Hebron UPM Fabrication Project

FUNDAMENTALS OF BOLT
TIGHTENING

IKM Testing (UK) Ltd

 THE OBJECT
 To provide an understanding and the
importance of inducing the correct load in a
bolt.

 The methods used to obtain this.

 An appreciation of where the figure used

comes from.
 TIGHTENING METHODS
PARTIAL
UNCONTROLLED CONTROLLED
CONTROL

NO
PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE

LOAD/EXTENSION
MEASUREMENT
NO
PREPARATION
PREPARATION

RESULT
RESULT?
KNOWN

PARTIAL CONTROL METHODS : a) Torque Tightening (Hand or Hyd.)

b) Tension Tightening
Uncontrolled Method
TRADITIONAL BOLT TIGHTENING METHOD
FLOGGING SPANNER
(SLOGGING WRENCH)

NOT ANOTHER DAY

OF FLOGGING
NUTS & BOLTS !
 Methods of Tightening

UNCONTROLLED ? Flogging & Hand Spanners,

Impact Wrenches, etc

UNCONTROLLED Tightening is normally

performed with uncalibrated equipment, no
procedure, no safety, no accuracy, no control,
no competency, no quality and no traceability.
 50 tsi
Over-tightened bolts !
a c f h
Recommended Bolt Stress = 25tsi d
b e g
Under-tightened bolts !
0 tsi
c
b d

a e
Uncontrolled
Tightening f
h
g
0 tsi 17 tsi 25 tsi 38 tsi 50 tsi

Optimum Gasket
Seating Stress
Under-load Over-load

LEAKAGE ! LEAKAGE !

Insufficient
Gasket
Gasket Result of Permanent
Compression Uncontrolled Deformation
Tightening
 Uncontrolled Tightening

• 50% of Bolts Over-loaded

• 37.5% of Bolts Under-loaded
• Physically Demanding
• Time Consuming
• Poor Working Practice
• Dangerous
• Low Chance of Passing Hydro-test
• High Probability of Leaks
• High Probability of Re-Work
• Costly
• Lost Production
Partially Controlled
Method
 Methods of Tightening

Partially Controlled
Hand or Hydraulic Torque Wrenches,
Bolt Tensioners, Angle of Turn etc.
 What is
Controlled Tightening?

Controlled tightening is the use of specifically

designed equipment, proven bolt-loading
calculations and written procedures to tighten
joints to the desired tolerances, in a
controlled and safe manner.
 Considerations
• Desired Load
• Bolt Sizes
• Flange Class
• Pipe (Nominal Bore)
• Gasket Type
• Working Pressures & Temperatures
• Lubricant
• Access
 50 tsi
Over-tightened bolts !

Recommended Bolt Stress = 25tsi a b c d e f g h

Under-tightened bolts !
0 tsi
c
b d

a e
Controlled
Tightening
h f
g
 Controlled Tightening
• All Bolts Within Specified Tolerance
• Not Physically Demanding
• Time Saving
• Good Working Practice
• Safe
• Environmentally Friendly
• Hydro-test Conformance
• Minimal Probability of Leaks
• Very Low Probability of Re-Work
• Cost Effective
• Minimal Down Time
• Maintains a Leak Free Joint
 Bolt Torquing

Minimum of 1 (one) thread protrusion

Standard torque tightening procedure is to tighten bolts in a
diametrically opposite sequence.

15 1 13
1 7 5
7 5
12 9
4 3 4 3
10 11
6 8
2 6 8
14 16
2

8 Bolt Flange 16 Bolt Flange

Fully Controlled
Method
 Methods of Tightening
Fully Controlled -
Incorporates some form of bolt extension
measurement normally in conjunction with a
partially controlled tightening method.
Measurement of extension usually carried out
via ultrasonic equipment or mechanical means
such as an extensometer, comparator or
micrometer.

Comparator
Ultrasonic bolt measuring equipment measures the time of flight of a shock wave as
it travels through the bolt.
 CORRECT LOADING OF BOLTED JOINTS
When tightening a flanged joint the object is to :
a. Achieve the correct load in the bolt, therefore, the joint .
b. Evenly distribute that load across the joint.

Three main factors incorporated in flanged joint :

i The Bolt
ii The Flange/s
iii The Gasket

To achieve this correct loading the three factors above are employed in formula
used in Pressure Vessel codes BS5500 and ASME VIII.

This bolt/joint load must :

1a Seat the Gasket
1b Contain the internal hydrostatic test pressure.

2. Maintain a leak free joint.

 Characteristics of a Bolted
Mechanical Joint
The Integrity of a Flanged Joint has 3 main
components:
Flanges, Bolts & Nuts and a Gasket/Joint

The purpose of these 3 components when used

correctly is to join two pieces of pipework
together without leakage of the contained
product.
Bolts
 Screw Thread Forms
Prior to standardisation, workshops used their own individual thread forms. Joseph Whitworth toured
workshops in various parts of the country and then presented a paper in 1841 to the Institute of Civil
Engineers proposing a standard thread form with stated pitches for specific diameters. It was
accepted by the Institute and the British Standard Whitworth thread was originated.
P
Whitworth Thread Form BS 84 -1956
55°
r
Effective Radius

Effective Radius = Effective Diameter or Pitch diameter

2 2

Where Effective Diameter = Major Diameter + Minor Diameter

2 2

Approximately 20 years behind Whitworth, William Sellers in America carried out a similar exercise and
the American National Thread was established.
P

ISO Metric Threads (BS 3643) and UN Series Thread Form

Effective Radius = Effective Diameter or Pitch Diameter

2 2
60°

Where effective Diameter is derived from the pitch.

Effective (Pitch)
Note: The effective Diameter is obtained from the relevant British Standard.

Diameter
 Elastic Behaviour of Bolting Material
All methods of tightening result in stretching the bolt. If the bolt is not stretched it will not provide any clamping force
on the components being bolted together. In fact the bolt acts like a spring. After being stretched by whatever method
of tightening, the bolt material then tries to return to its original length, it is this behaviour of the material that provides
the clamping force.
Steel bolting material behaves elastically, when loaded bolt returns to its original length after removing the load, the
material is known as being elastic. However this property of elasticity holds good up to such a point called the elastic
limit of the material. If the load applied takes the material beyond its elastic limit the material will remain extended
when the load is removed. At this point the material is said to have permanent set.

The amount a bolt extends depends on the load on the bolt. It can be seen from the following graph that there is a
direct relationship between the amount of extension and the load producing that extension. For example if a certain
load causes a bolt to stretch 0.01mm, then that load is doubled, the extension will also be doubled to 0.02mm, when
the load is trebled, the extension will be trebled to 0.03mm and so on until the material is loaded beyond its elastic
limit.
 Elastic Behaviour of Bolting Materials

Steel bolting material behaves elastically, when a particular bolt is loaded it extends in length. The amount the
bolt extends depends on the load on the bolt and the relationship between the bolt load and its extension is of
straight form. This can be shown in a load extension graph or a stress - strain graph. Stress is the load per unit
area and Strain is the extension per unit length.

Stress N / mm2 Lbf / ins2

Load (in) (Lbf)

Load Stress -Strain

Extension Graph
Graph

Extension (mm) (ins) Strain (mm / mm) (ins / ins)

The Stress-strain diagram is of straight-line form within the elastic limit of the material. The gradient of this graph is
a constant known as the Modulus of Elasticity (E). Modulus of Elasticity (E) = Stress / Stain
and for steel this is approximately 30,000,000 lbf./in2, or 207,000 N/mm2.
Therefore, if E = stress / strain
then Strain = Stress / E
= 55,000 / 30,000,000 = 0.0018 inches / inch.
This is often expressed in bolt tightening specifications as a percentage as 0.18% strain which implies in steel a
stress of 55,000 lbf. / in2.
 Typical Load - Extension Graph for Steel
Yield Point - bolt remains elastic up to this point

Load at 2% Proof Stress - ie beyond yield

UTS

Plastic Region Breakage

Load

Elastic
Region
Extension

0.2%
If the load applied takes the material beyond the elastic region into the plastic region, the material would then
remain permanently extended, which is known as permanent set. If the permanent extension is 0.2% of the original
length of the bolt then the load producing it is known as 0.2% of proof load, which sometimes can be accurately
established than the load at yield.

Bolts are designed in terms of proof or yield stress.

The load applied to the bolt must be within the elastic region of the bolt material and is determined as a percentage
of either.
• The proof load, or
• Load at yield
 Bolt Material 0.2% Proof Stress
Tonf/in2

B7 47
B8 13.5

Comparison of bolt material yield strengths

 MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION &
TEMPERATURE RANGE FOR BOLTS
BOLT GRADE MATERIAL PROPERTY RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED
IDENTIFICATION BOLT TEMP CORRESPONDING
RANGE NUT GRADE

TENSILE YIELD MIN MAX

STRENGTH STRENGTH DEG. C DEG. C
B7< (2 1/2”) 56 47 -100 400 2H
>(2 3/4”) & < (4”) 51 43

B16 56 47 0 520 4

B8 35 13.5 -250 575 8

Extracted from BS 4882

Metric Series - care should be taken when using metric
bolting, as there are different pitch types in use, these are
Coarse, Fine and Constant.

Metric bolts are designated by the letter M followed by the

values of the bolt diameter and of the pitch, expressed in
millimetres and separated by the sign x.
Examples?
M24 x 3
M36 x 4
M56 x 5.5

The absence of the indication of pitch means that a

coarse pitch is specified.
Examples
M24
M36
M56
 Stud Bolt & Nut Identification

B7

Stud-bolt & Nut

Markings

2H
Spot face area
to be in contact
with flange
Gaskets
 Spiral Wound Gasket
Winding Metal
and Filler
Material

Inner
Ring
Outer
Ring
 Manufacturer

Nominal pipe
size
Manufactured
to ASME
B16.20
Pressure
class

Winding metal
and filler
material
 Spiral Wound Gaskets

Inner Metal Ring

Outer Ring

Filler Material

Inner Ring Material

Filler Material
Nominal Bore
Outer Ring Material
Piping Class
HOW DO SPIRAL WOUND GASKETS WORK?
Upon compression, the soft graphite filler material flows
into the flange imperfections and creates a tight seal.

Outer Ring Inner Ring

Flange
Imperfections Graphite

The metallic spirals hold the filler and give both

resilience and blow out protection to the gasket
SPIRAL WOUND GASKET RETAINING RINGS
Solid metal outer ring
used as centering
device and
compression stop

Solid metal inner ring

protects gasket
windings and
prevents buckling.
 Spiral Wound
Before Making joint check:

• Markings or stampings match

flange
• Inner ring does not protrude
into pipe bore.
• Gasket is central on studs/bolts.
 SPIRAL WOUND PRODUCT QUALITY

Scratches

It is relatively easy to scratch or score graphite based

sealing products during handling. Small scratches, scores or
indents are acceptable on spiral wound gaskets provided
that graphite is not removed. Upon compression of the
gasket the scratch will be removed

SCRATCHES ON GRAPHITE ARE ACCEPTABLE

SPIRAL WOUND PRODUCT QUALITY

Missing Graphite

If graphite is removed from the gasket then the

product should not be used. The area of the
gasket where the graphite has been removed
could become a leak path or may alter the product
seating characteristics.

MISSING FILLER IS NOT ACCEPTABLE

 Ring Type Joints – (RTJ)
• Initially developed for use in petroleum
industry, where high pressures / temperatures
dictated the need for a high integrity seal
• Commonly used on valves, pipework , drilling
equipment.
• Most commonly manufactured from soft iron or
stainless steel - however materials such as
titanium, incoloy etc are now being used
 Ring Type Joints
The RTJ plastically deforms under an axial
compressive load and flows into the
irregularities of the flange groove.

As the load bearing area of the ring type joint

is relatively small, very high surface stresses
result between the sealing faces of the ring
and its mating groove. This allows very high
internal pressures to be sealed.
 Ring Type Joints

Style R Oval and Octagonal configurations are

interchangeable on flat bottomed groove flanges..

Style RX - an adaptation of the Style R, using a

pressure energised effect which improves the
efficiency of the seal as the internal system pressure
rises.

Style BX - used for very high pressures up to 20,000

psi. A pressure balance hole equalises any pressure
which may be trapped in the grooves. On tightening
flange faces may end up face to face.
Insulating Washers
 GASKETS – Do’s and Don’ts
Do:
Check type, size and specification before use, check against piping specification
Ensure gasket is clean and free from damage before use
Ensure correct fit
Check flange gap after tightening joint containing gasket, gap should be uniform
Wear gloves when handling reinforced gaskets

Don’ts
Do not re-use old gaskets-fit new
Do not use a gasket that has no identification
Do not alter or cut a gasket to fit a flange

DO NOT USE GASKETS CONTAINING ASBESTOS

Flanges
 Flange Assembly Checks

Check that joint faces are clean and free

from cuts, indentations and other marks,
note particularly the presence of radial
marks crossing the joint face.
The surface finish should be within the
specified range.

Check that flange faces are parallel or

that the pipework is flexible to allow the
flanges to be pulled parallel and
concentric without undue bolt loads.
 Alignment of Flange

Particular care is required during assembly of the flanges to avoid misalignment. Misalignment not only detrimentally
affects the bolt load, but may also damage the gasket, bend studbolts, unseat nut spot face, and overload flange
stresses, all of which will adversely affect the joint integrity that will almost certainly promote joint leakage.
Flanges

There are various types of flanges available.The type and

material of a flange to be used is dependant on the
service duty of the line.

Flange Standards
For process and utilities pipework, the two most
commonly used flange standards are ANSI B16.5 and
BS1560.
A third standard, API 6A specifies flanges for wellhead
and Christmas tree equipment.
Types of Flange
Two of the most common flange
types in use, as illustrated below
are:
1. WELD NECK - the WN flange is butt
welded to the pipe. This type of flange
is normally used for high pressure
systems often involving hazardous
systems products

2. SWIVEL RING - as with the WN a butt

will be welded. A swivel ring sits over
the hub and allows the pipe flanges to
be bolted together. This type of flange
is normally found on subsea
applications where the swivel ring aids
flange alignment.
COMMON TYPES OF FLANGE FACINGS
Clamp Connectors
 Consideration of Bolt Loads in Joints

The combined bolt load from all the bolts in a joint must carry out three main functions.

1. Withstand the hydro-static end load when the system is pressurised.

Joint Loaded and System

Pressurised

2. To carry sufficient residual bolt load after the hydro-static end load is applied to clamp any gasket enough to
prevent system pressure pushing the gasket out of the joint.
3. Produce sufficient stress in the gasket to seat the gasket.

Residual Bolt Load

Produces

Gasket Stress

= Residual Bolt Load

Gasket Area

The gasket material must therefore behave both:

a) plastically to follow the contours of the face of the joint and effect a seal, and
b) elastically to allow it to recover a proportion of its shape in order to maintain contact with the faces as
prevailing conditions of pressure and temperature change.

Sufficient force must be exerted on the faces to plastically distort the layers of the gasket material into the
contours of the contours of the faces of the joint and form a seal.

But this force must not be so great that it overstresses the gasket material to the extent that it looses its
elasticity and, therefore, its ability to recover and follow the contours of the flange as conditions of pressure and
temperature change.
 GASKET SEATING STRESS
(BEAM DIAGRAM)

Absolute Minimum Absolute Maximum

Optimum Seating Stress Seating Stress
Seating Stress

Underload Overload
Leakage Leakage

Safety Safety
Factor Factor
Reliability Zone of Stress

Minimum Maximum
Seating Stress Seating Stress
 JOINT PREPARATION
CHECK LIST :
 Flange faces are clean, free
from grease & undamaged.
 Spot faces of flanges are
clean & free from paint
 Gasket is clean, undamaged
& free from grease
JOINT ASSEMBLY :
 Ensure flange faces are
aligned correctly
 Ensure correct lubricant is
used
 Apply Lubricant to :
- Spot Face of Nut
- Nut & Bolt Threads
 Ensure all Nut & Bolt Grades
are correct
 Ensure Bolt Protrusion on all
bolts is correct
Torque Tightening
Theory
 What is torque?

Turning
Moment

Force
 Torque Theory

• The bolt provides the clamping force to seal the joint

• Torquing induces a bolt stress to provide this force
• We need to know what this stress is, otherwise:-
 Torque Theory

Bolt stress is too low:

Gasket does not seat or seal and the joint leaks

• Gasket seats and seals but leaks in
service due to vibration, thermal
expansion, cyclic loading, external
loading etc.
 Torque Theory

Bolt stress to high:

The gasket is crushed and leaks due to over compression

• Bolts taken beyond yield strength

• Flange taken beyond yield strength
• Flange rotation
• Flange faces damaged
The torque equation and the factors that
effect bolt load

The torque value is based on the following:

• The required bolt load

• The dimensions of the thread and the nut
• The coefficient of friction at the lubricated
surfaces
 TORQUE TIGHTENING FORMULA
TORQUE = FORCE * RADIUS

T = W  P + Re. + Rs. 
 2 Cos 

= FORCE * INCLINE PLANE (CONSTANT) +

FORCE * THREAD FRICTION AT
EFF. RADIUS (VARIABLE) +
FORCE * NUT FRICTION AT SPOT FACE
MEAN RADIUS (VARIABLE)

T = Torque
W = Bolt Load (Stress x c.s.a.)
P = THREAD PITCH
 = 1
/2 THREAD INCLUDED ANGLE
Re = EFFECTIVE THREAD RADIUS
Rs = NUT SPOT FACE MEAN RADIUS
 = CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
 T = W  P + Re. + Rs. 
 2 Cos 

Force x Incline Plane

(Constant) +

Force x Thread Friction at

Effective Radius
(Variable)

Force x Nut Friction at Spot Face

Mean Radius. (Variable)
 Friction Factors For Consideration
Bolt Extension
10%

Nut Spot Face Friction Thread Friction

40%
50%

50% of the applied torque is used to overcome the nut spot face friction

40% of the applied torque is used to overcome the bolt and nut thread friction

10% of the applied torque is used to apply actual bolt load.

Note: Different lubricants have different coefficient of friction values. Do not

use other than specified lubricants.
 Methods of Loading Bolts
Partially Controlled Tightening

Torque required to
turn the nut
=P/2π

Nut friction at spot

face radius.
= Rs. µ

Thread friction at
effective radius
= Re. µ / Cos. Ø
 Example
1” dia UN8 Force W = Bolt Load = 45000 lb/in2 x 0.563 in2
Bolt Stress : 45000 lb / in2 W = 25335 Lbf.
Area of bolt Minor dia : 0.563 in2
Thread Pitch :P = 0.125 in
1/2 Thread Included angle Cos  =30o (0.866)
Effective Thread Radius : Re = 0.4595 in.
Nut Spot Face Mean Radius : A/F + Hole Dia (in) / 4 = 1.626 + 1.125 / 4 = 0.6875 in
Coefficient of Friction : µ 0.08 to 0.15

T= W [P/2 + Re µ / Cos  + Rs µ] Lb. ft

T= 25335 / 12 [ 0.125 / 2 + 0.4594 / Cos  µ + 0.6875 µ] Lb.ft

T = 2111.25 ( 0.0199 + 0.5305 µ + 0.6875 µ ) lb.ft

T = 2111.25 ( 0.0199 + [1.218 x 0.08] ) lb.ft where µ = 0.08

T = 2111.25 x 0.11734
T = 248 lb.ft
 Torque Formula Example

1in UN8 Bolt Force W = Bolt Load = 45000 lbf/in2 x 0.563 in2
Bolt Stress: 45000 lbf/in2 W = 25335 lbf
Area of bolt Minor Dia.: 0.563 in2
Thread Pitch: P = 0.125 in

½ Thread Included Angle Ө = 300

Effective Thread Radius: Re = 0.4595 in
Nut Spot Face Mean Radius: Rs = A/F + Hole Dia. in = 1.625 + 1.125 = 0.6875 in
4 4
Coefficient of Friction: μ = 0.08 to 0.15

T=W P + Re μ + Rs μ lb.in
2π Cos Ө

T= 25335 0.125 + 0.4594 μ + 0.688 μ lb.ft

12 2π Cos 300

T = 2111.25 [ 0.0199 + 1.218 μ ] lb.ft

T μ = 0.08 = 2111.25 [ 0.11734 ] = 248 lb.ft

T μ = 0.10 = 2111.25 [ 0.14170 ] = 300 lb.ft

T μ = 0.12 = 2111.25 [ 0.16606 ] = 350 lb.ft

T μ = 0.15 = 2111.25 [ 0.20260 ] = 428 lb.ft

 IKM Testing (UK) Ltd

Torque Calculator
(Slide Rule)
NOTES FOR HAND TORQUE WRENCH OPERATION

Pull the torque wrench steadily using its handgrip.

An uncontrolled pull may result in a false reading/ torque being produced.

As soon as your wrench indicates that the pre determined torque has been achieved
by for example ‘clicking’ or ‘ breaking’ stop pulling immediately.

Continuing to pull past this indicated point may cause a higher than required torque to be
applied, and may over stress the components of the bolted joint.

Always wind the torque wrench setting back to zero after use.
Failure to do so will eventually cause damage to the internal spring, causing it to weaken.

A hand torque wrench should be kept clean, and handled with care
If it is dropped or knocked then calibration of the wrench should be carried out.
 The USE OF
IKM Testing (UK) Ltd
TORQUE SLIDE RULE.
----------------------------------
 Bolt Tensioning
• Induces the load axially, by stretching the stud bolts within the elastic range of the material to
supply the required bolt loading.
• Bolt Loads are uniformly applied and controlled, the joint is effectively ‘clamped’ with minimal
movement.
• Joints normally have 50% tool cover but can in some cases have 100% tool coverage.
• The hydraulic pressure to ensure the required bolt stress is calculated to include a load loss
factor to compensate for load loss in the joint, following release of the pressure from the tool.
The bolt is therefore subjected to a stress higher than that desired, referred to as Gross Load
applied. The Residual Load is left after release of the tool pressure.

Minimum of 1 (one) Studbolt Diameter of thread protrusion

BOLT TENSIONING
 Areas of Load Loss when Tensioning

To compensate for the amount of tension lost

when tensioning a bolt, the operator must induce
more tension within the bolt than that required to
obtain the residual load within the joint

This provides a gross bolt load.

Two factors of additional load are considered

when accounting for load loss when
tensioning.
 Areas of Load Loss when Tensioning

TLLF – Tool Load Loss Factor

This compensates for the amount of load lost
when the gross load in the bolt is transferred
from the tensioning tool to the nut.

FLLF – Flange Load Loss Factor

This compensates for load loss in a previously
tightened set of bolts as the next set of bolts are
tightened.
 Tensioner

TOOL OPERATED

CONNECT HOSES

PULLER SLEEVE “
PS3 - 11
HYPUR-MATE

LOAD CELL
PS3

BRIDGE & INSERT PS3 - 11“

 50% COVER
PS3 - 11“ PS3 - 11“ PS3 - 11“
 RESIDUAL TO GROSS BOLT STRESS

70000

60000
FLLF

50000
TLLF
Bolt Stress (lb/in2)

40000

30000

RESIDUAL
20000

10000

0
 12" 600# - B7 Bolting
Target residual bolt stress of 45 ksi

90000

80000

70000

60000

50000 torque
tension 50%
40000 tension 100%
85%bolt yield
30000

20000

10000

85% bolt yield

0
torque tension 50% tension 100% 85%bolt yield
 12" 600# - B7M Bolting
Target residual bolt stress of 45 ksi

80000

70000

60000

50000
torque
tension 50%
40000
tension 100%
85%bolt yield
30000

20000

10000

85% bolt yield

0
torque tension 50% tension 100% 85%bolt yield
Areas of load loss to consider.
• When load is transferred from tool to nut
• Nut embedment into flange face
• Painted or coated flanges

Load loss should not be confused with

relaxation, load loss occurs during or
immediately after the tensioning process
Safety Points
SAFETY POINTS - if in doubt ask!

Breaking the Joint

• Stand to one side when breaking the joint

• Begin by breaking out bolts that are furthest away from you
• Ensure that you have an unrestricted escape route should
product be released
• Slacken all bolts sufficiently to break the joint, do not over
slacken or remove bolts at this initial stage
• If using a wedge to break the joint keep clear of joint faces
to avoid scoring
• Always anticipate pipe spring when removing the final bolt
 SAFETY POINTS - if in doubt ask!

Breaking the Joint

• Stand to one side when breaking the joint

• Begin by breaking out bolts that are furthest away from you
• Ensure that you have an unrestricted escape route should
product be released
• Slacken all bolts sufficiently to break the joint, do not over
slacken or remove bolts at this initial stage
• If using a wedge to break the joint keep clear of joint faces to
avoid scoring
• Always anticipate pipe spring when removing the final bolt
 OUR
TOTAL
AIM
ON-LINE ON-TIME
Questions ?