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PART – A
UNIT - 1
Introduction of power planning, National and regional planning, structure of
powersystem, planning tools, electricity regulation, Load forecasting, forecasting techniques,
modeling. 8 Hours
UNIT - 2 & 3
Generation planning, Integrated power generation, co-generation / captive power, power
poolingand power trading, transmission & distribution planning, power system economics,
power sector finance,financial planning, private participation, rural electrification investment,
concept of rational tariffs. 10 Hours
UNIT - 4
Computer aided planning: Wheeling, environmental effects, green house effect,
technologicalimpacts, insulation co-ordination, reactive compensation. 8 Hours
PART – B
UNIT - 5 & 6
Power supply reliability, reliability planning, system operation planning, load
management,load prediction, reactive power balance, online power flow studies, state estimation,
computerizedmanagement. Power system simulator. 10 Hours
UNIT - 7 & 8
Optimal Power system expansion planning, formulation of least cost optimization
problem incorporatingthe capital, operating and maintenance cost of candidate plants of different
types (thermal hydro nuclearnon conventionaletc), Optimization techniques for solution by
programming. 16 Hours
TEXT BOOK:
Table of Contents
electricity regulation
Load forecasting
private participation
Wheeling
24-27
environmental effects
technologicalimpacts
insulation co-ordination
reactive compensation
reliability planning
load management
load prediction
28-32
reactive power balance
state estimation
computerizedmanagement
UNIT-1
Recent cost reductions and the increases in production of solar photovoltaics (PV) are driving
dramatic growth in domestic PV system installations.
Programs such as Solar America Initiative are setting out to make solar energy cost-
competitive with central generation by the year 2015.
To prevent these integration challenges from limiting the growth of solar PV installations and
to maximize the overall system benefit, it is necessary to consider solar PV in all areas of
power system planning, and to evolve the planning practices to better accommodate
increased energy supply from solar PV.
This report reviews the entire power system planning process, including generation,
transmission, and distribution. It discusses how the planning practices are changing to
accommodate variable renewable generation, with a focus on future changes required to
accommodate high penetration levels of solar PV and how to maximize the positive impact of
other technologies such as load control and energy storage. The report also proposes several
areas for future research that will help evolve planning methodologies and enable easier and
more-effective integration of solar PV.
Understandably, a sharp increase in the use of any one source of generation is likely to
present integration challenges, but this especially is the case with the distributed solar PV for
the following reasons.
The codes and standards that guide the integration of solar PV are focused on simplifying
installations and prescribe grid interconnection requirements that cause minimal interaction with the
grid. When solar PV becomes a significant overall source of generation in the power system, some of
the present interconnection requirements likely will be counterproductive.
Planning Tools:
The available tools for power system planning can be split into:
Simulation tools: these simulate the behavior of the system under certain conditions
and calculate relevant indices. Examples are load flow models, short circuit models,
stability models, etc.
Optimization tools: these minimize or maximize an objective function by choosing
adequate values for decision variables. Examples are optimum power, least cost
expansion planning, generation expansion planning, etc.
Scenario tools: this is a method of viewing the future in a quantitative fashion. All
possible outcomes are investigated. The sort of decision or assumptions which might be
made by a utility developing such a scenario might be: should we computerize
automate the management of power system after certain date.
There are two fundamental problems inherent in traditional planning. The first is that
demand forecasting and investment planning are treated as sequential steps in planning, rather
than as interdependent aspects of the planning process. The second problem is that planning
efforts are inadequately directed at the main constraints facing the sector, namely the serious
shortage of resources.
1. Demand forecasts are little more than extrapolations of past trends of consumption, no
attempt is made to understand neither the extent of unmet demand nor the extent to which
the prices influence the demand growth. Greater attention should be paid to end use
efficiency, plant rehabilitation, loss reduction program, etc.
2. Least cost planning (LCUP) is least cost utility planning strategy to provide reliable
electrical services at lowest overall cost with a mix of supply side and demand side
options.
3. The LCUP uses various options like end use efficiency, load management, transmission
and distribution options, alternative tariff options, etc.
4. This planning process can yield enormous benefits to consumers and society because it
affords acquisition of resources that meet consumer energy service needs that are low in
cost, environmentally friendly.
5. LCUP as a planning and regulatory process can greatly reduce the uncertainty and risks
faced by utilities. The logic for least cist planning is shown in the figure below:
6. For an investment to be least cost, the lifetime costs are considered. These include capital
costs, interest on capital, fuel cost and operation and maintenance costs.
Electricity Regulation:
THE ELECTRICITY REGULATORY COMMISSIONS ACT, 1956
Act to provide for the establishment of a Central Electricity Regulatory Commission and
state Electricity Regulatory Commissions, rationalizationof electricity tariff, transparent
policies regarding subsidies, promotion of efficient and environmentally benign policies
and matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-ninth Year of the republic of India as follows:
India's power sector is beset by problems that impede its capacity to respond to the
rapidly growing demand for energy brought about by economic liberalisation. Despite the
stated desire for reform and the initial measures that have been implemented, serious
problems persist.
As the problems of the Power Sector deepen, reform becomes increasingly difficult
underscoring the need to act decisively and without delay. It is essential that the
Government exit implement significant reforms by focussing on the fundamental issues
facing the power sector, namely the lack of rational retail tariffs, the high level of cross-
subsidies, poor planningand operation, inadequate capacity, the neglect of the consumer,
the limited involvement of private sector skills and resources and the absence of an
independent regulatory authority.
The CMNPP recognised that the gap between demand and supply of power is widening
and acknowledged that the financial position of State Electricity Boards is fast
deteriorating and the future development in the power sector cannot be sustained without
viable State Electricity Boards and improvement of their operational performance.
The CMNPP identified creation of regulatory Commission as a step in this direction and
specifically provided for establishment of the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
(CERC) and State Electricity Regulatory commissions (SERCs). After the finalisation of
the, national agenda contained in CMNPP, the Ministry of Power assigned the task of
studying the restructuring needs of the regulatory system to Administrative Staff College
of India (ASCI), Hyderabad. The ASCI report strongly recommended the creation of
independent Electricity Regulatory Commissions both at the Centre and the States.
To give effect to the aforesaid proposals, the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Bill.
1997 was introduced in the LokSabha on 14th August, 1997, However it could not be
passed due to the dissolution of the Eleventh LokSabha.
Since it was considered necessary to ensure the speedy establishment of the Regulatory
Commissions and as Parliament was not in session, the President promulgated the
Electricity Regulatory Commissions Ordinance, 1998 on 25th day of April, 1998.
(c) The main functions of the SERC, to start with, shall be: -
(i) To determine the tariff for electricity, wholesale, bulk, grid and retail;
(ii) To determine the tariff payable for use of the transmission facilities;
(iii) To regulate power purchase the procurement process of the transmission utilities; and
(iv) Subsequently, as and when each State Government notifies, other regulatory functions could
also be assigned to SERCS.
(d) It also aims at improving the financial health of the State Electricity Boards (SEBS) which
are loosing heavily on account of irrational tariffs and lack of budgetary support from the State
Governments as a result of which, the SEBs have become incapable of even proper maintenance,
leave alone purposive investment. Further, the lack of creditworthiness of SEBs has been a
deterrent in attracting investment both from the public and private sectors.
Hence, it is made mandatory for State Commissions to fix tariff in a manner that none of
the consumers or class of consumers shall be charged less than fifty per cent. of the
average cost of supply, it enables the State Governments to exercise the option of
providing subsidies to weaker sections on condition that the state Governments through a
subsidy compensate the SEBS.
As regards the agriculture sector, it provides that if the State Commission considers it
necessary it may allow the consumers in the agricultural sector to be charged less than
fifty per cent, for a maximum period of three years from the date of commencement of
the Ordinance.
It also empowers the State Government to reduce the tariff further but in that case it shall
compensate the SEBs or its successor utility, the different between the tariff fixed by the
State Commission and the tariff proposed by the State Government by providing
budgetary allocations. Therefore, it enables the State Governments to fix any tariff for
agriculture and other sectors provided it gives subsidy to State Electricity Boards to meet
the loss.
Forecasting Techniques:
Load forecasting is vitally important for the electric industry in thederegulated economy.
It has many applications including energy purchasing and generation, load switching, contract
evaluation, and infrastructure development. A large variety of mathematical methods havebeen
developed for load forecasting. In this chapter we discuss various approaches to load forecasting.
Forecasting Methods
Over the last few decades a number of forecasting methods have been developed. Two of
the thods, so-called end-use and econometric approach are broadly used for medium- and
long-term forecasting. Avariety of methods, which include the so-called similar day
approach,various regression models, time series, neural networks, expert systems, fuzzy
logic, and statistical learning algorithms, are used for short-term forecasting.
The development, improvements, and investigation of the appropriate mathematical tools
will lead to the development of more accurate load forecasting techniques. Statistical
approaches usually require a mathematical model that represents load as function of
different factors such as time, weather, and customer class.
The two important categories of such mathematical models are: additive models and
multiplicative models. They differ in whether the forecast load is the sum (additive) of a
number of componentsor the product (multiplicative) of a number of factors. For
example, Chen et al. [4] presented an additive model that takes the form of predicting
load as the function of four components:
L = Ln + Lw+ Ls+ Lr,
where L is the total load, Ln represents the ―normal‖ part of the load, which is a set of
standardized load shapes for each ―type‖ of day thathas been identified as occurring throughout
the year, Lw represents the weather sensitive part of the load, Ls is a special event component
that create a substantial deviation from the usual load pattern, and Lr is completely random term,
the noise.
A multiplicative model may be of the form
L = Ln · Fw· Fs· Fr,
whereLn is the normal (base) load and the correction factors Fw, Fs, and Frare positive numbers
that can increase or decrease the overall load.These corrections are based on current weather
(Fw), special events (Fs),and random fluctuation (Fr). Factors such as electricity pricing (Fp)
and load growth (Fg) can also be included. Rahman [29] presented a rule based forecast using a
multiplicative model. Weather variables and thebase load associated with the weather measures
were included in the model.
Forecasting Modeling
Depends on
1. Degree of Accuracy Required
2. 2 Cost of Producing Forecasts
3. 3 Forecast Horizon
4. 4 Degree of Complexity Required
5. 5 Available Data
Time Series Methods: Use historical data as a basis, Underlying patterns are fairly stable.
Causal Methods
Belief that some other time series can be useful. Assumption that it is possible to identify the
underlying factors
1. Regression Analysis
2. Linear Regression
3. Non-Linear Regression
4. Econometrics
UNIT 2&3
Generation Planning
The electric utility planning process begins with the electricity load-demandforecast. The
demand for electricity initiates actions by utilities to add generation,transmission, or distribution
capacity. Because of the long lead time required toconstruct new facilities, decisions are often to
be made 2 to 10 years in advance.
A load forecast was developed for the Kingdom and the results are presented inthe following
sections covering the study period 2008 to 2023. Load forecasts aredeveloped for all SEC
operating areas.
The methodology and the basis of development of demand forecast arehighlighted below:
● Multiple regression analysis is used to forecast the Energy for the KSA.
● Independent variables are chosen to be the population and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
● The dependent variable is the Energy forecast for KSA.
● The data for the historical and the forecasted GDP has been obtained from the Ministry of
Planning.
The forecast for the total sold energy for the Kingdom was obtained using the regression model.
The total sold energy was then divided between the four operating areas using historical value of
percentage energy sales for each operating areas. This gives the total sold energy forecast for
each of the operating areas.
Captive power plants are associated with specific industrial complexes, and their output is almost
entirely consumed by that industrial plant. Another term that may sometimes be synonymous is
'cogeneration' in which the power plant produces multiple forms of energy (e.g., electric power
and steam), and where both are raw-materials for a related industrial process. Probably the most
classic example is that of a paper mill. Boilers produce steam. The steam passes through a
turbine that spins a generator to produce electricity. Exhaust steam from the turbine is then used
as a source of heat to dry freshly-made paper before is is finally condensed into water and
returned to the boiler. The boiler itself burns the bark that itself cannot be used to make paper
and would otherwise be a waste material. In addition, the process of making pulp produces a
chemical waste called "black liquor' that can also be burned as a fuel in a boiler.
Captive power plants don't necessarily have to be islands that are disconnected from 'the grid'. In
fact, it is often the case that the demand of the industrial process exceeds the capacity of the
captive plant, and power must be taken from the grid to make up the difference. Also, there must
be some provision to 'bootstrap' the integrated process into operation - often this means relying
on grid power to start-up the plant following an outage. And it is possible that there are times
when the captive plant will produce more power than can be consumed in the industrial process,
and rather than throttle back the excess is sold to the grid.
Power Pooling:
Power pooling is used to balance electrical load over a larger network (electrical grid) than a
single utility. It is a mechanism for interchange of power between two and more utilities which
provide or generate electricity. For exchange of power between two utilities there is an
interchange agreement which is signed by them, but signing up an interchange agreement
between each pair of utilities within a system can be a difficult task where several large utilities
are interconnected. Thus, it is more advantageous to form a power pool with a single agreement
that all join. That agreement provides established terms and conditions for pool members and is
generally more complex than a bilateral agreement.
In one model, the power pool, formed by the utilities, has a control dispatch office from where
the pool is administered. All the tasks regarding interchange of power and the settlement of
disputes are assigned to the pool administrator.
The formation of power pools provides the following potential advantages:
1. decrease in operating costs
2. saving in reverse capacity requirements
3. help from pool in unit commitment
4. minimization of costs of maintenance scheduling
5. more reliable operation
The formation of a power pool is associated with a number of problems and constraints. These
include:
1. pool agreement may be very complex
2. costs associated with establishing central dispatch office and the needed communication
and computational facilities
3. the opposition of pool members to give up their rights to engage in independent
transactions outside the pool.
4. the complexity towards dealing with regulatory authorities, if pool operates in more than
one state.
5. the effort by each member of the pool to maximize its savings.
Power pooling is very important for extending energy control over a large area served by
multiple utilities
Power Trading
In economic terms, electricity (both power and energy) is a commodity capable of being bought,
sold and traded. An electricity market is a system for effecting purchases, through bids to buy;
sales, through offers to sell; and short-term trades, generally in the form of financial or obligation
swaps. Bids and offers use supply and demand principles to set the price. Long-term trades are
contracts similar to power purchase agreements and generally considered private bi-lateral
transactions between counterparties.
Wholesale transactions (bids and offers) in electricity are typically cleared and settled by the
market operator or a special-purpose independent entity charged exclusively with that function.
Market operators do not clear trades but often require knowledge of the trade in order to maintain
generation and load balance. The commodities within an electric market generally consist of two
types: power and energy. Power is the metered net electrical transfer rate at any given moment
and is measured in megawatts (MW). Energy is electricity that flows through a metered point for
a given period and is measured in megawatt hours (MWh).
Markets for energy-related commodities trade net generation output for a number of intervals
usually in increments of 5, 15 and 60 minutes. Markets for power-related commodities required
and managed by (and paid for by) market operators to ensure reliability, are considered ancillary
services and include such names as spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, operating reserves,
responsive reserve, regulation up, regulation down, and installed capacity.
In addition, for most major operators, there are markets for transmission congestion and
electricity derivatives such as electricity futures and options, which are actively traded. These
markets developed as a result of the restructuring of electric power systems around the world.
This process has often gone on in parallel with the restructuring of natural gas markets.
detected. Automatic circuit reclosers may be installed to further segregate the feeder thus
minimizing the impact of faults.
Long feeders experience voltage drop requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be
installed.
Characteristics of the supply given to customers are generally mandated by contract between the
supplier and customer. Variables of the supply include:
AC or DC - Virtually all public electricity supplies are AC today. Users of large amounts of
DC power such as some electric railways, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such
as aluminum smelting usually either operate their own or have adjacent dedicated generating
equipment, or use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC supply
Nominal voltage, and tolerance (for example, +/- 5 per cent)
Frequency, commonly 50 or 60 Hz, 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz for some railways and, in a few older
industrial and mining locations, 25 Hz.
Phase configuration (single-phase, polyphase including two-phase and three-phase)
Maximum demand (some energy providers measure as the largest mean power delivered
within a 15 or 30 minute period during a billing period)
Load factor, expressed as a ratio of average load to peak load over a period of time. Load
factor indicates the degree of effective utilization of equipment (and capital investment) of
distribution line or system.
Power factor of connected load
Earthing systems - TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C
Prospective short circuit current
Maximum level and frequency of occurrence of transients
for the purpose of finding fixed costs that can be expressed in $/MWh. No other useful
economic computation can be performed with the ―overnight‖ costof capacity given in
$/kW because they cannot be compared with other costs until ―levelized.‖ While the
U.S.
Department of Energy sometimes computes these economically useful (levelized) fixed
costs, it never publishes them. Instead itcombines them with variable costs and reports
total levelized energy costs. This is the result of a widespread lack of understanding of
the nature of capacity costs.Confusion over units causes too many different units to be
used, and this requiresunnecessary and sometimes impossible conversions.
Private Participation:
Private participation in 1991 to hasten the increase in generating capacity and to improve the
system efficiency as well. However, although several plants are under construction, till early
1999, generation had commenced at private plants totaling less than 2,000 MW.
In contrast, some state undertakings have completed their projects even earlier than scheduled.
Independent power producers (IPPs) claim that their progress has been hindered by problems
such as litigation, financial arrangements, and obtaining clearances and fuel supply agreements.
On the other hand, the State Electricity Boards have been burdened by power purchase
agreements (PPAs) that favor the IPPs with such clauses as availability payment irrespective of
plant utilization, tariffs reflecting high capital costs and returns on equity, etc.
The process of inviting private participation in the power sector and the problems experienced
seem to have spurred on the restructuring of the power sector, including the formation of Central
and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions.
However, some important problems have not been addressed. Additions to the generation
capacity without corresponding improvement of the transmission and distribution facilities are
likely to further undermine the system efficiency.
What is more, issues like the reduction of "commercial losses" appear to have been ignored.Most
importantly, investment in infrastructure has been a state responsibility because the intrinsically
long gestation coupled with the relatively low returns from serving all categories of consumers
have rendered such projects commercially unprofitable. Whether or not private participation can
take on such tasks is to be seen.
Wheeling:
In electric power transmission, wheeling is the transportation of electric power
(megawatts or megavolt-amperes) over transmission lines.[1]
Electric power networks are divided into transmission and distribution
networks. Transmission lines move electric power between generating
facilities and substations, usually in or near population centers. From substations, power
is sent to users over a distribution network. A transmission line might move power over a
few miles or hundreds of miles.
An entity that generates power does not have to own power transmission lines: only a
connection to the network or grid. The entity then pays the owner of the transmission line
based on how much power is being moved and how congested the line is.
Some power generating entities join a group which has shared ownership of transmission
lines. These groups may include investor-owned utilities, government agencies, or a
combination of these.
Since prices to move power are based on congestion in transmission line networks,
utilities try to charge customers more to use power during peak usage (demand) periods.
This is accomplished by installing time-of-use meters to recover wheeling costs.
UNIT 4:
Environmental impact:
The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society
uses large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally generated at power
plants that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. Each system has
advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns.
The amount of water usage is often of great concern for electricity generating systems as
populations increase and droughts become a concern. Still, according to the U.S.
Geological Survey, thermoelectric power generation accounts for only 3.3 percent of net
freshwater consumption with over 80 percent going to irrigation. Likely future trends in
water consumption are covered here. General numbers for fresh water usage of different
power sources are shown below.
Steam-cycle plants (nuclear, coal, NG, solar thermal) require a great deal of water for
cooling, to remove the heat at the steam condensers. The amount of water needed relative
to plant output will be reduced with increasing boiler temperatures. Coal- and gas-fired
boilers can produce high steam temperatures and so are more efficient, and require less
cooling water relative to output. Nuclear boilers are limited in steam temperature by
material constraints, and solar is limited by concentration of the energy source.
Thermal cycle plants near the ocean have the option of using seawater. Such a site will
not have cooling towers and will be much less limited by environmental concerns of the
discharge temperature since dumping heat will have very little effect on water
temperatures. This will also not deplete the water available for other uses. Nuclear power
in Japan for instance, uses no cooling towers at all because all plants are located on the
coast. If dry cooling systems are used, significant water from the water table will not be
used. Other, more novel, cooling solutions exist, such as sewage cooling at the Palo
Verde Nuclear Generating Station.
Most electricity today is generated by burning fossil fuels and producing steam which is
then used to drive a steam turbine that, in turn, drives an electrical generator.Such
systems allow electricity to be generated where it is needed, since fossil fuels can readily
be transported. They also take advantage of a large infrastructure designed to support
consumer automobiles.
The world's supply of fossil fuels is large, but finite. Exhaustion of low-cost fossil fuels
will have significant consequences for energy sources as well as for the manufacture
of plastics and many other things. Various estimates have been calculated for exactly
when it will be exhausted (see Peak oil). New sources of fossil fuels keep being
discovered, although the rate of discovery is slowing while the difficulty of extraction
simultaneously increases.
Nuclear power plants do not burn fossil fuels and so do not directly emit carbon dioxide;
because of the high energy yield of nuclear fuels, the carbon dioxide emitted during
mining, enrichment, fabrication and transport of fuel is small when compared with the
carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuels of similar energy yield.
A large nuclear power plant may reject waste heat to a natural body of water; this can
result in undesirable increase of the water temperature with adverse effect on aquatic life.
Insulation Co-ordination:
The term Insulation Co-ordination was originally introduced to arrange the insulation
levels of the several components in the transmission system in such a manner that an
insulation failure, if it did occur, would be confined to the place on the system where it
would result in the least damage, be the least expensive to repair, and cause the least
disturbance to the continuity of the supply. The present usage of the term is broader.
Insulation co-ordination now comprises the selection of the electric strength of equipment
in relation to the voltages which can appear on the system for which the equipment is
intended. The overall aim is to reduce to an economically and operationally acceptable
level the cost and disturbance caused by insulation failure and resulting system outages.
To keep interruptions to a minimum, the insulation of the various parts of the system
must be so graded that flashovers only occur at intended points. With increasing system
voltage, the need to reduce the amount of insulation in the system,by proper co-
ordination of the insulating levels become more critical.
Reactive compensation:
Shunt Capacitors:
Shunt capacitors are employed at substation level for the following reasons:
Compensating the load lagging power factor with the bus connected shunt capacitor bank
improves the power factor and reduces current flow through the transmission lines,
transformers, generators, etc. This will reduce power losses (I2R losses) in this equipment.
UNIT 5&6
Power Supply Reliability:
Load management:
Load management, also known as demand side management (DSM), is the process
of balancing the supply of electricity on the network with the electrical load by adjusting
or controlling the load rather than the power station output.
This can be achieved by direct intervention of the utility in real time, by the use of
frequency sensitive relays triggering circuit breakers (ripple control), by time clocks, or
by using special tariffs to influence consumer behavior.
Load management allows utilities to reduce demand for electricity during peak usage
times, which can, in turn, reduce costs by eliminating the need for peaking power plants.
In addition, peaking power plants also often require hours to bring on-line, presenting
challenges should a plant go off-line unexpectedly.
Load management can also help reduce harmful emissions, since peaking plants or
backup generators are often dirtier and less efficient than base load power plants. New
load-management technologies are constantly under development — both by private
industryand public entities.
Load Prediction:
Electric load forecasting is the process used to forecast future electric load, given
historical load and weather information and current and forecasted weather information. In the
past few decades, several models have been developed to forecast electric load more
accurately. Load forecasting can be divided into three major categories:
Long-term electric load forecasting, used to supply electric utility company
management with prediction of future needs for expansion, equipment
purchases, or staff hiring
Medium-term forecasting, used for the purpose of scheduling fuel supplies and
unit maintenance
Short-term forecasting, used to supply necessary information for the system
management of day-to-day operations and unit commitment.
The balance for the reactive power in a whole- or a part of a system is the next:
ΣQE+QI=ΣQF+QH, where:
ΣQE is the amount of the reactive power from the power plants QI is the balance of the
imported reactive power flows (incoming is the positive) ΣQF is the amount of the substations
reactive power consumptions QH is the amount of the system elements reactive power
consumptions (wires, cables, transformers, reactors, static compensators, etc.). The reactive
power flows from the capacitors and overexcited generators called reactive power production,
the under excited generators and inductances reactive power called reactive power
consumption. The reactive power is positive, if the current is delaying to the voltage, while the
active power is positive compared to the power flows on an arbitrary system element S=P+jQ.
These principles considers to the high/middle voltage level systems, but there is no reason to
not to use in micro/smart grid systems as well.
Objectives:
To provide a view of real-time power system conditions
Real-time data primarily come from SCADASE supplements SCADA data: filter, fill,
smooth.
To provide a consistent representation for power system security analysis
On-line dispatcher power flow
Contingency Analysis
Load Frequency Control
To provide diagnostics for modeling & maintenance
Computerized management:
Research shows that personal computers (PC) are not being actively used during the vast
majority of the time that they are kept on. It is estimated that an average PC is in use 4 hours
each work day and idle for another 5.5 hours. It's also estimated that some 30-40 percent of the
US's work PCs are left running at night and on weekends.
Office equipment is the fastest growing electricity load in the commercial sector.
Computer systems are believed to account for 10 percent or more of commercial electricity
consumption already. Since computer systems generate waste heat, they also increase the
amount of electricity necessary to cool office spaces.
For the Medical Center, we estimate the savings from PC power management to be
hundreds of thousands of dollars annually, even without factoring in increased office cooling
costs. Considerable savings are also possible from easing wear-and-tear on the computers
themselves.
3. Transient stability
4. Optimal dispatch of generating units (unit commitment)
5. Transmission (optimal power flow)
UNIT 7&8
Optimal Power System Expansion Planning:
Optimization Techniques:
In everyday life, all of us are confronted with some decision makings. Normally,we try to decide
or the best. If someone is to buy a commodity, he or she tries tobuy the best quality, yet with the
east cost. These types of decision makings arecategorized as optimization problems in which the
aim is to find the optimumsolutions; where the optimum may be either the least or the most.
Most of the operational and planning problems consist of the following three majorsteps
• Definition
• Modeling
• Solution algorithm
Decision variables are the independent variables; the decision maker has to determinetheir
optimum values and based on those, other variables (dependent) can bedetermined. For instance,
in an optimum generation scheduling problem, the activepower generations of power plants may
be the decision variables. The dependentvariables can be the total fuel consumption, system
losses, etc. which can be calculatedupon determining the decision variables. In a capacitor
allocation problem,the locations and the sizing of the capacitor banks are the decision variables,
whereasthe dependent variables may be bus voltages, system losses, etc.Mathematical
Algorithms.
Calculus Method:
These types of methods are the traditional way of seeking optimum points. Theseare applicable
to continuous and differentiable functions of both objective andconstraints terms. They make use
of differential calculus in locating the optimumpoints.Based on the basic differential calculus
developed for finding the optimumpoints of C(x) , the method of Lagrange Multipliers has been
developedin finding the optimum points; where equality constraints may also apply. If
inequality constraints (2.4) are also applicable, still the basic method may be used;however, the
so called Kuhn-Tucker conditions should be observed. The solution isnot so straightforward in
that case.
Let us come back to the constrained case. Two types of methods, namely, directand indirect
methods apply. In the former methods, the constraints are handled inan explicit manner, while in
most of the latter methods; the constrained problem isconverted into a sequence of unconstrained
problems and solved through availablealgorithms.As an example of the direct methods, in the so
called constraint approximationmethod, the objective function and the constraints are linearized
about some point.The resulting approximated LP problem is solved using LP techniques.
Theresulting solution is then used to construct a new LP problem. The process iscontinued until a
convergence criterion is satisfied.As an example of the indirect methods, the so called penalty
function method,works on the principle of converting the problem into an unconstrained type.
Itis, in turn, classified as interior and exterior penalty function methods. In theformer, the
sequence of unconstrained minima lie in the feasible region while inthe latter, they lie in the
infeasible region. In both, they move towards the desired.
mixedinteger programming problem.Moreover, based on the nature of the original problem, both
integer linearprogramming and integer nonlinear programming methods have been developed.As
a result, in power system literature, some terms such as MILP have appeared.2.3.2 Heuristic
AlgorithmsMost mathematical based algorithms can guarantee reaching an optimal
solution;while do not necessarily guarantee reaching a global optimum. Global optimalitymay be
only reached, checked or guaranteed for simple cases.On the other hand, many practical
optimization problems do not fall in strictforms and assumptions of mathematical based
algorithms. Moreover, if theproblem is highly complex, we may not readily be able to solve
them, at all,through mathematical algorithms. Besides, finding global optimum is of interest,as
finding a local one would be a major drawback.Heuristic algorithms are devised to tackle the
above mentioned points. They,normally, can solve the combinatorial problems, sometimes very
complex, yet in areasonable time. However, they seek good solutions, without being able to
guaranteethe optimality, or even how close the solutions are to the optimal point.