT 527.207 58 521.376 57 5.831 (> 3.824, p < 0.05) 1
SAT vs. USQ 3389.418 570 3353.727 569 35.691 (> 10.828, p < 0.001) 1
BIT vs. USQ 2697.039 417 2675.295 416 21.744 (> 10.828, p < 0.001) 1
Note: SAT, Satisfaction; BIT, Behavioural Intentions; USQ, University Service Quality Evaluation.
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H3: A student’s learning style (LS) will moderate the relationship between
self-determination index (SDI) and university service quality evaluation
(USQ), such that the positive relationship is stronger for individuals who
adopt a deeper learning orientation.

Test of direct effects

From the results generated for the proposed structural model (Figure 2),
the fit indices supported the adequacy of the structural model (χ2 (752) =

Figure 2. The proposed structural model.

 Quality in Higher Education 47

4417.730; p < 0.01; GFI = 0.887, AGFI = 0.870, CFI = 0.950, TLI =
0.946, RMSEA = 0.05) and all paths were statistically significant. Based
on the standardised path coefficients, H1 was supported such that a stu-
dent’s self-determination index has a statistically significant influence on
his or her USQ evaluation (β = 0.21, p < 0.001). The results showed, as
hypothesised, that the degree of students’ self determination in the pursuit
of higher education positively influences their personal evaluation of
USQ. It was found that the more self-determined a student’s motivational
disposition, the greater his or her perceptions of a positive USQ experi-
ence. Conversely, the less self-determined the motivational disposition, the
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less positive the student’s perception of USQ experience. Therefore, in a

particular service setting, the students may perceive their USQ experience
differently from one another although they may be experiencing the same
level of service standards. Someone with a greater degree of self determi-
nation tends to have a more optimistic view in their USQ perception, rel-
ative to someone who feels controlled or helpless in participating in a
higher education pursuit.
The path coefficient estimates from SDI to USQ was further examined
to assess the impact of the self-determination index according to discrete
primary dimensions, that is, academic quality, administrative quality and
general services quality. It was observed that the path coefficient from self-
determination index to academic quality was the strongest (β = 0.37, p <
0.001), followed by general services (β = 0.16, p < 0.001) and administra-
tive quality (β = 0.11, p < 0.001). This observation indicates that a stu-
dent’s degree of self determination in pursuing higher education has the
greatest influence upon academic quality perception compared to adminis-
trative quality and general service quality. This observation was expected
because the self-determination index was derived from the academic moti-
vation scale, which pertained to one’s motivation for pursuing higher edu-
cation; hence, the influence on academic quality perception was the most
dominant.

Test of mediating effects

Subsequent analysis was to test H2, which postulated a full mediating
effect of SAT upon the relationship between USQ and BIT. By applying
the recommendation provided by Hair et al. (2006) in this study, the sig-
nificant direct relationship between USQ and BIT indicates that full medi-
ation was not supported. When the path estimate for USQ to BIT was
not significant and other paths were significant, then the full mediating
role of SAT was supported. On the other hand, a partial mediation was
observed in a situation whereby all paths (direct and indirect) were sig-
nificant. To execute this test, an additional path from USQ to BIT was
included (Figure 3).
 48 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed
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Figure 3. Alternative model (additional path from USQ to BIT).

Note: All path coefficients are significant at p < 0.001.

The model fit indices supported the adequacy of the structural model

2
(χ (752) = 4417.730; p < 0.01; GFI = 0.887, AGFI = 0.870, CFI =
0.950, TLI = 0.946, RMSEA = 0.050) and significant improvement of
model fit was found when compared to the originally proposed model.
From the results of the mediation test, all path coefficients were noted
to be significant. The link between USQ and BIT was partially mediated
by SAT (0.554) while the total effect of USQ upon BIT was 0.734
(Table 4).

Table 4. Mediation test of SAT in the link between USQ and BIT.
Direct effect USQ → BIT 0.18
Indirect effect USQ → SAT → BIT 0.77 × 0.72 = 0.554
Total effect 0.734
Note: All path coefficients are significant at p < 0.001. Key: USQ, University Service Quality; BIT, Behavioural
Intentions; SAT, Satisfaction.
 Quality in Higher Education 49

From the above results, the path analysis provided evidence in support
of the partial mediation effect of satisfaction (SAT) in the link between
USQ evaluation and BIT. Although a full mediation effect was initially
hypothesised, the results emphasised the importance of service quality per-
ception towards influencing behavioural intentions in a direct and indirect
manner (that is, via satisfaction). Therefore, as asserted by Taylor and
Baker (1994), ensuring favourable service quality perception and customer
satisfaction should be of great importance for service organisations (in this
case, the universities); as these factors predict an individual’s behavioural
intentions such as positive word-of-mouth communication, becoming brand
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ambassador for the university, joining the alumni and return to the same
university for further studies in the future. Additionally, this study offers
support to prior work established by Cronin and Taylor (1992), Dabholkar
et al. (2000) and Alves and Raposo (2007) with evidence pointing to ser-
vice quality as an antecedent of customer satisfaction and also in highlight-
ing that customer satisfaction exerts stronger influence upon behavioural
intentions than does service quality. The partial mediation of SAT also
emphasised the importance of USQ in influencing behavioural intentions
directly, though in a lesser degree relative to the mediated impact of satis-
faction (SAT).

Test of moderating effects

In testing for H3, LS was hypothesised to moderate the relationship
between SDI and USQ. A preliminary analysis was conducted to deter-
mine the paired correlation between SDI and the total scores of deep
approach and total scores of surface approach and, as expected, a posi-
tive correlation was shown between SDI and total scores for deep
approach (0.343, p < 0.01) while a negative correlation was noted
between SDI and total scores for surface approach (–0.383, p < 0.01). In
other words, individuals who were more self determined in their higher
education pursuit tend to adopt a deeper approach towards learning, while
those who were less self determined (where their choices for higher edu-
cation pursuit were more influenced by external contingencies or not
motivated at all) tend to embrace a more surface approach towards learn-
ing.
As the scale for deep approach attained higher Cronbach’s alpha than
the surface approach scale (similar observations were noted in Biggs et al.
(2001) and Yonker (2010)), the total deep-learning score was used as the
moderating variable in the relationship between SDI and USQ. Following
Yonker (2010), the middle score was used to categorise the sample to
‘high deep scores’ and ‘low deep scores’. As there were 10 items for deep
and surface approach, respectively, on a seven-point Likert scale, the range
of possible scores for each approach was from 10 to 70 with a middle
 50 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

point value of 40. Therefore, respondents who reported total deep scores
of more than 40 were classified under the ‘high deep scores’ group and
those less than or equal to 40 were classified under the ‘low deep scores’
group. Although technically it was insufficient to conclude one’s learning
orientation based on the deep approach subscale alone, for the purpose of
this analysis, those who were categorised as ‘low deep scores’ were at
times referred to as surface learners for a clearer comparison between the
groups.
Based on the procedure recommended by Hair et al. (2006), the
multigroup analysis via structural equation modelling was used to test
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moderating effects. All paths in the structural model (Figure 3) were

first tested by allowing the hypothesised relationships to be estimated
freely in both groups, followed by the subsequent test, which was to
add a constraint fixing the relationship between SDI and USQ to be
equal in both groups. The unconstrained structural equation modelling
output presented favourable model fit indices (χ2 (1504) = 5430.013; p
< 0.01; GFI = 0.869, AGFI = 0.850, CFI = 0.944, TLI = 0.939,
RMSEA = 0.037). Upon the constraint added upon the path from SDI
to USQ, it was observed that the model fit had worsened significantly
(Table 5). This observation provided evidence in support of the moderat-
ing effect of the total deep scores upon the interaction between SDI
and USQ. The results indicated that the impact of SDI upon USQ eval-
uation differed between those who reported higher deep scores and
lower deep scores.
Contrary to expectation, it was found that the prediction of SDI on USQ
were stronger among those who reported low deep-learning scores (0.258, p
< 0.001) than high deep-learning scores (0.091, p < 0.01). In other words,
the magnitude of decrease in USQ evaluation (less positive perception) for
each unit of decrease in the degree of self determination was almost twice
greater for surface learners than deep learners.
To further examine these results, the moderating test was performed
again but specifically focusing on the relationship between SDI and the
discrete factors of academic quality, administrative quality and general
services quality. There was significant difference in χ2 between the con-
strained and unconstrained models, indicating there is a moderating effect

Table 5. Moderation test of learning style upon interaction between self-

determination index and university service quality.
Model χ2 df χ2 difference test
Δχ2 Δdf
Constrained 5435.622 1505 5.609 (> 3.841, p < 0.05) 1
Unconstrained 5430.013 1504
 Quality in Higher Education 51

Table 6. Moderation test of learning style upon interaction between self-

determination index and discrete dimensions of university service quality.
Model χ2 df χ2 difference test
Δχ2 Δdf
Constrained 5714.639 668 11.706 (> 11.345, p < 0.01) 3
Unconstrained 5726.405 671
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Table 7. Standardised coefficients based on high deep score and low deep score
groups.
Path High deep scores Low deep scores
SDI → Academic Quality 0.264⁄⁄⁄ 0.352⁄⁄⁄
SDI → Administrative Quality –0.019 (n.s.) 0.153⁄⁄
SDI → General Services Quality 0.043 (n.s.) 0.183⁄⁄⁄
⁄⁄⁄ ⁄⁄
Note: significant at p < 0.001; significant at p < 0.01; n.s., non-significant

of learning style in the link between SDI and the discrete primary dimen-
sions of USQ (Table 6). It was observed that for those who reported a
high deep score, only the link between SDI and academic quality was
significant (0.264, p < 0.001) while the links between SDI and other
dimensions (administrative and general services) were insignificant
(Table 7).
This indicated that for those who reported a deeper learning approach,
their degree of self determination in higher education pursuit has a positive
impact upon USQ experience but only with respect to academic services. In
other words, individuals who reported higher deep-learning scores tend to
be more self determined and more appreciative of the academic life, hence
they would perceive USQ more favourably. However, because the extent of
their self determination was only limited to academic pursuit, the relation-
ship between SDI and overall USQ tend to be weaker compared to those
who reported lower deep-learning scores.
Bearing in mind the positive correlation between SDI and the total
deep-learning scores, those who reported lower score in the deep
approach subscale tend to be less self determined and this would lead to
a less favourable perception in USQ. This impact was notably stronger
as academic activities represented a major part of the university life
(0.352, p < 0.001) and a surface-oriented approach to learning may inhi-
bit a true appreciation of the academic learning process. The negative
perception of USQ may be amplified by other aspects of services such
as the need to comply to rules or policies of the administrative offices
 52 Y.S. Chong and P.K. Ahmed

(0.153, p < 0.01) as well as the facility conditions in the university

(0.183, p < 0.001).
From this analysis, it can be observed that for those who adopted a lesser
degree of deep-learning orientation, they were less self determined in their
higher education pursuit and this had a negative bearing upon their percep-
tion of overall USQ. The strength of this relationship was noted to be stron-
ger than the ‘high deep scores’ group because the lack of self determination
in pursuing higher education resulted in a negative perception, not merely
with respect to academic services but also in the administrative and general
services contexts.
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Results gathered, therefore, generally supported the hypothesis that learn-

ing style moderated the link between SDI and USQ. However, contrary to
expectation, the strength of the relationship was found to be stronger among
those who reported low deep-learning scores compared to high deep-learn-
ing scores.
The outcome of this analysis highlights that USQ perception is subject to
individual characteristics such as their degree of self determination in pursu-
ing higher education and learning style, which has a consequent effect upon
student satisfaction and behavioural intentions. There is also notable
evidence that the psychological impact upon USQ perception varies among
groups of students who embrace a different approach to learning. For those
who adopt a more surface learning approach, they are more disposed to
have an unfavourable USQ perception, as they perceive all aspects of ser-
vice experiences negatively due to their lack of self determination. These
individuals are likely to be less satisfied and exhibit a lesser degree of loy-
alty to their universities through their behavioural intentions. For individuals
who report a deep learning approach, the degree of self determination
impacts upon overall USQ perception to a lesser degree as the positive
impact is limited to academic service quality only. For these individuals, the
favourable USQ perception leads to greater satisfaction and loyalty to the
universities.

Conclusion
From the quantitative data analysis using structural equation modelling, the
results revealed important findings regarding the role of students’ motivation
for higher education participation in predicting USQ perception and the
associated outcomes in satisfaction and behavioural intentions.
The research findings provide evidence in support of the psychological
impact upon USQ evaluation, in which an individual’s USQ perception is
subject to their motivational orientation in higher education participation.
The state of one’s motivational orientation in embarking on a higher educa-
tion pursuit is essentially very personal in nature and influenced by a myriad
 Quality in Higher Education 53

of factors such as social pressures, individual aspirations, parental/family

influences and others.
To some extent, an individual’s state of motivational disposition in pursu-
ing higher education determines their USQ perception and this is often
beyond the management’s control in service quality management. The
degree of this effect is also moderated by their learning approach whereby
those who adopt a deep learning approach tend to have a positive USQ
experience particularly in their academic encounters, which leads to greater
satisfaction and student loyalty. However, for those who adopt a surface
learning approach, the negative impact upon USQ perception is much
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greater due to the unfavourable perception in all aspects of service encoun-

ters. This has potential consequent effects of lower satisfaction and student
loyalty.
Drawing from the findings of this research study, it is suggested that
psychometric tests that assess a student’s motivation for higher education
participation could be incorporated during the course enquiry session (on
a voluntary basis). This allows for some level of understanding of the
individual’s preferences and motivation for entering a university so that
counsel could be tailored according to individual needs.
In conclusion, it is important for the university service providers to
understand the antecedent conditions of USQ perception, instead of merely
focusing on the ratings or outcome of USQ evaluation. This is because dif-
ferent individuals may vary in their evaluation of a similar service experi-
ence due to the different degree of self determination in pursuing higher
education. In other words, someone who is less self determined may evalu-
ate a particular service experience less favourably than someone who is
more intrinsically driven in higher education participation. Therefore, the
findings of this study necessitate careful consideration to be given to manag-
ing students’ prior expectations before enrolment, which arise from their
motivational dispositions and the associated outcomes in satisfaction and
behavioural intentions.

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