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Slide 1
1
Systems, Roles, and
Development Methodologies
Systems Analysis and Design, 8e
Kendall & Kendall
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Slide 2
Learning Objectives
• Recall the basic types of computer-based systems

that a systems analyst needs to address.
• Understand how users working in context with new
technologies change the dynamics of a system.
• Realize what the many roles of the systems analyst
are.
• Comprehend the fundamentals of three development
methodologies: SDLC, the agile approach, and
object-oriented systems analysis and design .
• Understand what CASE tools are and how they help a
systems analyst.
Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-2
Slide 3
Learning Objectives
• Recall the basic types of computer-based systems

that a systems analyst needs to address.
• Understand how users working in context with new
technologies change the dynamics of a system.
• Realize what the many roles of the systems analyst
are.
• Comprehend the fundamentals of three development
methodologies: SDLC, the agile approach, and
object-oriented systems analysis and design .
• Understand what CASE tools are and how they help a
systems analyst.
Slide 4
Information—A Key Resource
• Fuels business and can be the critical

factor in determining the success or
failure of a business
• Needs to be managed correctly
• Managing computer-generated
information differs from handling
manually produced data
Information is now considered a key resource and must be managed the same as
any other key resource of an organization.
Decision makers now understand that information is not just a byproduct of doing
business
Needs to be managed correctly. Costs are associated with the production,

distribution, security, storage, and retrieval of all information. Its strategic use for
positioning a business competitively should not be taken for granted.
With the availability of networked computers, along with access to the Internet and
the WWW we are in the midst of an information explosion. The managing of
computer-generated information rises issues with greater cost associated with
organizing and maintaining and having users treat it less skeptically than
information obtained in different ways.
Slide 5
Major Topics
• Fundamentals of different kinds of

information systems
• Roles of systems analysts
• Phases in the systems development life
cycle as they relate to Human-
Computer Interaction (HCI) factors
• Computer-Aided Software Engineering
(CASE) tools
Slide 6
Systems Analysts Recommend, Design, and

Maintain Many Types of Systems for Users
• Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

• Office Automation Systems (OAS)
• Knowledge Work Systems (KWS)
• Management Information Systems (MIS)
• Decision Support Systems (DSS)
• Expert Systems (ES)
• Executive Support Systems (ESS)
• Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
• Computer-Supported Collaborative Work Systems
(CSCWS)
Information systems are developed for different purposes, depending on the needs
of the business.
Operational
TPS
Knowledge Level
OAS
KWS
Higher Level
MIS
DSS
ES
Strategic Level
ESS
GDSS
CSCWS
Slide 7
A systems analyst
may be involved with
Strategic
Level
any or all of these
systems at each
organization level.
Higher
Level
Knowledge
Level
Operational
Level
As we move from the bottom to the top, each level represents a higher level of
decision support. The bottom level or organizational level supported by TPS
provides very structured decision support while the top level or strategic level
supported by ESS, GDSS and CSCWS provides semi-structured and unstructured
decision support.
Slide 8
Operational Level
• Transaction Processing System (TPS)

• Process large amounts of data for routine business
transactions
• Boundary-spanning
• Support the day-to-day operations of the company
• Examples: Payroll Processing, Inventory
Management
Eliminates the tedium of necessary operational transactions and reduces the time
once required to perform them manually.
TPS are boundary-spanning systems that permit the organization to interact with
external environments.
It is essential to the day-to-day operations of business that Transaction processing

systems function smoothly and without interruption.
Slide 9
Knowledge Level
• Office Automation System (OAS)

• Supports data workers who share information, but do not
usually create new knowledge
• Examples: word processing, spreadsheets, desktop
publishing, electronic scheduling, communication through
voice mail, email, teleconferencing
• Knowledge Work System (KWS)
• Supports professional workers such as scientists, engineers,
and doctors
• Examples: computer-aided design systems, virtual reality
systems, investment workstations
OAS – support data workers, who do not usually create new knowledge but rather
analyze information so as to transform data or manipulate it in some way before
sharing it with, or formally disseminating it throughout, the organization and,
sometimes beyond.
KWS – support professional workers such as scientists, engineers, and doctors by

aiding them in their efforts to create new knowledge and by allowing them to
contribute it to the organization or to society at large.
(CAD) Computer Aided Design - Automates creation, revision of products, and

services
Virtual Reality - Interactive software creates simulations of real world activities
Investment workstations - Special work station to access and manipulate massive
amounts of financial data
Slide 10
Higher Level
• Management Information System (MIS)

• Supports a broad spectrum of organizational tasks including
decision analysis and decision making
• Examples: profit margin by sales region, expenses vs. budgets
• Decision Support System (DSS)
• Aids decision makers in the making of decisions
• Examples: financial planning with what-if analysis, budgeting with
modeling
• Expert System (ES) and Artificial Intelligence
• Captures and uses the knowledge of an expert for solving a
particular problem which leads to a conclusion or recommendation
• Researching understanding natural language and the ability to
reason through a problem to its logical conclusion
MIS – Support management functions of organization. Transaction processing systems are a

subset of management information systems. MIS includes a wider spectrum which includes
decision analysis and decision making.
Management information systems use a database which contains both data and models that help
the user interpret and apply the data. The product produced by Management information systems is
that used in decision making.
DSS – Much like an MIS except that it emphasizes the support of decision making in all its phases,
although the actual decision is still left up to the decision maker. Closely tailored to the person or
group using them.
ES – Uses the approaches of AI reasoning to solve the problems put to them by business and other
users. These systems select the best solution to a problem or a specific class of problems.
Expert systems consist of:
knowledge base
inference engine – connects the user with the system by processing requests
user interface
Slide 11
Strategic Level
• Executive Support System (ESS)

• Helps executives to make unstructured strategic decisions in
an informed way
• Examples: drill-down analysis, status access
• Group Decision Support System (GDSS)
• Permit group members to interact with electronic support.
• Examples: email, Lotus Notes
• Computer-Supported Collaborative Work System
(CSCWS)
• CSCWS is a more general term of GDSS.
• May include software support called groupware for team
collaboration via network computers
• Example: video conferencing, Web survey system
ESS – Help executives to make decisions at the strategic level by providing

graphics and communication support technologies in accessible places. They help
executives address unstructured decision problems by creating an environment
which helps them think about strategic problems in an informed way.
GDSS – aids in group collaboration permitting group members to interact with

electronic support such as polling, questionnaires, brainstorming, and scenario
creation. Can be used to minimize negative group behaviors – lack of participation,
domination by vocal group members, and “group think” decision making.
CSCWS – This is the more general term for group decision support systems.
Slide 12
Integrating New Technologies into

Traditional Systems
• Ecommerce and Web Systems
• Enterprise Resource Planning Systems
• Wireless and Mobile Systems
• Open Source Software
• Need for Systems Analysis and Design
As new technologies are adopted they will need to be integrated with traditional
systems. Systems analyst will be using these new technologies in helping people
work to integrate ecommerce applications into traditional businesses or as they
begin entirely new ebusinesses.
Slide 13
Systems Analysts Need to Be Aware that

Integrating Technologies Affects all Types of
Systems (Figure 1.2)
Slide 14
Ecommerce and Web Systems
• Benefits
• Increasing user awareness of the availability of a
service, product, industry, person, or group
• The possibility of 24-hour access for users
• Improving the usefulness and usability of interface
design
• Creating a system that can extend globally rather
than remain local, thus reaching people in remote
locations without worry of the time zone in which
they are located
The systems covered can have much greater functionality if they are migrated to
the World Wide Web or if they are originally conceived and implemented as Web-
based technologies.
Slide 15
Enterprise Resource Planning

Systems (ERP)
• Performs integration of many
information systems existing on
different management levels and within
different functions
• Example: SAP, Oracle
Instituting ERP requires enormous commitment and organizational change.

Generally systems analysts server as consultants to ERP endeavors that use
proprietary software.
To properly design, install, maintain, update, and use a ERP package, analysts as
well as some users require vendor training, support, and maintenance.
Slide 16
Wireless and Mobile Systems
• A system analyst may be asked to design

standard or wireless and mobile
communication networks that integrate voice,
video, and email into organizational intranets
or industry extranets.
• A system analyst may also be asked to
develop intelligent agents.
• Example: iPhone, iPod, BlackBerry
• Wireless communication is referred to as m-
commerce (mobile commerce).
Analysts are being called to design a plethora of new systems and applications.
May be asked to develop under the standard called Bluetooth.
Intelligent agents are software that can assist users with tasks in which the
software learns preferences from of users over time and then acts on those
preferences.
Microsoft is developing software based on Bayesian statistics and decision making
theory in combination with monitoring a user’s behavior concerning the handling of
incoming information. Referred to as notification manager software that also places
a dollar value on each piece of incoming information.
Slide 17
Open Source Software
• An alternative of traditional software

development where proprietary code is
hidden from the users
• Open source software is free to distribute,
share, and modify.
• Characterized as a philosophy rather than
simply the process of creating new software
• Example: Linux Operating System, Apache
Web Server, Mozilla Firefox Web Browser
A movement to create, distribute, share and modify software which is not

proprietary.
It’s not a monolithic movement instead it has been categorized into four community
types:
Ad hoc
Standardized
Organized
Commercial
The four communities in turn differ from each other on six key dimensions:
General structure
Environment
Goals
Methods
User community
Licensing
Slide 18
Need for Systems Analysis and

Design
• Installing a system without proper planning
leads to great user dissatisfaction and
frequently causes the system to fall into
disuse.
• Lends structure to the analysis and design of
information systems
• A series of processes systematically
undertaken to improve a business through
the use of computerized information systems
User involvement throughout the systems project is critical to the successful

development of computerized information systems.
New technologies are also driving the need for systems analysis. Ajax and Ruby
on Rails are two examples.
Slide 19
Roles of the Systems Analyst
• The analyst must be able to work with

people of all descriptions and be
experienced in working with computers.
• Three primary roles:
• Consultant
• Supporting expert
• Agent of change
The systems analyst systematically assesses how users interact with technology
and business function by examining the inputting of information with the intend of
improving organizational processes.
The analyst needs to play many roles, balancing several at the same time.
Consultant: Advantage – can bring with them a fresh perspective that other
people in an organization do not possess.
Disadvantage – true organizational structure can never be known to
an outsider.
Supporting expert:
Draws on professional expertise concerning computer hardware and
software and their uses in the business.
Serves as a resource for those who are working on and managing
other projects
Agent of change:
A person who serves as a catalyst for change, develops a plan for
change, and works with others in facilitating that change.
Slide 20
Qualities of the Systems Analyst
• Problem solver
• Communicator
• Strong personal and professional ethics
• Self-disciplined and self-motivated
The successful systems analyst must possess a wide range of qualities.

Problem solver – views the analysis of problems as a challenge and enjoys
devising workable solutions.
Communicator – capable of relating meaningfully to other people over extended
periods over time. Need enough computer experience to program, to understand
the capabilities of computers, glean information requirements from users, and
communicate what is needed to programmers.
Strong personal and professional ethics – they need to shape their client
relationships
Self-disciplined and self-motivated – must be able to coordinate other people as
well as innumerable project resources.
Slide 21
Systems Development Life Cycle

(SDLC)
• The systems development life cycle is a
phased approach to solving business
problems.
• Developed through the use of a specific
cycle of analyst and user activities
• Each phase has unique user activities.
Analysts disagree on exactly how many phases there are in the SDLC.
Each phase consists of activities which overlap into other phases and then taper
off, rather then done in separate steps.
Slide 22
The Seven Phases of the Systems

Development Life Cycle (Figure 1.3)
Slide 23
Incorporating Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI) Considerations
• The demand for analysts who are
capable of incorporating HCI into the
systems development process keeps
increasing, as companies begin to
realize that the quality of systems and
the quality of work life can be improved
by taking a human-centered approach
at the outset of a project.
HCI is that aspect of a computer that enables communications and interactions

between human and computer. Implementing HCI into SDLC implies emphasizing
people rather than the work to be done or the IT that is involved.
Adopting HCI principles examines a variety of user needs:
physical or ergonomic factors
usability factors
pleasing, aesthetic and enjoyable aspects
behavioral aspects
HCI can be thought of as a human-centered approach that puts people ahead of
organizational structure
Slide 24
Identifying Problems,
Opportunities, and Objectives
• Activity:
• Interviewing user management
• Summarizing the knowledge obtained
• Estimating the scope of the project
• Documenting the results
• Output:
• Feasibility report containing problem definition and
objective summaries from which management can
make a decision on whether to proceed with the
proposed project
Critical to the success of the rest of the project, because no one wants to waste
time addressing the wrong problem.
Problems – generally the reason the analyst was called in in the first place.
Opportunities – situations that the analyst believes can be improved through the
use of computerized information systems.
Objectives – how can the business reach its objectives by addressing specific
problems or opportunities.
Slide 25
Determining Human Information

Requirements
• Activity:
• Interviewing
• Sampling and investing hard data
• Questionnaires
• Observe the decision maker’s behavior and environment.
• Prototyping
• Learn the who, what, where, when, how, and why of the
current system.
• Output:
• The analyst understands how users accomplish their work
when interacting with a computer; and begin to know how
to make the new system more useful and usable. The
analyst should also know the business functions and have
complete information on the people, goals, data, and
procedure involved.
Determining human needs of the users involved.

Uses activities to pose and answer questions concerning human-computer
interaction:
What are the users strengths and limitations?
Trying to understand what information users need to perform their jobs.
Who – the people who are involved

What – the business activity
Where – the environment in which the work takes place
When – the timing
How – how the current procedures are performed
Why – why the system uses the current system
Slide 26
Analyzing System Needs
• Activity:
• Create data flow, activity, or sequence
diagrams.
• Complete the data dictionary.
• Analyze the structured decisions made.
• Prepare and present the system proposal.
• Output:
• Recommendation on what, if anything,
should be done
Data Flow Diagrams – chart the input, processes, and output of the business’s
functions in a structured graphical form.
Data dictionary – lists all the data items used in the system, as well as their
specifications.
Structured decisions made – those for which the conditions, condition alternatives,
actions, and action rules can be determined.
Structure decision methods:
structures English
decision tables
decision trees
System proposal – summarizes what has been found
about users
usability and usefulness of current system
provides cost/benefit analysis of alternatives
makes recommendations on what (if anything) should be done
The recommendation or solution is based on the analysts individual qualities and
professional training and their interaction with users.
Slide 27
Designing the Recommended

System
• Activity:
• Design procedures for data entry.
• Design the human-computer interface.
• Design system controls.
• Design database and/or files.
• Design backup procedures.
• Output
• Model of the actual system
Uses the information collected earlier to accomplish the logical design of the
information system:
designs procedures for users to help them accurately enter data
provides for users to complete effective input to the information system
devises the human-computer interface
designs files or databases that will store the data needed by decision
makers
designs output (onscreen or printed)
designs controls and backup procedures
Slide 28
Developing and Documenting

Software
• Activity:
• System analyst works with programmers to develop any
original software.
• Works with users to develop effective documentation.
• Programmers design, code, and remove syntactical errors
from computer programs.
• Document software with help files, procedure manuals,
and Web sites with Frequently Asked Questions.
• Output:
• Computer programs
• System documentation
The analyst uses structure charts and pseudocode to communicate to the

programmer what needs to be programmed.
Documentation includes:
procedure manuals
online help
Web sites
“Read Me” files
Because users are involved from the beginning, the documentation should address
the questions they have raised and solved jointly with the analyst.
Slide 29
Testing and Maintaining the

System
• Activity:
• Test the information system.
• System maintenance.
• Maintenance documentation.
• Output:
• Problems, if any
• Updated programs
• Documentation
Testing should take place first with sample data and then with actual data.
Testing is done by both the programmers and the analyst
The maintenance started here is carried out routinely through the life of the
system.
updates may be performed via a vendor site on the Web.
Slide 30
Implementing and Evaluating the

System
• Activity:
• Train users.
• Analyst plans smooth conversion from old
system to new system.
• Review and evaluate system.
• Output:
• Trained personnel
• Installed system
Training users to handle the system.

System conversion – converting files from old formats to new ones, or building a
database, installing equipment, and bringing the new system into production.
Actually evaluation takes place during every phase.

Slide 31
Some Researchers Estimate that the Amount of Time Spent

on Systems Maintenance May Be as Much as 60 Percent of
the Total Time Spent on Systems Projects (Figure 1.4)
Slide 32
The Impact of Maintenance
• Maintenance is performed for two

reasons:
• Removing software errors
• Enhancing existing software
• Over time the cost of continued
maintenance will be greater than that of
creating an entirely new system. At that
point it becomes more feasible to
perform a new systems study.
Computer programs must be modified and kept up to date.

Reasons for enhancing existing software –
users request additional features
business changes over time
hardware and software change
Slide 33
Resource Consumption over the

System Life (Figure 1.5)
Area under the curve represents the total dollar amount.

Eventually maintenance exceeds the cost of a creating a new system. At that point
a new systems study should be untaken.
Slide 34
Approaches to Structured Analysis and Design

and to the Systems Development Life Cycle
• Traditional systems development

life cycle
• CASE systems development life
cycle
• Object-oriented systems analysis
and design
Slide 35
Case Tools
• CASE tools are productivity tools for

systems analysts that have been created
explicitly to improve their routine work
through the use of automated support.
• Reasons for using CASE tools
• Increasing analyst productivity
• Improving analyst-user communication
• Integrating life cycle activities
Increasing analyst productivity –

automates the drawing and modifying of diagrams
automates the sharing of work thus reducing the time to collaborate with
group members
facilitates interaction among team members by making diagramming a
dynamic, interactive process.
Improving Analyst-User Communication – CASE tools foster greater, more
meaningful communication among users and analysts.
Integrating Life Cycle Activities – integration of activities through the underlying use
of technologies makes it easier for users to understand how all the life cycle
phases are interrelated and interdependent.
Accurately Assessing Maintenance Changes – enable users to analyze and assess
the impact of maintenance changes.
Slide 36
Case Tool Classifications
• Upper CASE tools perform analysis

and design.
• Lower CASE tools generate
programs from CASE design.
Upper CASE support analyst and designers
Lower CASE support programmers and workers who must implement the systems
design via Upper CASE.
Slide 37
Upper CASE Tools
• Create and modify the system

design.
• Help in modeling organizational
requirements and defining system
boundaries.
All the information about the project is stored in the CASE repository. From the
CASE repository analysis reports can be produced to show where the design is
incomplete or contains errors.
The repository is a collection of records, elements, diagrams, screens, reports, and
other information.
By modeling organizational requirements and defining system boundaries the
analyst can visualize how the project meshes with other parts of the organization.
Slide 38
Lower CASE Tools
• Lower CASE tools generate

computer source code from the
CASE design.
• Source code is usually generated in
several languages.
• Decreases maintenance time
• Generates error-free code
CASE code generation has several advantages:

1. Quicker than writing computer programs.
2. Time spent on maintenance decreases.
3. Code can be generated in more than one computer language.
4. Cost-effective for tailoring systems purchased from third-party vendors.
5. Generated code is free from computer program errors.
Slide 39
Slide 40
The Agile Approach
• Based on:
• Values
• Principles
• Core practices
Slide 41
Agile Values
• Communication
• Simplicity
• Feedback
• Courage
Slide 42
Four Agile Resources
• Resources are adjusted to ensure

successful project completion.
• Time
• Cost
• Quality
• Scope
Slide 43
Five Stages of Agile Development
• Exploration
• Planning
• Iterations to the first release
• Productionizing
• Maintenance
Slide 44
Agile Project Development Process (Figure 1.7)
Slide 45
Object-Oriented (O-O) Systems

Analysis and Design
• Alternate approach to the structured approach of
the SDLC that is intended to facilitate the
development of systems that change rapidly in
response to dynamic business environments
• Analysis is performed on a small part of the
system followed by design and implementation.
• The cycle repeats with analysis, design, and
implementation of the next part and this repeats
until the project is complete.
• Examines the objects of a system
Generally works well in situations where complicated information systems are

undergoing continuous maintenance, adaptation, and redesign.
Slide 46
Unified Modeling Language (UML)

Phases
• Define the use case model:
• Use case diagram
• Use case scenarios
• Create UML diagrams.
• Develop class diagrams.
• Draw statechart diagrams.
• Modify the UML diagrams.
• Develop and document the system.
Slide 47
Choosing a Method
• Choose either:
• SDLC
• Agile
• Object-oriented methodologies
Slide 48
When to Use SDLC
• Systems have been developed and

documented using SLDC.
• It is important to document each step.
• Upper level management feels more
comfortable or safe using SDLC.
• There are adequate resources and time to
complete the full SDLC.
• Communication of how new systems work is
important.
Slide 49
When to Use Agile
• There is a project champion of agile methods in the

organization.
• Applications need to be developed quickly in
response to a dynamic environment.
• A rescue takes place (the system failed and there is
no time to figure out what went wrong).
• The customer is satisfied with incremental
improvements.
• Executives and analysts agree with the principles of
agile methodologies.
Slide 50
When to Use Object-Oriented
• The problems modeled lend themselves to

classes.
• An organization supports the UML learning.
• Systems can be added gradually, one
subsystem at a time.
• Reuse of previously written software is a
possibility.
• It is acceptable to tackle the difficult
problems first.
Slide 51
Summary
• Information is a key resource.

• Systems analysts deal with many types of
information systems.
• Integration of traditional systems with new
technologies
• Roles and qualities of the systems analyst
• The systems development life cycle
• CASE tools
• Agile systems development
• Object-oriented systems development
Slide 52
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Prentice Hall
1-52
Slide 1
2
Understanding and Modeling
Organizational Systems

Kendall & Kendall

Slide 2
Learning Objectives
• Understand that organizations and their

members are systems and that analysts need
to take a systems perspective.
• Depict systems graphically using context-level
data flow diagrams, and entity-relationship
models, use cases, and use case scenarios.
• Recognize that different levels of
management require different systems.
• Comprehend that organizational culture
impacts the design of information systems.
Slide 3
Three Main Forces Interacting to

Shape Organizations
• Levels of management
• Design of organizations
• Organizational cultures
Slide 4
Organizations Are Composed of

Interrelated Subsystems
• Influenced by levels of management
decision makers that cut horizontally
across the organizational system
• Operations
• Middle management
• Strategic management
• Influenced by organizational cultures
and subcultures
Slide 5
Major Topics
• Organizations as systems
• Depicting systems graphically
• Data flow diagram
• Entity-relationship model
• Use case modeling
• Organizational culture
Slide 6
Organizations as Systems
• Conceptualized as systems designed to

accomplish predetermined goals and
objectives
• Composed of smaller, interrelated
systems serving specialized functions
• Specialized functions are reintegrated to
form an effective organizational whole.
To ascertain information requirements properly and to design appropriate

information systems, it is of primary importance to understand the organization as
a whole.
All systems are composed of subsystems

Slide 7
Interrelatedness and
Independence of Systems
• All systems and subsystems are interrelated
and interdependent.
• All systems process inputs from their
environments.
• All systems are contained by boundaries
separating them from their environments.
• System feedback for planning and control
• An ideal system self-corrects or self-regulates
itself.
When an element of a system is changed or eliminated, the rest of the system’s

elements and subsystems are also significantly affected.
Processes change or transform inputs into outputs.

Typical processes include:
verifying
updating
printing
Organizational boundaries exist on a continuum ranging from extremely permeable

(open) to almost impermeable (closed).
All organizations (systems) need planning and control to manage their resources
effectively. Feedback is useful for planning and control.
The ideal system is one that self-corrects or self-regulates in such a way that
decisions on typical occurrences are not required.
Slide 8
System Outputs Serve as Feedback that

Compares Performance with Goals (Figure 2.1)
Feedback is received both internal and external to the organization. Anything

external to an organization’s boundaries is considered to be an environment.
Slide 9
Organizational Environments
• Community
• Physical location
• Demographic profile (education, income)
• Economic
• Market factors
• Competition
• Political
• State and local government
• Legal
• Federal, state, regional, local laws, and guidelines
Numerous environments, with varying degrees of stability, constitute the milieu in

which organizations exist.
Although changes in environment can be planned for, they cannot be directly

controlled by the organization.
Slide 10
Openness and Closedness
• Open
• Free flow of information
• Output from one system becomes input to
another
• Closed
• Restricted access to information
• Limited by numerous rules
• Information only on a “need to know” basis
Openness and closedness exist on a continuum, there is no such thing as an

absolutely open or completely closed organization.
Slide 11
Virtual Organizations and Virtual

Teams
• A virtual organization has parts of the
organization in different physical
locations.
• Computer networks and
communications technology are used to
bring virtual teams together to work on
projects.
In some instances, organizations of remote workers have been able to succeed

without the traditional investment in infrastructure.
Slide 12
Benefits of Virtual Organizations

and Teams
• Possibility of reducing costs of physical
facilities
• More rapid response to customer needs
• Helping virtual employees to fulfill their
familial obligations to children or aging
parents
Just how important it will be to meet the social needs of virtual workers is still open
to research and debate.
Slide 13
Taking a Systems Perspective
• Allows system analyst to understand

businesses before they begin their tasks
• It is important that members of subsystems
realize that they are interrelated with other
subsystems.
• Problems occur when each manager thinks
that his/her department is the most
important.
• Bigger problems may occur when that
manager rises through the ranks.
Taking a systems perspective allows systems analysts to start broadly clarifying

and understanding the various businesses with which they will come into contact.
Without recognizing the interrelatedness of the subsystems; subsystems cannot

properly accomplish their goals.
Managers of different subsystems need to have the same picture of the functioning
and interrelatedness of the organization.
In his/her new position, the former manager may still think of his/her old
department as the most important. The potential for this problem to occur exists in
almost any business. If the analyst interviews this manager early on, he/she may
get a distorted view of the company structure.
Slide 14
Taking a Systems Perspective

(Figure 2.2)
Outputs from one
department serve as
inputs for another such
that subsystems are
interrelated.
Slide 15
Perspective of Functional
Managers (FIGURE 2.3)
Slide 16
Enterprise Resource Planning
• Enterprise Systems or Enterprise

Resource Planning (ERP) describes an
integrated organizational information
system.
• Software that helps the flow of
information between the functional
areas within the organization
ERP systems include:

manufacturing components
sales and operations planning
distribution
managing the supply train
Problems with implementation:

difficult to analyze a system currently in use and then fit the ERP model to
that system
companies tend to design their business processes before ERP is
implemented
ERP, although growing in use is also being viewed with some skepticism.
Slide 17
Depicting Systems Graphically
• Context-level data flow diagrams

• Entity-relationship model
• Use case modeling
The various graphical models show the boundaries of the system and the
information used in the system.
Slide 18
Context-Level Data Flow

Diagrams
• Focus is on the data flowing into and
out of the system and the processing of
the data.
• Shows the scope of the system:
• What is to be included in the system.
• The external entities are outside the scope
of the system.
Sometimes called an environmental model.

Slide 19
The Basic Symbols of a Data Flow

Diagram (Figure 2.4)
Process - transforms incoming data into outgoing information, the content level has
only one process representing the entire system.
Entity - Entity, a person, group, department, or system that supplies or receives
information.
Data flows – the lines that connect external entities to the process.
Slide 20
Airline Reservation System (Figure 2.5)
A context-level data
flow diagram
for an airline
reservation system
The passenger (an entity) initiates a travel request (data flow). The passenger’s
preferences and the available flights are sent to the travel agent, who sends
ticketing information back to the process. The passenger information is also sent to
the airline.
Slide 21
Entity-Relationship Model
• Focus is on the entities and their

relationships within the organizational
system
• Another way to show the scope of a
system
An entity may be a person, a place, thing, or an event.

A relationship is the association that describes the interaction among the entities.
Slide 22
Relationships
• Relationships show how the entities are

connected.
• Three types of relationships:
• One-to-one
• One-to-many
• Many-to-many
One-to-one – one employee is assigned to one phone extension
One-to-many – many employees are assigned to a department.
Many-to-many – many passengers fly to many destinations.

Slide 23
Entity-Relationship Example (Figure 2.7)
An entity-
relationship
diagram
showing a
many-to-one
relationship
Slide 24
Examples of Different Types of

Relationships in E-R Diagrams (Figure 2.8)
Slide 25
Entities
• Fundamental entity
• Associative entity
• Attributive entity
Slide 26
Three Different Types of Entities

Used in E-R Diagrams (Figure 2.9)
Different symbols are used to represent different types of entities.
An associative entity can only exist if it is connected to at least two other entities.
An attributive entity is used when we want to show data that are completely
dependent on the existence of an fundamental entity.
Slide 27
Attributes
• Data attributes may be added to the

diagram.
Patron Name
Patron Patron address
Patron phone
Patron credit card
Data attributes are what make up or define the entity.

Slide 28
Creating Entity-Relationship
Diagrams
• List the entities in the organization.
• Choose key entities to narrow the scope
of the problem.
• Identify what the primary entity should
be.
• Confirm the results of the above
through data gathering.
ER diagrams are generally used to model the database.
ER diagrams help the analyst understand what business the organization is

actually in, determine the size of the problem, and discern whether the right
problem is being addressed. The E-R diagram needs to be confirmed or revised as
the data-gathering process takes place.
Slide 29
A More Complete E-R Diagram Showing Data

Attributes of the Entities (Figure 2-12 )
Slide 30
Use Case Modeling
• Describes what a system does without

describing how the system does
• A logical model of the system
• Use case is a view of the system
requirements
• Analyst works with business experts to
develop requirements
Originally introduced as a diagram for use in the object-oriented UML, use cases
are now being used regardless of the approach to systems development. It can be
used as part of the SDLC or in agile modeling.
Slide 31
Use Case Diagram
• Actor
• Refers to a particular role of a user of the system
• Similar to external entities; they exist outside of
the system
• Use case symbols
• An oval indicating the task of the use case
• Connecting lines
• Arrows and lines used to diagram behavioral
relationships
A use case always describes three things: an actor that initiates an event; the
event that triggers a use case; and the use case that performs the actions
triggered by the event.
‫الفاعل دور معين لمستخدم ما في النظام‬
‫موظف زبون‬
‫يوجد الفاعل خارج النظام ويتفاعل معه‬
Slide 32
Actor
• Divided into two groups

• Primary actors:
• Supply data or receive information from the
system.
• Provide details on what the use case should do.
• Supporting actors:
• Help to keep the system running or provide
help.
• The people who run the help desk, the
analysts, programmers, and so on.
Sometimes a table is created with actor profiles that lists the actors, their
background, and their skills.
These profiles can be useful to understand how the actor interacts with the system.
‫يزودون بيانات الى النظام ياخذون بيانات من النظام‬
‫ثانويون يحافظون على النظام في حالة عمل وا لتقديم مساعدة مثل محللون مبرمجون‬
Slide 33
A Use Case Always Provides

Three Things
• An actor that initiates an event
• The event that triggers a use case
• The use case that performs the actions
triggered by the event
A use case documents a single transaction or event.

An event is an input to the system that happens at a specific time and place and
causes the system to do something.
‫الفاعل الذي يهيئ الحدث‬
‫الحدث الذي يقدح حالة االستخدام‬
‫وحالة االستخدام التي تنفذ األفعال المقدوحة‬
‫‪Slide 34‬‬
‫‪Use Case Relations‬‬
‫‪• Behavioral relationships‬‬

‫‪• Communicates‬‬
‫‪• Used to connect an actor to a use case‬‬
‫‪• Includes‬‬
‫‪• Describes the situation in which a use‬‬
‫‪case contains behavior that is common‬‬
‫‪to more than one use case‬‬
‫‪Kendall & Kendall‬‬ ‫‪Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall‬‬ ‫‪2-34‬‬
‫يشار للعالقات النشطة بالعالقات السلوكية‬

‫يتصل الفاعل مع حالة االستخدام عن طريق خط بدون اتجاه‬
‫يحتوى على أفعال مشتركة بين اكثر من حالة استخدام يشير السهم الى حالة االستخدام العامة‬
‫يمتد تعالج حاالت االستثناءات من حالة االستخدام الرئيسية يشير السهم من حالة االممتداد الى حالة االستخدام األساسية‬
‫يعمم شيء اعم من شيء اخر يشير السهم الى الشئ االعم‬
Slide 35
Use Case Relations
• Behavioral relationships (continued)

• Extends
• Describes the situation in which one use
case possesses the behavior that allows
the new case to handle a variation or
exception from the basic use case
• Generalizes
• Implies that one thing is more typical
than the other thing

Slide 36
Some Components of Use Case Diagrams Showing

Actors, Use Cases, and Relationships for a Student
Enrollment Example (Figure 2.13)
‫‪Examples of Use Cases, Behavioral Relationships‬‬

‫)‪for Student Enrollment (Figure 2.14‬‬
‫‪Communicates – used to connect an actor to a use case. The task of the use case‬‬
‫‪is to give some sort of result that is beneficial to the actor in the system.‬‬
‫‪Includes – describes the situation in which a use case contains behavior that is‬‬
‫‪common to more than one use case.‬‬
‫‪Extends - describes the situation in which one use case possesses the behavior‬‬
‫‪that allows the new use case to handle a variation or exception from the basic use‬‬
‫‪case.‬‬
‫‪Generalizes – implies that one thing is more typical than the other thing.‬‬
‫يتصل الطالب مع التسجيل في مادة دراسية او منهج دراسي‬
‫دفع رسوم الطالب المحتوي ضمن التسجيب في منهج وترتيب السكن‬
‫النه في كال الحالتين يجب ان يدفع يشير السهم باتجاه حالت االستخدام المشتركة‬
‫يمتد حالة االستخدام الممتدة للتامين الصحي للطالب تمتد عن حالة االستخدام الرئيسية من اجل دفع رسوم الطالب‬
‫يعمم الفاعل العالقة بين فاعلين الفاعل بارت يعمم الفاعل الطالب يشير السهم الى الشئ العام‬

Slide 38
Scope
• System scope defines its boundaries:

• What is in or outside the system
• Project has a budget that helps to define
scope
• Project has a start and an end time
• Actors are always outside of scope
• Communication lines are the boundaries
and define the scope
Slide 39
Developing Use Case Diagrams
• Review the business specifications and identify the

actors involved.
• May use agile stories.
• Identify the high-level events and develop the
primary use cases that describe those events and
how the actors initiate them.
• Review each primary use case to determine the
possible variations of flow through the use case.
• The context-level data flow diagram could act as a
starting point for creating a use case.
When diagramming a use case, start by asking the users to list everything the
system should do for them.
‫مواصفات العمل وحدد الفاعلين الواقعين في مجال المشكلة‬
‫حدد االحداث عالية المستوى‬
‫راجع كل حالة استخدام لتحديد التغييرات المحتملة وقم بانشاء المسارات البديلة‬
‫يمكن ان يكون نقطة االنطالق النشاء حالة االستخدام‬
Slide 40
A Use Case Diagram Representing a System

Used to Plan a Conference (Figure 2.15 )
Example of a use case diagram representing a system used to plan a conference.

Slide 41
Developing the Use Case

Scenarios
• The description of the use case
• Three main areas:
• Use case identifiers and initiators
• Steps performed
• Conditions, assumptions, and questions
Each use case has a description referred to as the use case scenario.
Slide 42
A Use Case Scenario Is Divided into Three Sections (Figure 2.16)

Use case name: Register for Conference UniqueID: Conf RG 003
Area: Conference Planning
Actor(s): Participant
Stakeholder Conference Sponsor, Conference Speakers
Level Blue
Description: Allow conference participant to register online for the conference using a secure Web site.
Triggering Event: Participant uses Conference Registration Web site, enters userID and password, and clicks the logon button.
Trigger type: External Temporal
Steps Performed (Main Path) Information for Steps
1. Participant logs in using the secure Web server userID, Password
More steps included here…

12. Successful Registration Confirmation Web page is sent to the participant Registration Record Confirmation Number
Preconditions: Participant has already registered and has created a user account.
Postconditions: Participant has successfully registered for the conference.
Assumptions: Participant has a browser and a valid userID and password.
Success Guarantee: Participant has registered for the conference and is enrolled in all selected sessions.
Minimum Guarantee: Participant was able to logon.
Requirements Met: Allow conference participants to be able to register for the conference using a secure Web site.
Outstanding Issues: How should a rejected credit card be handled?
Priority: High
Risk: Medium
(First area)
Use case identifiers and initiators – orients the reader and contains:
1. The use case name and a unique ID
2. The application area or system that this use case belongs to
3. The actors involved in the use case
4. A brief description of what the use case accomplishes
5. The triggering event
6. Type of trigger - external or temporal
external – those started by an actor
temporal – triggered or started by time
7. May list stakeholders
(Second area)
Includes the steps performed, and the information required for each of the steps.
(Third area)
Preconditions
Post conditions
Assumptions
Outstanding issues
optional statement of priority
optional statement of risk
Slide 43
Use Case Header Area
• Has a name and a unique ID.

• Include application area.
• List actors.
• Include stakeholders.
• Include the level.
• Has a brief description of the use case.
Slide 44
Use Case Levels
• Use case levels describe how global or

detailed the use case description is:
• White (like clouds): enterprise level
• Kite: business unit or department level
• Blue (sea level): user goals
• Indigo (or fish): functional or subfunctional
• Black (or clam): most detailed
Slide 45
Alternative Scenarios
• Extensions or exceptions to the main

use case
• Number with an integer, decimal point,
integer
• Steps that may or may not always be
used
Slide 46
Use Case Footer Area
• Preconditions—need to be met before use

case can be performed
• Postconditions or the state of the system
after the use case has finished
• Assumptions
• Minimal guarantee
• Success guarantee
• Outstanding issues
• Optional priority and risk
Slide 47
Four Steps Used to Create Use

Cases
• Use agile stories, problem definition
objectives, user requirements, or a
features list.
• Ask about the tasks that must be done.
• Determine if there are any iterative or
looping actions.
• The use case ends when the customer
goal is complete.
Slide 48
Why Use Case Diagrams Are

Helpful
• Identify all the actors in the problem
domain.
• Actions that need to be completed are
also clearly shown on the use case
diagram.
• The use case scenario is also
worthwhile.
• Simplicity and lack of technical detail
Identify all the actors in the problem domain – the systems analyst can concentrate
on what humans want and need to use the system, extent their capabilities, and
enjoy their interaction with technology.
Actions that need to be completed are also clearly shown on the use case diagram
– this makes it easy for the analyst to identify processes and aids in
communication with other analysts on the team and business executives
The use case scenario is also worthwhile – since a lot of the information the users
impart to the analysts are in story form, it is easy to capture on the use case
scenario form.
Simplicity and lack of technical detail – used to show the scope of a system, along
with the major features of the system and the actors that work with those major
features.
Slide 49
The Main Reasons for Writing Use Cases Are

Their Effectiveness in Communicating with Users
and Their Capturing of User Stories (Figure 2.18)
Slide 50
Management in Organizations Exists on Three Horizontal

Levels: Operational Control, Managerial Planning and
Control, and Strategic Management (Figure 2.19)
Management in organizations exists on three broad, horizontal levels. Each level

carries its own responsibilities, and all work toward achieving organizational goals
and objectives in their own ways.
Slide 51
Operations Control
• Make decisions using predetermined

rules that have predictable outcomes.
• Oversee the operating details of the
organization.
Forms the bottom tier of the three-tiered model.

Slide 52
Managerial Planning and

Control
• Make short-term planning and control
decisions about resources and
organizational objectives.
• Decisions may be partly operational and
partly strategic.
Forms the second or intermediate tier of the three-tiered model.

Slide 53
Strategic Management
• Look outward from the organization to

the future.
• Make decisions that will guide middle
and operations managers.
• Work in highly uncertain decision-
making environment.
• Define the organization as a whole.
Third level of the three-tiered model.

Slide 54
Managerial Levels
• Different organization structure

• Leadership style
• Technological considerations
• Organization culture
• Human interaction
• All carry implications for the analysis
and design of information systems
Operations managers:
need internal information that is of a repetitive, low-level nature.
highly dependent on information that captures current performance
large users of online, real-time information resources
need for past performance information and periodic information is moderate
have little use for external information that allows future projections
Middle management:
in need of both short and longer-term information
need for information in real time
need current information on performance as measured against set standards
highly dependent on internal information
need for historical information, along with information that allows prediction of future events
Strategic management:
highly dependent on information from external sources that supply news of market trends
and the strategies of competing corporations.
high need for information of a predictive nature
need for periodically reported information
Slide 55
Organizational Culture
• Organizations have cultures and

subcultures.
• Learn from verbal and nonverbal
symbolism.
We need to think of organizations as hosts to multiple, often competing

subcultures.
Competing subcultures may be in conflict, attempting to gain adherents to their

vision of what the organization should be.
Verbal symbolism – includes shared language used to construct, convey, and

preserve subculture myths, metaphors, visions, and humor.
Nonverbal symbolism – includes shared artifacts, rites, and ceremonies.
Understanding and recognizing predominant organizational subcultures may help

the systems analyst overcome the resistance to change that arises when a new
information system is installed.
‫الثقافات الجزئية للمنظمة المتعارضة قد تتصارع في محاولة لتنفيذ روئيتها وتطلعاتها حول ما يجب ان تكون عليه‬
‫المنظمة‬
‫‪Verbal Symbolism‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Myths‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Metaphors‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Visions‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Humor‬‬
‫الترميز الملفوظ والترميز الملحوظ‬

‫الترميز الملفوظ يشير الى اللغة المشتركة المستخدمة الدارة وعرض وتوصيل وحفظ القصص القديمة للثقافات الجزئية‬
‫والستعارتها واتطلعاتها ولحس الدعابة فيها‬
‫‪Nonverbal Symbolism‬‬
‫‪• Shared artifacts‬‬

‫‪• Trophies, etc.‬‬
‫‪• Rites and rituals‬‬
‫‪• Promotions‬‬
‫‪• Birthdays, etc.‬‬
‫‪• Clothing worn‬‬
‫‪• Office placement and decorations‬‬
‫الترميز الملحوظ يشير الى األشياء المشتركة التي جرت العادة على استخدامها كالشعائر واالحتفاالت الدينية ومالبس‬
‫صناع القرار والعاملين وطقوس االحتفال باعياد الميالد األعضاء وترفيعاتهم او تقاعدهم‬
‫تتعايش الثقافات الجزئيه مع ثقافة المنظمة الرسمية‬

‫مجموعة القواعد التي تحدد ما الذي يجب ان ترتديه في حاالت معينة‬
‫الطريقة المناسبة للتعامل مع األشخاص االعلي منك رتبة‬
‫ممكن ان تنعكس ثقافة علي سلوك األعضاء مثل الموافقة على استخدام النظام او معارشة ذلك‬
Slide 58
Summary
• Organizational fundamentals
• Organizations as systems
• Graphical representation of systems
• DFD
• ERD
• Use case diagrams and scenarios
Slide 59
Summary (Continued)
• Levels of managerial control

• Operational
• Middle management
• Strategic
Slide 60


Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 2-60

Slide 1
3
Project Management

Kendall & Kendall

Slide 2
Learning Objectives
• Understand how projects are initiated and selected, define a

business problem, and determine the feasibility of a proposed
project.
• Inventory and appraise current and proposed hardware and
software and the way it supports human interactions with
technology.
• Evaluate software by addressing the tradeoffs among creating
custom software, purchasing COTS software, and outsourcing to
an application service provider.
• Forecast and analyze tangible and intangible costs and benefits.
• Plan a project by identifying activities and scheduling them.
• Manage team members and analysis and design activities so
that the project objectives are met while the project remains on
schedule.
• Professionally write and present an effective systems proposal,
concentrating on both content and design.
Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 3-
‫استهالل المشاريع واختيارها‬

Slide 3
Project Management
Fundamentals
• Project initiation
• Determining project feasibility
• Activity planning and control
• Project scheduling
• Managing systems analysis team
members
Project initiation – begins with problems or with opportunities for improvement in a

business as the organization adapts to change.
Determining project feasibility – need to work with decision makers to determine if

it is feasible.
Project scheduling – project activities are scheduled through the use of tools such
as Gantt charts and PERT diagrams.
Planning and managing activities and team members – part of assuring the
productivity of systems analysis team members is effectively managing scheduled
activities.
Slide 4
Major Topics
• Determining feasibility
• Determining resources
• Gantt charts
• PERT diagrams
• Managing analysis and design activities
• The agile approach
‫استهالل المشاريع‬
‫تخطيط المشروع تحديد األنشطة ووضع برنامج تنفيذ زمني لها‬
‫إدارة أنشطة االتحليل والتصميم بحيث يتم تحقيق اهداف المشروع مع اإليفاء بالجدول الزمني للمشروع‬
Slide 5
Project Initiation
• Problems in the organization

• Problems that lend themselves to systems
solutions
• Opportunities for improvement
• Caused through upgrading, altering, or
installing new systems
Both problems and opportunities can arise as the organization adapts to and copes
with natural, evolutionary change.78
‫تنشاء فكرة مشاريع تطوير النظم بتحديد المشاكل او الفرص التي تعكس رغبة المنظمة في التغيير‬
Slide 6
Checking Output, Observing Employee Behavior, and

Listening to Feedback Are all Ways to Help the Analyst
Pinpoint Systems Problems and Opportunities (Figure 3.1)
‫تفحص مخرجات العمل مع معايير األداء‬

‫مراقبة سلوك الموظفين‬
‫تلقي ردود األفعال من األطراف الخارجية‬
‫الشكاوى‬
‫اقتراخات التحسين‬
‫الخسارة في المبيعات‬
‫انخفاض نسبة المبيعات‬
Slide 7
Problem Definition
• Problem statement
• Paragraph or two stating the problem or opportunity
• Issues
• Independent pieces pertaining to the problem or opportunity
• Objectives
• Goals that match the issues point-by-point
• Requirements
• The things that must be accomplished along with the
possible solutions, and constraints, that limit the
development of the system
• Use the problem definition to create a preliminary
test plan.
Issues are the current situation, objectives are the desired situation.
Requirements may include security, usability, government requirements and so on.
Constraints might be budget restrictions or time limitations.

Slide 8
Problem Definition Steps
• Find a number of points that may be

included in one issue.
• State the objective.
• Determine the relative importance of
the issues or objectives.
• Identify which objectives are most
critical.
Before the problem definition is produced 81 information is gathered from

interviews, observations, and document analysis with the users. Major points are
then identified as issues.
Once the issues are identified (current situation), objectives are stated (desired
situation). Sometimes this may require follow-up interviews.
After the objectives are stated the relative importance of the issues or objectives is
determined.
Due to constraints it is generally necessary to order the objectives to determine

which are most critical.
Slide 9
Selection Of Projects
• Backing from management

• Appropriate timing of project commitment
• Possibility of improving attainment of
organizational goals
• Practical in terms of resources for the system
analyst and organization
• Worthwhile project compared with other ways
the organization could invest resources
Backing from management – absolutely nothing can be accomplished without the

endorsement of the people who eventually will foot the bill.
Appropriate timing of project commitment – can a time commitment be made for

installation of new systems or improvement to existing ones.
Possibility of improving attainment of organizational goals – the project should put

the organization on target, not deter it from its goals.
Practical in terms of resources for the system analyst and organization – is there
expertise and resources to carry out the project.
Worthwhile project compared with other ways the organization could invest
resources – when a business commits to one project it is committing resources that
are unavailable for other projects.
‫المشروع جدير بالتنفيذ‬
‫مساندة ودعم االدارة‬
‫الوقت الكافي النجاز المشروع‬
‫امكانية تحسين اداء المنظمة‬
‫قابلية تطبيق المشروع من جهة موارد المحلل وموارد المنظمة‬
Slide 10
Selection of Projects: Improving

Attainment of Organizational Goals
• Improving corporate profits
• Supporting the competitive strategy of the
organization
• Improving cooperation with vendors and
partners
• Improving internal operations support
• Improving internal decision support so that
decisions are more effective
• Improving customer service
• Increasing employee morale
86
‫زيادة ارباح الشركة‬
‫زيادة موقع التنافس للشركة‬
‫تحسين العمل المشترك بين البائعين والشركاء‬
‫دعم العمليات الداخلية مما يؤدي الى انتاج السلع والخدمات بشكل فعال ومؤثر‬
‫دعم القلرارات الداخلية فتصبح اكثر فاعلية‬
‫تحسين خدمة العمالء‬
‫زفع معنويات العمالء‬
Slide 11
Defining Objectives
Many possible objectives exist including:

• Speeding up a process
• Streamlining a process
• Combining processes
• Reducing errors in input
• Reducing redundant storage
• Reducing redundant output
• Improving system and subsystem integration
Improvements to systems can be defined as changes that will result in incremental

but worthwhile benefits. 83
‫تسريع معالجة العمل للمدخالت‬

‫تبسيط العملية عن طريق حذف الخطوات غير الظرورية او المكررة‬
‫دمج العمليات‬
‫تقليل االخطاء االدخال‬
‫تقليل تخزين البيانات المكررة‬
‫تقليل المخرجات المكررة‬
‫تعزيز التكامل ما بين النظم والنظم الفرعية‬
Slide 12
Determining Feasibility
• Defining objectives
• Determining resources
• Operationally
• Technically
• Economically
The feasibility study must be highly time compressed, encompassing several

activities in a short span of time.
‫تشغيلية‬
‫فنية‬
‫اقتصادية‬
‫‪The Three Key Elements of Feasibility Include‬‬

‫‪Technical, Economic, and Operational Feasibility‬‬
‫)‪(Figure 3.3‬‬
‫‪Kendall & Kendall‬‬ ‫‪Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall‬‬ ‫‪3-‬‬
‫‪A project must be feasible in all three ways to merit further development.‬‬
‫‪87‬‬
‫الجدوى الفنية‬
‫االضافات علي النظم الحالية‬
‫توفر التقنية التي تلبي احتياجات المستخدمين‬
‫االقتصادية‬
‫وقت محللي المظم‬
‫كلفة دراسة النظم‬
‫كلفة وقت الموظفين المخصص الجراء الدراسة‬
‫الكلفة المقدرة للتجهيزات‬
‫كلفة البرمجبات التي سيتم شراؤها او تطويرها‬
‫التشغيلية‬
‫هل سيتم تشغيل لنظام بعد تنصيبه‬
‫هل سيتم استخدام النظام‬
Slide 14
Technical Feasibility
• Can current technical resources be

upgraded or added to in a manner that
fulfills the request under consideration?
• If not, is there technology in existence
that meets the specifications?
Sometimes add-0ns are costly and not worthwhile, because they meet needs
inefficiently.
87
‫امكانية تحدبث الموارد الفنية الحالية او االضافة عليها حتي يتم تحقيق االهداف‬
‫هل توجد تقنية تلبي المواصفات المطلوبة‬
Slide 15
Economic Feasibility
• Economic feasibility determines whether

value of the investment exceeds the time and
cost.
• Includes:
• Analyst and analyst team time
• Business employee time
• Hardware
• Software
• Software development
If short-term costs are not overshadowed by long-term gains or produce no

immediate reduction in operating costs, the system is not economically feasible. 86
‫الموارد التي يجب علي المحلل اعتبارها‬

‫وقته الخاص وقت فريق تحليل النظم كلفة اجراء دراسة كاملة وقت الموظفين الذي سينعامل معهم الكلفة المقدرة‬
‫للتجهيزات كلفة شراء او تطوير البرمجيات‬
Slide 16
Operational Feasibility
• Operational feasibility determines if the

human resources are available to
operate the system once it has been
installed.
• Users that do not want a new system
may prevent it from becoming
operationally feasible.
If users are satisfied with current system resistance to implementing a new system
will be strong.
If users are dissatisfied with the current system and have expressed a need for
change chances are that the new system will be used.
87
‫تعتمد عبى الموارد البشرية المتوفرة للمشروع‬
‫الجدوى التشغيلية تتطلب من المحلل ان يتمتع بخيال ابداعي وقوة اقناع للمستخدمين وتعريفهم بالواجهات الممكنة‬
‫والالزمة‬
‫الحكم على الجدوى‬

‫تفيد دراسة الجدوى في غربلة المشاريع التي ال تتالءم مع اهداف العمل او مستحيلة اإلنجاز من الناحية الفنية او‬
‫المكلفة من الناحية االقتصادية‬
‫‪Steps in Choosing Hardware and‬‬

‫)‪Software (Figure 3.4‬‬
‫‪444‬جرد تجهيزات الحاسب‬

‫تقدير حموالت العمل‬
‫استئجار عادي‬
‫استئجار طويل األمد‬
‫شراء‬
‫يجب جرد جميع األجهزة الحالية لمعرفة ما هو موجود وما هو قابل لالستخدام‬
‫الخطوة التالية تقييم حموالت النظام الحالية والمستقبلية‬
‫ثم يتم اجراء تقييم للتجهيزات والبرمجيات المتوفرة حاليا‬
Slide 18
Evaluating Hardware
• Time required for average transactions

• Total volume capacity of the system
• Idle time of the CPU or network
• Size of memory provided
Criteria that the systems analysts and users should use to evaluate performance of
different systems hardware:
Time required for average transactions – including how long it takes to input data
and how long it takes to receive output.
Total volume capacity of the system – how much can be processed at the same
time before a problem arises.
Idle time of the CPU or network
Size of memory provided
‫معايير يجب اعتمادها في تقييم أداء االجهزة‬
‫الزمن الالزم للعمليات توسطة الحجم (مثل الزمن الالزم الدخال البيانات والزمن الالزم الخراج المعلومات‬
‫السعة الكلية للنظام (وهي الكمية التي يمكن للنظام معالجتها في نفس الوقت في حالة العمل الطبيعي وعند عدم ظهور‬
‫أي مشاكل‬
‫زمن االنتظار بوحدة المعالجة المركزية‬
‫حجم ذاكرة النظام‬
Slide 19
People that Evaluate Hardware
• Management
• Users
• Systems analysts
Evaluating computer hardware is the shared responsibility of management, users,

and systems analysts. Although vendors supply details about their offerings,
analysts oversee the evaluation personally. Systems analysts will educate users
and administration about advantages and disadvantages.
‫تقييم تجهيزات الحاسب مسؤولية اإلدارة والمستخدمين ومحللي النظام معا‬
Slide 20
Acquisition of Computer
Equipment
• Purchasing
• Leasing
• Rental
Influential factors:
Initial versus long-term costs.
Can capital afford to be tied up in computer equipment.
Should the business have full control of and responsibility for
the computer equipment.
‫الخيارات الثالثة الحضار تجهيزات الحاسوب هي الشراء االستئجار طويل األمد‬
‫واالستئجار العادي‬
‫من العوامل األكثر تاثيرا عند تحديد القرار األفضل للحصول علي األجهزة هي‬
‫التكاليف االبتدائية مقابل التكاليف طويلة األمد‬
‫توفر راس المال‬
‫ما اذا كان العمل يتطلب ان يكون هناك سيطرة كاملة ومسؤولية كاملة عن الهارد ووير‬
‫خيار الشراءعوامل‬
‫العمر المتوقع للنظام‬
‫‪Purchasing, Leasing, and Renting Advantages‬‬

‫)‪and Disadvantages (Figure 3.6‬‬
‫‪Main determinants – projected life of the system.‬‬
‫‪As systems become smaller, more powerful, less expensive, and distributed‬‬
‫‪systems become increasingly popular, more businesses are deciding to purchase‬‬
‫‪equipment.‬‬
‫الشراء‬
‫اإليجابيات‬
‫ارخص كلفة من االيجار والرهن على المدى الطويل‬
‫إمكانية تعديل النظام‬
‫تقل قيمة الضرائب المفروضة مع ازدياد الكمية‬
‫السيطرة الكاملة على النظام‬
‫السلبيات‬
‫الكلفة المبدئية مرتفعة‬
‫خطر التعرض لالهمال‬
‫خطر انعدام الفائدة اذا كان الخيار خاطئا‬
‫المسؤولية الكاملة عن التجهيزات‬
‫االستئجار الطويل‬
‫ليس هناك حاجة لراس مال‬
‫ليس هناك حاجة للتمويل‬
‫االستئجار اقل من دفعات االستئجار العادي‬
‫سقوط ملكية الشركة للتجهيزات مع انتهاء العقد‬
‫عادة تكون هناك غرامة كبيرة عند فسخ العقد‬
‫االستئجار اغلى ثمنا من الشراء‬
‫االستئجار العادي‬
‫ال حاجة لراس المال‬
‫ال حاجة للتمويل‬
‫سهولة تعديل النظام‬
‫انها تترافق مع عمليات الصيانة والضمان‬
‫الشركة ال تملك الحاسب‬
‫ارتفاع الكلفة الن البائع يفترض وجود مخاطر‬
Slide 22
Evaluating Vendor Support
• Hardware support
• Software support
• Installation and training support
• Maintenance support
Peruse the support services documents accompanying the purchase or lease of

equipment and remember to involve appropriate legal staff before signing contracts
for equipment or services.
‫دعم المورد‬
‫اختبار التجهيزات عند التسليم‬
‫وضمانة أي خطاء مصنعي‬
Slide 23
Software Alternatives
• Created custom software

• Purchased as COTS (commercial off-
the-shelf) software
• Provided by an application service
provider (ASP)
It is imperative to complete a human information requirements analysis of the

users and the systems they use first.
‫انشاء برمجيات خاصة‬
‫شراء حزم تجارية جاهزة‬
‫االستعانة بمزود خدمات تطبيقات‬
‫‪Software Evaluation‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Performance effectiveness‬‬

‫•‬ ‫‪Performance efficiency‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Ease of use‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Flexibility‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Quality of documentation‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Manufacturer support‬‬
‫فاعلية األداء‬
‫انجاز جميع المهام المطلوبة‬
‫جميع المهام المرغوبة‬
‫تصميم جميل لشاشات العرض‬
‫تحمل كافي لضغط العمل‬
‫مردود األداء‬
‫زمن استجابة قصير‬
‫ادخال فعال‬
‫اخراج فعال‬
‫تخزين فعال‬
‫نسخ احتياطي فعال‬
‫سهولة االستخدام‬
‫واجهة مرضية‬
‫توفر قوائم مساعدة‬
‫ملفات للقراءة تتوفر فيها اخر التعديالت‬
‫مرونة الواجهة‬
‫تغذية عكسية مالئمة‬
‫اصالح األخطاء بطريقة سلسة‬
‫‪Activity Planning and Control‬‬
‫‪• Planning includes:‬‬

‫‪• Selecting a systems analysis team‬‬
‫‪• Estimating time required to complete each task‬‬
‫‪• Scheduling the project‬‬
‫‪• Control includes:‬‬
‫‪• Comparing the plan for the project with its actual‬‬
‫‪evolution‬‬
‫‪• Taking appropriate action to expedite or‬‬
‫‪reschedule activities‬‬
‫تخطيط األنشطة والتحكم بها‬

‫يدخل ضمن إدارة المشاريع التخطيط والتحكم‬
‫فالتخطيط يتضمن كافة األنشطة المطلوبة‬
‫كاختيار فريق تحليل النظم‬
‫تكليف أعضاء الفريق بالمهام المناسبة‬
‫تقدير الوقت الالزم النجاز كل مهمة‬
‫وضع جدول زمني للمشروع‬
‫التحكم يتضممن‬
‫استخدام التغذية العكسية لمراقبة المشروع ومدى االلتزام بالخطة المشروع والجدول الزمني‬
‫اتخاذ اإلجراء المناسب العادة جدولة األنشطة بحيث تنتهي في الوقت المحدد‬
‫تحفيز أعضاء الفريق على اكمال العمل بالشكل المناسب‬
Slide 26
Identifying and Forecasting

Costs and Benefits
• Judgment methods
• Estimates from the sales force
• Surveys to estimate customer demand
• Delphi studies
• Creating scenarios
• Drawing historical analogies
Conditions for choosing a model are judgment methods

judgment methods – if historical data are available then consider whether the
forecast is conditional or unconditional
‫تعريف التكاليف والفوتئد والتببوء بها‬
‫طرق الحكم‬
‫قوه المبيعات الحاليه‬
‫استبيانات تقدير حاجه الزبون‬
‫دراسات دلفين وهي دراسات تم االجماع على صحتها وتم تطويرها بشكل مستقل بواسه مجموعه من الخبراء من‬
‫خالل سلسله من التكرارات‬
‫انشاء السيناريوهات‬
‫رسم الحاالت المماثله من الماضي‬
‫‪Identifying and Forecasting Costs‬‬

‫)‪and Benefits (Continued‬‬
‫‪• If historical data are available‬‬
‫‪• Conditional:‬‬
‫‪• There is an association among variables in the‬‬
‫‪model.‬‬
‫‪• Unconditional:‬‬
‫‪• Do not need to find or identify any‬‬
‫‪relationships.‬‬
‫‪Conditional – correlation regression, leading indicators, econometrics, and‬‬

‫‪input/out models.‬‬
‫‪Unconditional – judgment, moving average, and analysis of time series data.‬‬

‫التنبوء بالتكاليف والفوائد‬
‫توفر بيانات قديمة من المنظمه‬
‫اذا كانت البيانات القديمه متوفره يتم االنتقال الى مفاضله أخرى بين أنواع التقنيات مثل استخدام تنبؤ شرطي او تنبؤ‬
‫غير شرطي‬
‫التنبؤ الشرطي يعني وجود عالقه بين المتحوالت الموجوده في النموذج وقد تكون العالقه مؤقته من الطرق الشائعه في‬
‫‪correlation‬تلك المجموعه الربط‬
‫‪regression‬واالنحسار‬
‫مؤشرات القياده والمؤشرات االقتصاديه ونماذج االدخال واإلخراج‬
‫التنبؤ غير الشرطي فيعني ان المحلل غير مطالب بتعريف عالقات مؤقته او التنبؤ بها ونتيجه لذلك تكون تلك الطرق‬
‫هي خيارات منخفضه الكلفه وسهله اإلنتاج ومن الطرق التي تندرج تحت تلك المجموعه الحكم الرسومي المعدالت‬
‫المتحركه تحليل بيانات سلسله زمنيه‬
Slide 28
Identifying Benefits and Costs
• Tangible benefits are advantages measurable

in dollars through the use of the information
system.
• Intangible benefits are difficult to measure.
• Tangible costs are accurately projected by the
systems analyst and accounting personnel.
• Intangible costs are difficult to estimate and
may not be known.
Both tangible and intangible cost must be taken into account when systems are
considered.
‫تعريف الفوائد والتكاليف يمكن تقسيم الفوائد والتكاليف الى محسوسه وغير محسوسه‬
‫الفوائد المحسوسه هي المزايا اللتي تتراكم على المنظمه من خالل استخدام نظم المعلومات مقاسه بالدوالر‬
Slide 29
Tangible Benefits
• Advantages measurable in dollars that accrue

to the organization through the use of the
information system
• Examples:
• Increase in the speed of processing
• Access to otherwise inaccessible information
• Access to information on a more timely basis
• The advantage of the computer’s superior
calculating power
• Decreases in the amount of employee time
needed to complete specific tasks
Tangible benefits can be measured in terms of dollars, resources, or time saved.

‫امثله الفوائد المحسوسه‬
‫الزياده في سرعه المعالجه‬
‫الوصول الى معلومات ال يمكن الوصول اليها بطريقه أخرى والوصول الى المعلومات بسرعه اكبر من قبل‬
‫القدره العاليع للحاسوب على الحساب وتقليل الزمن الالزم للموظفين النجاز المهام‬
Slide 30
Intangible Benefits
• Intangible benefits are benefits from use of

the information system that are difficult to
measure.
• Examples:
• Improving the decision-making process
• Enhancing accuracy
• Becoming more competitive in customer service
• Maintaining a good business image
• Increasing job satisfaction
Both tangible and intangible benefits must be discussed in the proposal, both will
allow decision makers to make a well-informed decision about the proposed
system.
‫الفوائد غير المحسوسه هي الفوائد التي تحصل عليها المنظمه من خالل استخدامها للنظم المعلومات وتكون صعبه‬
‫القياس والكنها مهمه‬
‫مثال‬
‫تحسين عمليه صنع القرار‬
‫زياده الدقه‬
‫التحول الى وضع اكثر تنافسيه على صعيد خدمه الزباين‬
‫الحفاظ على صوره جيده للعمل‬
‫زياده الشعور بالرضى من الموظفين تجاه الوظيفه من خالل تخليصهم من المهام الممله‬
Slide 31
Tangible Costs
• Those that can be accurately projected by

systems analysts and the business’
accounting personnel
• Examples:
• Cost of equipment
• Cost of resources
• Cost of systems analysts’ time
• Cost of programmers’ time
• Employees’ salaries
These costs are well established and are the costs that require a cash outlay of the
business.
‫التكاليف المحسوسه يتم تقديرها بواسطه محلل النظام وطاقم المحاسبه في العمل من االمثله عليها‬
‫كلفه التجهيزات كالحواسيب وملحقاتها‬
‫كلفه الموارد‬
‫كلفه محللي النظم‬
‫كلفه وقت المبرمجين‬
‫رواتب الموظفين‬
Slide 32
Intangible Costs
• Those that are difficult to estimate and

may not be known
• Examples:
• Losing a competitive edge
• Losing the reputation of being first
• Declining company image
• Ineffective decision making
It is generally not possible accurately to project a dollar amount for intangible

costs.
‫صعبه التقدير وربما اليمكن معرفتها من االمثله عليها‬
‫فقدان او خساره الميزه التنافسيه‬
‫خساره سمعه ان تكون األول في الخروج ببتكار او ان تكون الرائد في مجال ما‬
‫اهتزاز صوره الشركه لعدم رضا الزباين‬
‫االتخاذ غير الفعال للقرارات‬
Slide 33
Comparing Costs and Benefits
• Break-even analysis
• Payback
• Cash-flow analysis
• Present value analysis
All these techniques provide straightforward ways of yielding information to

decision makers about the worthiness of the proposed system.
‫مقارنه التكاليف والفوائد‬
‫هناك تقنيات مشهوره من اجل مقارنه التكاليف والفوائد للنظام المقترح منها‬
‫تحليل التعادل‬
‫تحليل السداد‬
‫تحليل تدفق النقد‬
‫تحليل القيمه الحاليه‬
‫تمكنا هذا التقنيات من الحصول على معلومات حول جداره واستحقاق النظام المقترح من اجل تقديمها الى صناع‬
‫القرار‬
Slide 34
Break-Even Analysis
• The point at which the total cost of the

current system and the proposed system
intersect
• Useful when a business is growing and
volume is a key variable in costs
• Disadvantage:
• Benefits are assumed to remain the same
• Advantage:
• Can determine how long it will take for the
benefits of the system to pay back the costs of
developing it
Total costs = costs that recur during operation of the system + developmental costs
that occur only once
‫النقطه التي يتقاطع فيها مجموع تكاليف النظام الحالي ومجموع تكاليف النظام المقترح تمثل نقطه التعادل والتي يصبح‬
‫من المربح عندها ان يستخدم نظام المعلومات الجديد‬
‫تحليل التعادل مفيد عندما يكبر حجم العمل ازدياد حجم الطلبات سيزيد تكاليف النظام اليدوي‬
‫السلبيات هي فرضيه ثبات الفوائد‬
Slide 35
Break-Even Analysis Showing a Payback Period

of Three and a Half Years (Figure 3.12)
‫ وحده‬600 ‫يظهر في الرسم البياني ان النظام الجديد سيكون فعاال من ناحيه الكلفه اذا كانت قيمه مبيعات العمل حوالي‬
‫في األسبوع‬
Slide 36
Cash-Flow Analysis
• Examines the direction, size, and

pattern of cash flow that is associated
with the proposed information system
• Determines when cash outlays and
revenues will occur for both; not only
for the initial purchase, but over the life
of the information system
Cash-flow analysis is used to determine when a company will begin to make a

profit and when it will be “out of the red”.
‫تحليل التدفق النقدي‬
‫يقوم على أساس تحديد اتجاه وحجم ونسق التدفق المالي النقدي المرافق لنظام المعلومات الجديد فاذا كان النظام الجديد‬
‫لن يولد أي أموال نقديه اضافيه للعمل فان النفقات الماليه وحدها ترفق مع المشروع في هذه الحاله اليمكن تبرير‬
‫الحاجه الى نظام جديد‬
‫‪Cash-Flow Analysis for the Computerized‬‬

‫)‪Mail-Addressing System (Figure 3.13‬‬
‫تحليل التدفق النقدي لنظام توزيع البريد المؤتمت‬

‫يظهر الشكل تحليل التدفق النقدي لشركه صغيره تزود بخدمات مراسله بريديه‬
‫في الجدول نرى العائدات ‪5000‬في الربع األول والكن بعد الربع الثاني ستزداد العائدات الماليه بمعدل منتظم ستكون‬
‫التكاليف ضخمه في الربعين االولين ثم تميل الى الثبات ولهذا يستخدم تحليل التدفق النقدي لتحديد متى ستبدء الشركه‬
‫بتحقيق األرباح في هذا الحاله يكون الربح في الربع الثالث حيث سيكون التدفق النقدي ‪ 7590‬وستكون خارجه من‬
‫منطقه الخطر أي متى يتم تحقيق العائد المالي عند االستثمار المبدئي واللذي سيحدث في الربع األول من السنه الثانيه‬
‫عندما تتغير اشاره التدفقات النقديه التراكميه من قيمه سالبه الى موجبه‬
Slide 38
Present Value Analysis
• Way to assess all the economic outlays

and revenues of the information system
over its economic life, and to compare
costs today with future costs and
today’s benefits with future benefits
• Presents the time value of the
investment in the information system as
well as the cash flow
The cost of money is the opportunity cost, or rate that could be obtained if the
money invested in the proposed system were invested in another project.
‫تحليل القيمه الحاليه هو طريقه لتخمين جميع النفقات والعائدات لنظام المعلومات طيله فتره حياته وطريقه لمقارنه‬
‫التكاليف الحاليه مع التكاليف المستقبليه والفوائد الحاليه مع الفوائد المستقبليه‬
Slide 39
Present Value Analysis (Figure 3.15)
• Taking into account present value, the conclusion is

that the costs are greater than the benefits.
• The discount rate, i, is assumed to be .12 in
calculating the multipliers in this table.
‫ على مدى السنوات الست ومجموع الفوائد يساوي‬272000 ‫يوضح الشكل ان مجموع تكاليف النظام تساوي‬
‫ وبالتالي نستنتج ان الفوائد تفوق التكاليف وزنا واهميه الكن الفوائد لم تبدء في التفوق على التكاليف اال في‬280700
‫السنه الرابعه وكميه الدوالرات في السنه السادسه التساوي كميه الدوالرات في السنه‬
Slide 40
Guidelines for Analysis
• Use break-even analysis if the project needs to be

justified in terms of cost, not benefits.
• Use payback when the improved tangible benefits
form a convincing argument for the proposed
system.
• Use cash-flow analysis when the project is
expensive, relative to the size of the company.
• Use present value when the payback period is
long or when the cost of borrowing money is high.
Whichever method remember that cost-benefit analysis should be approached

systematically, in a way that can be explained and justified to managers.475
‫استخدام تحليل التعادل اذا كان المشروع يحتاج الى تبرير نفقاته ال الى تبرير فوائده او اذا كانت الفوائد ال تتحسن‬
‫بشكل كبير مع النظام الجديد‬
‫يستخدم تحليل السداد عندما تكون الفوائد المحسوسه مبررا مقنعا لقبول النظام الجديد‬
‫استخدام تحليل التدفق النقدي عندما يكون المشروع مكلف بالنسبه الى حجم الشركه او عندما العمل بالنظام الجديد‬
‫سيؤدي الى صرف سيوله ماليه كبيره ولو مؤقته‬
‫استخدام القيمه الحاليه عندما تكون فتره السداد طويله او عندما تكون كلفه االقتراض النقود كبيره‬
Slide 41
Estimating Time
• Project is broken down into phases.

• Further project is broken down into tasks or
activities.
• Finally project is broken down into steps or
even smaller units.
• Time is estimated for each task or activity.
• Most likely, pessimistic and optimistic
estimates for time may be used.
‫تقدير الزمن الالزم‬

‫تقسيم المشروع الى خطوات‬
‫تقسيم المشروع الى مهام وانشطه‬
‫تقسيم المشروع الى خطوات‬
‫تقديرالزمن لكل خطوه او نشاط‬
Slide 42
Beginning to Plan a Project by Breaking it

into Three Major Activities (Figure 3.16)
‫البدء في وضع خطه المشروع عند طريق تقسيمها الى ثالث مراحل رئيسيه‬
Slide 43
Refining the Planning and Scheduling of Analysis

Activities by Adding Detailed Tasks and Establishing the
Time Required to Complete the Tasks (Figure 3.17)
‫صقل عمليه التخطيط السابقه عن طريق تفصيل كل مرحله وتحديد الزمن الالزم النجاز كل النشاط‬
‫قم بتقسيم االنشطه الى انشطه اصغر‬
‫ثم بتقدير الزمن الالزم التمامها‬
‫‪Project Scheduling‬‬
‫‪• Gantt Charts‬‬

‫‪• Simple‬‬
‫‪• Lends itself to end user communication‬‬
‫‪• Drawn to scale‬‬
‫‪• PERT diagrams‬‬
‫‪• Useful when activities can be done in‬‬
‫‪parallel‬‬
‫استخدام مخططات جانت في تحديد الجدول الزمني للمشروع‬

‫البعد االفقي يمثل الزمن والعمودي يمثل وصف االنشطه‬
‫الميزه الرئيسه لمخطط جانت هي البساطه‬
‫يؤمن تواصال ممتازا مع المستخدمين‬
‫الخطوط الزمنيه التي تمثل االنشطه يتم رسمها بناء على الطول النسبي الالزم التمام كل مهمه‬
‫‪Using a Two-Dimensional Gantt Chart for‬‬

‫‪Planning Activities that Can Be Accomplished in‬‬
‫)‪Parallel (Figure 3.18‬‬
‫يظهر الشكل ان اجراء المقابالت الشخثيه سيستغرق ثالثه أسابيع‬

‫اداره االستبيان اربعه أسابيع‬
‫حاليا نحن في األسبوع التاسع‬
‫نالحظ ان فريق التحليل لم يصل الى مرحله تقديم النماذج االوليه ولكنه في طريقه الى االنتهاء من تحليل تدفق‬
‫البيانات‬
‫والمالحظه هنا انه يجب تعجيل تقديم النماذج االوليه حتى ال تتاخر االنشطه او المشروع بسببها‬
Slide 46
Slide 47
A Completed PERT Diagram for the Analysis

Phase of a Systems Project (Figure 3.22)
Slide 48
Slide 49
Slide 50
Slide 51
PERT Diagram Advantages
• Easy identification of the order of

precedence
• Easy identification of the critical path
and thus critical activities
• Easy determination of slack time
‫تعريف ترتيب األولويات بسهوله‬

‫تعريف المسار الحرج واالنشطه الحرجه بسهوله‬
‫تحديد زمن الخمول بسهوله‬
96
Slide 52
Project Due Dates
• Estimating models
• Costar
• Construx
• Function point analysis
• Helps the analyst quantitatively estimate
the overall length of software development
efforts
Slide 53
Managing Analysis and Design

Activities
• Team management
• Assembling a team
• Team communication strategies
• Project productivity goals
• Team member motivation
‫إدارة انشطة التحليل والتصميم‬

‫إدارة الوقت إدارة الموارد يبغي أيضا إدارة االفراد‬
‫تجميع االفراد‬
‫استراتيجية التواصل الالزمة‬
‫توزيع القياده‬
‫فض النزاعات‬
‫وضع اهداف اإلنتاجية للمشروع‬
‫تحفيز أعضاء الفريق‬
Slide 54
Assembling a Team
• Shared value of team work

• Good work ethic
• Honesty
• Competency
• Readiness to take on leadership based on
expertise
• Motivation
• Enthusiasm for the project
• Trust of teammates
Experience – this could mean code is developed five times faster
Motivation – select good people at the outset
Enthusiasm - Not only enthusiasm, but imagination and the ability to communicate
with different kinds of people
Trust – people may have different work styles, but they all need to agree to work
together toward a common goal.
‫قيم مشتركة‬
‫اخالقيات العمل‬
‫الصدق‬
‫الكفاءة‬
‫الخبير يقدم‬
‫الدافع‬
‫الحماس للمشروع‬
‫الثقة في الزمالء‬
Slide 55
Project Productivity Goals and

Motivation
• Successful projects require that
reasonable productivity goals for
tangible outputs and process activities
be set.
• Goal-setting helps to motivate team
members.
Slide 56
Ecommerce Project
Management
Ecommerce and traditional software
project management differences:
• The data used by ecommerce systems is
scattered across the organization.
• Ecommerce systems need a staff with a
wide variety of skills.
• Partnerships must be built externally and
internally well ahead of implementation.
• Security is of utmost importance.
‫إدارة المشاريع باستخدام البرمجيات التجارية‬

‫برمجيات تجارية‬
‫البيانات مبعثرة وموزعة في انحاء المنظمة‬
‫عاملين يتمتعون بعدة مهارات‬
‫تأسيس شراكات داخلية وخارجية قبل تنفيذ المشروع نتيجة للحاجة للمساعدة في البداية وأيضا تشارك المواهب‬
‫الناحية األمنية في بيئة االنترنت‬
Slide 57
Project Charter
• Describes in a written document what the

expected results of the systems project are
and the time frame for delivery
‫تفادي اإلخفاق‬
Slide 58
Project Charter Clarifies these

Questions
• What does the user expect of the project?
• What is the scope of the project?
• What analysis methods will the analyst use to interact
with users?
• Who are the key participants?
• What are the project deliverables?
• Who will evaluate the system and how will they
evaluate it?
• What is the estimated project timeline?
• Who will train the users?
• Who will maintain the system?
Slide 59
Project Failures
• Project failures may be prevented by:

• Training
• Experience
• Learning why other projects have failed
• Fishbone diagram systematically lists all
of the possible problems that can occur
‫مخطط السمكة لتعريف جميع األشياء التي يمكن ان تسير بشكل خاطئ اثناء عملية التطوير‬
Slide 60
Fishbone Diagram (Figure 3.23)
Slide 61
The Systems Proposal
• Cover letter
• Title page of project
• Table of contents
• Executive summary
• Outline of systems study with appropriate
documentation
• Detailed results of the systems study
• Systems alternatives
• Systems analysts recommendations
• Summary
• Appendices
Ten main sections comprise the systems proposal.
Cover letter – should list the people who did the study and summarize the
objectives of the study. Concise and friendly.
Title page of project – name of the project, the names of the team members, date
submitted.
Table of contents – useful to readers of long proposals; omit if less than 10 pages.
Executive summary – precisely provides the who, what, when , where, why, and
how of the proposal.
Outline of systems study with appropriate documentation – provides information
about all the methods used in the study and who or what was studied.
Detailed results of the systems study – describes what was found out about human
and systems needs through all the methods described in the detailed results of the
systems study.
Systems alternatives - two or three alternatives that directly address the problem.
Systems analysts recommendations – the recommended solution.
Summary – brief statement that mirrors the content of the executive summary.
Conclude the proposal on a positive note.475
Appendices – can include any information that may be of interest.
‫بعد االنتهاء من جمع المادة التي سيضعها المحلل في عرض النظام تاتي الخطوة التالية يتم تقسيم العرض لعشرة اقسام تحوي عرض النظام‬
‫كامال‬
‫ صفحة الغالف‬-1
‫صفحة عنوان المشروع‬-2
‫جدول المحتويات‬-3
‫ملخص تنفيذذي يتضمن النصائح‬-4
‫تلخيص لدراسة النظم مع ذكر الوثائق المناسبة‬-5
‫النتائج المفصلة لدراسة النظم‬-6
‫الخيارات البديلة‬-7
‫نصائح محللي النظم‬-8
‫خالصة العرض المكتوب‬-9
), ‫ملخص للمراحل‬, ‫ الكلحقات (وثائق مرتبة‬-10
Slide 62
Summary
• Project management fundamentals

• Determining project feasibility
• Project scheduling
• Managing systems analysis team members
• Problem definition
• Issues of the present system
• The objective for each issue
• The requirements that must be included in all
proposed systems
Slide 63
Summary (Continued)
• Project selection
• Backed by management
• Commitment of resources
• Attains goals
• Practical
• Important
• Feasibility
• Operational
• Technical
• Economic
Slide 64
Summary (Continued)
• Acquiring hardware and software

• Project planning
• Gantt charts
• PERT
• Function point analysis
• Team management
• Ecommerce projects
• Preparing a system proposal
Slide 65


Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 3-

Slide 1
4
Information Gathering:
Interactive Methods
Kendall & Kendall

Slide 2
Objectives
• Recognize the value of interactive methods for

information gathering.
• Construct interview questions to elicit human
information requirements.
• Structure interviews in a way that is meaningful to
users.
• Understand the concept of JAD and when to use it.
• Write effective questions to survey users about their
work.
• Design and administer effective questionnaires.
‫ادراك أهمية الطرق التفاعلية لجمع المعلومات‬

‫وضع أسئلة المقابالت الشخصية من اجل استخراج متطلبات المعلومات‬
‫اجراء المقابالت الشخثية بطريقة فعالة‬
‫استيعاب مفهوم التصميم الجماعي للتطبيقات ومتي نستخدمه‬
‫كتابة أسئلة االستبيانات‬
‫تصميم استبيانات فعاله‬
Slide 3
Interactive Methods to Elicit

Human Information Requirements
• Interviewing
• Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Questionnaires
The commonality of these methods is talking with and listening to people in the
organization in order to understand their interactions with technology through a
series of carefully composed questions.
‫المقابلة الشخصية والتصميم الجماعي واالستبيانات‬
‫تتشابه الطرق اعاله في كثير من النواحي حيث تتشابه جميعا في انها تتطلب التحدث مع افراد المنظمة واالستماع اليهم‬
‫عبر سلسلة من األسئلة المختارة بعناية‬
Slide 4
Major Topics
• Interviewing
• Interview preparation
• Question types
• Arranging questions
• The interview report
• Involvement
• Location
• Questionnaires
• Writing questions
• Using scales
• Design
• Administering
‫المقابالت‬
‫التجهيز للمقابله‬
‫أنواع األسئلة‬
Slide 5
Interviewing
• Interviewing is an important method for

collecting data on human and system
information requirements.
• Interviews reveal information about:
• Interviewee opinions
• Interviewee feelings
• Goals
• Key HCI concerns
Opinions – may be more revealing and more important then facts. By seeking
opinion rather then fact you can discover key problems.
‫راي الشخص الذي تتم مقابلته يمكن ان يكون اهم من الحقائق في بيان وضع النظام‬
Feelings – You can understand the organization’s culture more fully by listening to
the feelings of the respondent.
‫يمكن اسيعاب ثقافة المنظمة بشكل افضل من خالل اكتشاف احاسيس الشخص اثناء حديثه‬
Goals – project the organization’s future. You may not be able to determine goals
through any other method.
‫من خالل المقابلة الشخصية يمكمن معرفة اهداف المنظمة فالحقائق التي يتم الحصول عليها من خالل البيانات الورقية‬
‫تشرح األداء الماضي للمنظمة اما األهداف فتصور مستقبل المنظمة وتسلط الضوء عليه‬
HCI – the ergonomic aspects, the system usability, how pleasing and enjoyable the
system is, and how useful it is in supporting individual tasks.
‫استخدام الطرق التفاعلية يعمل على اكمال صورة متطلبات المعلومات للمنظمة‬
‫يجب على المحلل ان يعرف اثناء المقابلة راي الشخص في وضع النظام الحالي واهداف المنظمة وأهدافه الشخصية‬
‫كوظف واإلجراءات غير الرسمية‬
Slide 6
Interview Preparation
• Reading background material

• Establishing interview objectives
• Deciding whom to interview
• Preparing the interviewee
• Deciding on question types and
structure
Reading background material – read and understand as much background information about the
interviewees and their organization as possible.
Corporate Web site
Current annual report
Corporate news letter
Any publication sent out to explain the organization to the public
‫قراءة وفهم اكبر قدر ممكن من المعلومات التاريخية عن األشخاص الذي سيقابلهم وعن المنظمة حيث يمكن الحصول على هذه المعلومات‬
‫عادة من موقع الويب للشركة‬
‫التقرير السنوي األخير لها‬
‫من النشرة التقنية للشركة او من المنشورات التي يتم توزيعها‬
Standard and Poor’s

Trying to build a common vocabulary to phrase interview questions and to maximize the interview
time.
Establishing interview objectives – four to six key areas concerning HCI, information processing and
decision-making behavior
‫ مجاالت رئيسية من مجاالت المعلومات وسلوك صناع القرار‬6-4 ‫يجب ان تتعلق األسئلة بحوالي‬
‫من هذه المجاالت مصادر المعلومات اشكال المعلومات التكرار في اتخاذ القرار جودة المعلومات ونمط صنع القرار‬
Deciding whom to interview – Strive for balance so that as many users’ needs are addressed as
possible.
‫يجب ان يضع المحلل قائمة باالشخاص من كافة المستويات الذين سيتاصرون بالنظام ويجب ان يبذل المحلل جهده لتحقيق التوازن والتنويع في‬
‫اختيار األشخاص بحيث تتم معالجة اكبر قدر ممكن من احتياجات المستخدمين‬
Preparing the interviewee – Call ahead; keep to 45 minutes to an hour at the most.
45 ‫االتصال بالشخص الذي ستتم معه المقابلة قبل المقابلة بوقت كافي بيفكر في المقابلة قبل ان يتم اجراؤها يجب ان التزيد فترة المقابلة عن‬
‫دقيقة او ساعة كحد اقصى‬
Deciding on question types and structure – write questions to cover the key areas of decision
making that you discovered when you ascertained interview objectives.
‫وضع أسئلة تغطي المجاالت الرئيسية لصنع القرار التي تم الكشف عنها عند تحديد اهداف المقابلة‬
‫خطوات التحضير ببمقابلة الشخصية‬

‫قراءة المواد التاريخية‬
‫تحديد األهداف من المقابلة‬
‫تحديد األشخاص الذي ستتم مقابلتهم‬
‫االتفاق مع الشخص الذي ستتم مقابلته ليكون علي استعداد‬
‫تحديد نوع األسئلة وبنيتها‬
Slide 7
Question Types
• Open-ended
• Closed
Each question type can accomplish something a little different from the other, and
each has benefits and drawbacks.
‫كل نوع من األسئلة يمكن ان يخدم هفا مختلفا وكل منها له نواح إيجابية ونواح سلبية فيجب علي المحلل التفكير في‬
‫األثر الذي سيحدثه كل نوع‬
Slide 8
Open-Ended Questions
• Open-ended interview questions allow

interviewees to respond how they wish,
and to what length they wish.
• Open-ended interview questions are
appropriate when the analyst is
interested in breadth and depth of
reply.
“Open” actually describes the interviewee’s options for responding. They are
open.
‫كلمة مفتوحة تصف في الواقع خيارات الشخص في االستجابة للسؤال فهي استجابة مفتوحة فيمكن ان يجيب بكلمتين‬
‫ويمكن ان يجيب بنصف صفحة‬
Slide 9
Closed Interview Questions
• Closed interview questions limit the

number of possible responses.
• Closed interview questions are
appropriate for generating precise,
reliable data that is easy to analyze.
• The methodology is efficient, and it
requires little skill for interviewers to
administer.
The alternative to open-ended questions.

‫تأخذ األسئلة المغلقة شكال بسيطا واالجابة فيها مقيدة بعدد محدد‬
Slide 10
Benefits of Closed Interview

Questions
• Saving interview time
• Easily comparing interviews
• Getting to the point
• Keeping control of the interview
• Covering a large area quickly
• Getting to relevant data
‫فوائد استخدام األسئلة المغلقة‬

‫توفير الوقت‬
‫إمكانية مقارنة المقابالت بسهولة‬
‫الحصول على اإلجابات المطلوبة‬
‫السيطرة لشكل مستمر على مجريات المقابلة‬
‫تغطية كثير من األمور األساسية بسرعة‬
‫الحثول على البيانات المتعلقة بموضوع‬
Slide 11
Disadvantages of Closed
Interview Questions
• Boring for the interviewee
• Failure to obtain rich detailing
• Missing main ideas
• Failing to build rapport
between interviewer and
interviewee
As the interviewer you must think carefully about the question types you will use.
‫يشعر الشخص الذي تتم مقابلته بالملل‬

‫عدم القدرة على االحصول على تفاصيل غنية‬
‫نسيان األفكار األساسية‬
‫الفشل في تأسيس عالقة بين الطرفين‬
Slide 12
Attributes of Open-Ended and

Closed Questions (Figure 4.5)
Choosing one question type over the other involves a trade-off; although an open-
ended question affords breath and depth of reply, responses to open-ended
questions are difficult to analyze.
‫اختيار نوع واحد من األسئلة وتفضيله على االخر يستلزم بعض االتنازالت فمثال االجابه على األسئلة المفتوحة تكون‬
‫عميقة وواسعة لكنها في نفس الوقت صعبة التحليل‬
‫وثوقية البيانات‬
‫االستخدام الفعال للوقت‬
‫دقة البيانات‬
‫االتساع والعمق‬
‫اشتراط مهارة الشخص الذي يجري المقابلة‬
‫سهولة التحليل‬
Slide 13
Bipolar Questions
• Bipolar questions are those that may be

answered with a “yes” or “no” or
“agree” or “disagree.”
• Bipolar questions should be used
sparingly.
• A special kind of closed question
This type of closed question limits the interviewee even further by allowing a
choice on either “pole”, such as yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree.
‫هناك نوع خاص من األسئلة المغلقة هو السؤال ثنائي اإلجابة اوثنائي القطبية وهو سؤال يحتمل اجابتين نعم او ال اقبل‬
‫وال اقبل صحيح غير صحيح‬
Slide 14
Probes
• Probing questions elicit more detail

about previous questions.
• The purpose of probing questions is:
• To get more meaning
• To clarify
• To draw out and expand on the
interviewee’s point
• May be either open-ended or closed
Used as a follow-up question.
The strongest probe is simply - Why?
It is essential to probe so that we don’t accept superficial answers.

‫اسؤلة السبر هو تفصيل اإلجابة المبدئية من اجل الحصول علي فهم افضل ولتشجيع الشخص الذي تتم مقابلته على‬
‫التكلم بحرية عن النقطة المطروحة او تفصيلها اكثر‬
‫تنقسم األسئلة السبر الى مفتوحة ومغلقة‬

‫‪Arranging Questions‬‬
‫‪• Pyramid‬‬
‫‪• Starting with closed questions and working toward‬‬
‫‪open-ended questions‬‬
‫‪• Funnel‬‬
‫‪• Starting with open-ended questions and working‬‬
‫‪toward closed questions‬‬
‫‪• Diamond‬‬
‫‪• Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended,‬‬
‫‪and ending with closed questions‬‬
‫‪There are two ways of organizing interviews – Pyramid and Funnel, the diamond‬‬
‫‪approach combines both.‬‬
‫ترتيب األسئلة في تسلسل منطقي‬
‫هناك طريقتان في التفكير هما‬
‫الطريقة االستقرائية‬
‫والطريقة االستنتاجية‬
‫وطريقة تجمع كال النوعين االستقرائي واالستنتاجي‬
‫البنية الهرمية يمكن ان نتخيل التنظيم االستقرائي لالسئلة التي ستطرح في المقابلة على انها تأخذ شكل الهرم‬
‫في هذه البنية يبدا الشخص في طرح األسئلة المفصلة جدا والمغلقة غالبا ثم يتوسع بعد ذلك في المواضيع عن طريق‬
‫األسئلة المفتوحة واالسئلة ذات اإلجابة العامة‬
‫استخدام البنية الهرمية اذا كنا بحاجة الي اجراء تسخين للشخص الذي نقابله‬
‫ويفيد التسلسل الهرمي في طرح األسئلة عندما يرغب المحلل في الحصول على توضيح نهائي عن الموضوع‬
‫البنية القمعية في هذا الشكل التنظيمي من األسئلة يعمد الشخص الذي يجري المقابلة الى األسلوب االستنتاجي وذلك بان‬
‫يبدا في طرح أسئلة عامة مفتوحة ثم يقوم بتضييق مجال إجابة الشخص الذي يقابله عن طريق طرح األسئلة المغلقة‬
‫استخدام هذه الطريقة يسهل اجراء المقابلة وتشعر الشخص الذي تتم مقابلته باالطمئنان ويفيد التسلسل القمعي في طرح‬
‫األسئلة عندما يشعر المحلل ان الشخص الذي تتم مقابلته يتعاطف مع الموضوع وانه بحاجة الى ان يعطي الحرية في‬
‫التعبير عن مشاعره‬
‫بنية المعين افضل من الطريقتين البدء بطرح أسئلة خاصة جدا ثم التعرض لمسائل االوسع ثم االنتهاء باسئلة ختامية‬
‫خاصة جدا‬
‫البداية أسئلة مغلقة تسخن جو المقابلة ثم في المنتصف يتم سوال في مواضيع عامة تكون اإلجابة عنها بالنفي ثم يعود‬
‫مجرى المقابلة الى تضييق األسئلة فينتقل الى األسئلة الخاصة لبنهي بذلك المناقشة‬
Slide 16
Closing the Interview
• Always ask “Is there anything else that

you would like to add?”
• Summarize and provide feedback on
your impressions.
• Ask whom you should talk with next.
• Set up any future appointments.
• Thank them for their time and shake
hands.
“Is there anything else that you would like to add?” – considered a formula
question the response will often be “No.”
In form the interviewee about the next steps to take.
Always remember to thank the interviewee for their time.

‫يجب على المحلل في نهاية المقابلة ان يطرح سؤال هل هناك شيء لم نناقشه وتشعر انه من المهم ان ىخبرني به‬
‫يجب علي المحلل ان يقوم بتلخيص النتائج وتثصحيح االنطباعات الخاطئة‬
‫ثم عليه ان يخبر الشخص باللخطوات القادمة التب سيقوم بها المحلل وفريقه‬
‫ثم السوال عن الشخص الذي سيتم مقابلته في الخطوة التالية وان يتفق معه على الموعد المستقبلي‬
‫شكر السخص الذي تم مقابلته ومصافحته‬
Slide 17
Interview Report
• Write as soon as possible after the

interview.
• Provide an initial summary, then more
detail.
• Review the report with the respondent.
The longer you wait to write your report, the more suspect your data becomes.
Review the report with the respondent – this helps clarify the meaning the
interviewee had in mind and lets the interviewee know that you care.
‫كتابةتقرير عن المقابلة التي أجريت‬
‫يجب استخالاص جوهر النقابلة من خالل تقرير يكتب في اسرع وقت ممكن‬
Slide 18
Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Joint Application Design (JAD) can

replace a series of interviews with the
user community.
• JAD is a technique that allows the
analyst to accomplish requirements
analysis and design the user interface
with the users in a group setting.
An alternative approach to interviewing users one by one.
Developed by IBM.
The motivation was to cut the time and hence the cost required by interviews. It
also create more use identification with new systems as a result of the participative
process.
‫سبب اللجوء الي هذه الطريقة هم انها توفر الوقت وبالتالي تقلل الكلفة التي تستهلكها المقابالت الشخصية‬
‫ييتخدمها محللي النظم عادة من اجل اكمال تحليل المتطلبات ولتصميم واجهة المستخدم بالتعاون مع المستخدمين عندما‬
‫يعملون معا في مجموعة‬
‫زاحدة‬
‫‪Conditions that Support the Use‬‬

‫‪of JAD‬‬
‫‪• Users are restless and want something‬‬
‫‪new.‬‬
‫‪• The organizational culture supports‬‬
‫‪joint problem-solving behaviors.‬‬
‫‪• Analysts forecast an increase in the‬‬
‫‪number of ideas using JAD.‬‬
‫‪• Personnel may be absent from their‬‬
‫‪jobs for the length of time required.‬‬
‫الظروف التي تشجع علي استخدام طريقة التصميم الجماعي للتطبيقات‬

‫عندما تكون مجموهات المستخدمين قد أصابها الملل وتريد شيئا جديدا‬
‫اذاكانت ثقافة المنظمة تسنح يحل الكشاكل بشكل جماعي يشارك فيها مجموعة موظفين من مستويات مختلفة‬
‫اذا كان المخلوون يعتقدون ان األفكار التي ستتولد عن المقابالت لن تكون بغزارة األفكار التي ستتولد بهذه الطريقة‬
‫اذا كانت قوانين العمل في المنظمة تسمج بغياب الطاقم لمدة زمنية تتراوح من يومين الربعة أيام وال يتاثر فيها العمل‬
Slide 20
Who Is Involved
• Executive sponsor
• IS analyst
• Users
• Session leader
• Observers
• Scribe
‫األشخاص الذين يجب ان يشاركوا في جلسات التصميم الجماعي‬

‫مدير الجلسة وهو الشخص الذي سيفتتح جلسة التصميم الجماعي ويختتمها‬
‫محلل نظم المعلومات‬
All project team members must be committed to the JAD approach and become involved.
Executive sponsor – a senior person who will introduce and conclude the JAD
session.
IS Analyst – gives an expert opinion about any disproportionate costs of solutions

proposed
‫سيعطي رايه في الحلول المقترحة ذات التكاليف العالية بحيث يتم استبعاد الحلول ذات التكاليف الباهظة‬
Users – try to select users that can articulate what information they need to
perform their jobs as well as what they desire in anew or improved computer
system.
‫توضيح المعلومات التي يريدونها النجاز مهامهم وتوضيح ما يرغبون في وجوده في النظام‬
Session leader – someone who has excellent communication skills to facilitate
appropriate interactions.
‫يتمتع بمهارات تواصل ممتازة لكي يتفاعل مع الجميع ويدير التفاعالت بالشكل المطلوب‬
Observers – analysts or technical experts from other functional areas to offer
technical explanations and advice.
‫مراقب وهو محلل او خبير فني قادم من قطاعات وظيفية أخرى والهدف من وجوده ان يقدم الشروحات الفنية‬
‫والنصائح الفراد المجموعات اثناء الجلسات‬
Scribe – formally write down everything that is done.
‫كاتب يعمل في قسم نظم المعلومات لكي يدون ويكتب رسميا كل ما يتم انجازه‬
Slide 21
Where to Hold JAD Meetings
• Offsite
• Comfortable surroundings
• Minimize distractions
• Attendance
• Schedule when participants can attend
• Agenda
• Orientation meeting
Hold offsite to minimize the daily distractions and responsibilities of the

participants’ regular work.
Do not hold the session unless everyone can attend. An agenda should be giving
out before the meeting so the participants know what to expect. If possible an
orientation meeting can be given.
‫مكان ما خارج المنظمة‬

‫أجواء مريحة‬
‫قليل من المشوشات‬
‫االلتزام بالحضور من المشاركين‬

‫جدول زمني للجلسات‬
‫جدول االعمال لكل المشاركين‬
‫عقد لقاء توجيهي لمدة نصف يوم وهدفه ان يعرف كل مشارك ما يجب ان يقوم بتحضيره‬
Slide 22
Benefits of JAD
• Time is saved, compared with

traditional interviewing
• Rapid development of systems
• Improved user ownership of the
system
• Creative idea production is improved
Some organizations have estimated a 15-percent time savings over traditional.
Helps users become involved early in systems projects and treats their feedback
seriously.
Much like brainstorming which allows for creative idea production.

Slide 23
Drawbacks of Using JAD
• JAD requires a large block of time to be

available for all session participants.
• If preparation or the follow-up report is
incomplete, the session may not be
successful.
• The organizational skills and culture
may not be conducive to a JAD session.
It is not possible to do other activities concurrently or to time-shift any activities, as

is typically done in one-to-one interviewing.
It is a judgmental decision if the organization is truly committed to, and prepared

for , this approach.
‫التصميم الجماعي للتطبيقات يتضمن ثالث مشاكل‬

‫االولي انها تشترط على المشاركين التفرغ لها لفترة طويلة‬
‫ولن يتمكن المشاركين في هذه الفترة من القيام باية أنشطة أخرى وال يمكنهم تأجيل تلك األنشطة اما المقابلة الشخصية‬
‫فيمكن ذلك‬
‫المشكلة الثانية اذا لم يتم التحضير لجلسات التصميم الجماعي للتطبيقات بالشكل الكافي او اذا كانت وثائق المواصفات‬
‫غير مكتملة عندها ستخرج المجموعة في الغالب بتصاميم غير مرضية‬
‫المشكلة الثالثة تحدث عندما اليتم تطوير مهارات وثقافة المنظمة بالشكل الكلفي بتوفير الجهود الالزمة بكي يكون‬
‫أعضاءها منتجين في هذه الجلسات‬
Slide 24
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful in gathering

information from key organization
members about:
• Attitudes
• Beliefs
• Behaviors
• Characteristics
Attributes – what people in the organization say they want.
Beliefs – what people think is actually true.
Behavior – what organizational members do.
Characteristics – properties of people or things.
‫االستبيانات‬
‫هي احدى طرق جمع المعلومات تسمح للمحلل بدراسة عدد من األشخاص الرئيسيين في المنظمة الذين لهم عالقة‬
‫مباشرة بنظام المعلومات الذي تتم دراسته عن طريق معرفة‬
‫صفاتهم‬
‫مواققفهم‬
‫واعتقاداتهم‬
‫وسلوكياتهم‬
‫‪Planning for the Use of‬‬

‫‪Questionnaires‬‬
‫‪• Organization members are widely‬‬
‫‪dispersed.‬‬
‫‪• Many members are involved with the‬‬
‫‪project.‬‬
‫‪• Exploratory work is needed.‬‬
‫‪• Problem solving prior to interviews is‬‬
‫‪necessary.‬‬
‫ربما كان الهجف من استخدام االستبيان هو تفسير المعلومات التي حصل عليها المحلل في المقابالت الشخصية او‬
‫تحديد مدى انتشار راي تم ذكره في احدى المقابالت الشخصية‬
‫يمكن اجراء االستبيان فاذا كان هناك إجابات غير واضحة يتم اجراء مقابالت شخصية‬
‫التخطيط الستخدام االستبيانات‬
‫توجيهات مساعدة في معرفة ما اذا كان استخدام االستبيان مناسبا فيكون استخدام االستبيان هو الطريقة األفضل في‬
‫الحاالت التالية‬
‫‪ -1‬اذا كان المحلل يريد طرح اشئلة على افراد المنظمة المنتشرين في أماكن متباعدة من المنظمة‬
‫‪-2‬اذا كان عدد األشخاص كبيرا‬
‫اذا كان المحلل يقوم بدراسة تمهيدية ويريد معرفة الراي العام قبل البدء في المشروع‬
‫اذا كان المحلل يريد التأكد من انه عرف بالضبط مشاكل النظام الحالي من خالل مقابالت االستئناف التي اجراها‬
Slide 26
Question Types
Questions are designed as either:

• Open-ended
• Try to anticipate the response you will get.
• Well suited for getting opinions.
• Closed
• Use when all the options may be listed.
• When the options are mutually exclusive.
Even when you write an open-ended question, it must be narrow enough to guide
respondents to answer in a specific way.
Use open-ended questions when it is impossible to list effectively all possible
responses to a question.
‫لعدم وجود التفاعل بين المحلل واالفراد المستهدفين لذا يجب ان تكون األسئلة واضحة تمام الوضوح وان يكون‬
‫تسلسلها منطقيا وان يتوقع المحلل استفسارات االفراد المراد طرح االستبيان عليهم وان تتم إدارة االستبيان بشكل‬
‫مدروس وشامل‬
‫االسئبة المفتوحة تدع للشخص الذي تتم معه المقابلة مطبق الحرية في اإلجابة وبدون قيود‬
‫ما هي المشاكل التي تواجهها حاليا في تقارير الخرج‬
‫األسئلة المغلقة‬
‫األسئلة التي تقيد الشخص المستهدف بخيارات معينة‬
‫من البرامج الستة الظاهرة حدد البرنامج األكثر استخداما‬
Slide 27
Question Types
Questions are designed as either:

• Open-ended
• Try to anticipate the response you will get.
• Well suited for getting opinions.
• Closed
• Use when all the options may be listed.
• When the options are mutually exclusive.
Even when you write an open-ended question, it must be narrow enough to guide
respondents to answer in a specific way.
Use open-ended questions when it is impossible to list effectively all possible
responses to a question.
‫لعدم وجود التفاعل بين المحلل واالفراد المستهدفين لذا يجب ان تكون األسئلة واضحة تمام الوضوح وان يكون‬
‫تسلسلها منطقيا وان يتوقع المحلل استفسارات االفراد المراد طرح االستبيان عليهم وان تتم إدارة االستبيان بشكل‬
‫مدروس وشامل‬
‫االسئبة المفتوحة تدع للشخص الذي تتم معه المقابلة مطبق الحرية في اإلجابة وبدون قيود‬
‫ما هي المشاكل التي تواجهها حاليا في تقارير الخرج‬
Slide 28
Tradeoffs between the Use of Open-Ended and

Closed Questions on Questionnaires (Figure 4.12)
‫سرعة اإلنجاز‬
‫الطبيعة االستكشافية‬
‫االتساع والعمق‬
‫سهولة االعداد‬
‫سهولة التحليل‬
Slide 29
Questionnaire Language
• Simple
• Specific
• Short
• Not patronizing
• Free of bias
• Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
• Technically accurate
• Appropriate for the reading level of the
respondent
Write questionnaires in the respondents own language usage.155
Simple – Use the language of the respondents whenever possible.
Specific – work at being specific rather then vague in wording.
Short – keep questions short
Not patronizing – do not talk down to participants through low-level language

choices.
Free of bias – also means avoiding objectionable questions.
Addressed to those who are knowledgeable – target questions to correct

respondents.
‫إرشادات يجب مراعاتها في لغة االستبيان‬
‫ لغة بسيطة تناسب األشخاص الذي سيتم توزيع االستبيان عليهم والمحافظة على بساطة ا‬-1
‫ جعل الكلمات محددة وواضحة والبعد عن الغموض‬-2
‫ ان تكون األسئلة قصيرة‬-3
‫عدم النزول الى مستوى األشخاص المستهدفين باعطائهم خيارات لغوية منخفضة المستوى‬-4
‫ عدم التحيز في استخدام الكلمات‬-5
)‫توجيه األسئلة الى األشخاص المناسبين (أي األشخاص القادرين على اإلجابة‬-6
‫ التأكد من دقة األسئلة من دقة األسئلة من الناحية الفنية قبل ادراجها في االستبيان‬-7
‫لستخدام برامج الحاسوب لمعرفة ما ذا كان مستوى القراءة مناسبا لألشخاص المستهدفين‬-8
Slide 30
Measurement Scales
• The two different forms of

measurement scales are:
• Nominal
• Interval
Scaling is the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to an attribute or

characteristic for the purpose of measuring that attribute or characteristic.
‫استعمال الموازين في االستبيان‬
‫الموازنة هي اسناد ارقام او رموز الى ثفة او خاصية ما بغرض قياس تلك الصفة او الخاصية‬
‫القياس هناك سكالن مختلفان لموازين القياس‬

‫ الموازين االسمية‬-1
‫موازين الفواصل المتساوية‬-2
Slide 31
Nominal Scales
• Nominal scales are used to classify

things.
• It is the weakest form of measurement
• Data may be totaled
What type of software do you use the most?
1 = Word Processor
2 = Spreadsheet
3 = Database
4 = An Email Program
‫يتم استخدام الموازين االسمية لتصنيف األشياء‬

‫الموازين االسمية هي اضعف اشكال القياس فكل ما يمكن للمحلل القيام به هو الحصول على مجموع كل صنف‬
‫مثال‬
‫ما هو اكثر البرامج التالية استخداما بالنسبة لك ؟‬
‫ الوورد‬-1
‫ الجداول االلكترونية‬-2
‫ قواعد البيانات‬-3
‫‪Interval Scales‬‬
‫‪• An interval scale is used when the intervals‬‬

‫‪are equal.‬‬
‫‪• There is no absolute zero.‬‬
‫‪• Examples of interval scales include the‬‬
‫‪Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale‬‬
‫?‪How useful is the support given by the Technical Support Group‬‬
‫‪NOT USEFUL‬‬ ‫‪EXTREMELY‬‬
‫‪AT ALL‬‬ ‫‪USEFUL‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪More complete analysis can be performed on interval scales.‬‬

‫موازين اللفواصل المتساوية تتميز بان الفواصل بين كل رقمين متساوية وهكذا يمكن ببمحلل اجراء العمليات الحسابية‬
‫على بيانات االستبيان مما يؤدي الى الحصول على تحليل اكمل‬
‫من األمثلة على موازين الفوصل المتساوية‬
‫ميزان فهرنهايت وميزان سنت قراد المستخدمان في قياس درجة الحرارة‬
‫ما مدى فائدة الدعم الذي تقدمه مجموعة الدعم الفني ؟‬

‫مفيد للغاية‬ ‫غير مفيد اطالقا‬
‫•‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫•‬ ‫اذا افترض المحلل هذا التساوي سيتمكن من الحصول على تحليل يتميز بانه كمي بشكل اكبر‬
‫‪Validity And Reliability‬‬
‫‪• Reliability of scales refers to consistency in‬‬

‫‪response—getting the same results if the‬‬
‫‪same questionnaire was administered again‬‬
‫‪under the same conditions.‬‬
‫‪• Validity is the degree to which the question‬‬
‫‪measures what the analyst intends to‬‬
‫‪measure.‬‬
‫‪Questionnaires must be valid and reliable.‬‬

‫الصالحية والوثوقية هناك مقياسان لقوة اداء الموازين هما الصالحية والوثوقية‬
‫الوثوقية هي مقدار التماسك بمعنى اذا تم اجراء االستبيان مرة ثم اعيد اجراء نفس االستبيان مرة اخرى وفي نفس‬
‫الظروف وتم الحصول على نتائج متطابقة في المرتين يقال عندها ان هذا المقياس يتميز بتماسك خاجي اما اذا كان‬
‫االستبيان يحتوى على أجزاء فرعية وتطابقت نتائج تلك األجزاء الفرعية في الحالتين يقال عندها ان المقياس يملك‬
‫تماسك داخليا‬
‫الصالحية هي المدى الذي يمكن ان يبلغه المقياس لقياس اإلجابات فعلى سبيل المثال اذا أراد المحلل معرفة هل‬
‫المنطمة مستعدة الحداث تغيير جذري في عمليات الحاسب فهل يمكن لالسئلة قياس هذا االمر‬
Slide 34
Problems with Scales
• Leniency
• Central tendency
• Halo effect
Construction of scales is a serious task which must consider the problems

associated with their construction.
‫انشاء الموازين ان انشاء الموازين هوامر غاية في األهمية ويجب االهتمام به الن اإلهمال في انشائها يمكن ان يؤدي‬
‫الى وقوع في احدى المشاكل التالية‬
‫ التسهل‬-1
‫ النزعة نحو المركزية‬-2
‫ اثر هالو‬-3
Slide 35
Leniency
• Caused by easy raters

• Solution is to move the “average” category
to the left or right of center
‫التساهل هو مشكلة تظهر من قبل األشخاص الذين يتساهلون في اإلجابة عن السؤال ويمكن حل هذه المشكلة بان يضع‬
‫المحلل الخيار األوسط الى يسار او يمين المركز‬
Slide 36
Central Tendency
• Central tendency occurs when

respondents rate everything as average.
• Improve by making the differences smaller
at the two ends.
• Adjust the strength of the descriptors.
• Create a scale with more points.
‫النزعة نحو المركز هي مشكلة تظهر من قبل األشخاص الذين يختارون اإلجابة الوسطى دائما في اإلجابة عن السؤال‬
‫ويمكن حل هذه المشكلة بتغيير مواصفات الميزان اما عن طريق‬
‫ جعل الفروقات اقل عند النهايتين‬-1
‫ ضبط قوة التعبير الوصفي‬-2
‫ بتكثير خيارات الميزان‬-3
‫‪Halo Effect‬‬
‫‪• When the impression formed in one‬‬

‫‪question carries into the next question‬‬
‫‪• Solution is to place one trait and several‬‬
‫‪items on each page‬‬
‫اثر هالو يظهر عندما ينتقل االنطباع الناتج عن سؤال ما الى السؤال التالي لنفرض مثال انك احد األشخاص الذين‬
‫يجيبون على االستبيان وفي احد األسئلة طلب منك تقييم احد األشخاص الذين لديك انظباع جيد جدا عنهم عندها يمكن‬
‫يكون احتمال ان تعطي تصنيفا عاليا في كل صفة من صفات هذا الشخص سواء اكان يتصف بتلك الصفة بقوة ام ال‬
‫الحل هنا هو ان يقوم المحلل بوضع صفة واحدة لعدة موظفين في نفس الصفحة بدال من ان يضع موظفا واحدا وجميع‬
‫صفاته في نفس الصفحة‬
Slide 38
Designing the Questionnaire
• Allow ample white space.

• Allow ample space to write or type in
responses.
• Make it easy for respondents to clearly
mark their answers.
• Be consistent in style.
A well designed, relevant questionnaire can help overcome some of this resistance
to respond.
‫اذا كان االستبيان مصمما بشكل جيد ومناسب فانه سيساعد علي زيادة قابلية اإلجابة لدى األشخاص المستهدفين وفيما‬
‫يلي بعض االرشادات المساعدة على تصميم استبيان جيد‬
‫ توفير مساحة بيضاء‬-1
‫توفير مساحة واسعة لتمكين االفراد المستهدفين من كتابة ردودهم‬-2
‫تمكين األشخاص المستهدفين من تحديد اجاباتهم بسهولة‬-3
‫ ان يكون هناك تماسك وتناسق في مخطط االستبيان‬-4
Slide 39
Order of Questions
• Place most important questions first.

• Cluster items of similar content
together.
• Introduce less controversial questions
first.
You want respondents to feel as unthreatened by and interested in the questions

being asked as possible, without getting overwrought about a particular issue.
Slide 40
When Designing a Web Survey, Keep in Mind

that There Are Different Ways to Capture
Responses (Figure 4.13)
When you design questionnaires for the Web, apply the same rules you use when
designing paper questionnaires.
‫عند تصميم استبيان على الويب تذكر ان هناك طرقا مختلفة الدخال اإلجابات عن اسئلةاالستبيان‬
Slide 41
When Designing a Web Survey, Keep in Mind

that There Are Different Ways to Capture
Responses (Figure 4.13)
When you design questionnaires for the Web, apply the same rules you use when
designing paper questionnaires.
‫‪Methods of Administering the‬‬

‫‪Questionnaire‬‬
‫‪• Convening all concerned respondents‬‬
‫‪together at one time‬‬
‫‪• Personally administering the‬‬
‫‪questionnaire‬‬
‫‪• Allowing respondents to self-administer‬‬
‫‪the questionnaire‬‬
‫‪• Mailing questionnaires‬‬
‫‪• Administering over the Web or via email‬‬
‫‪The choice of administering the questionnaire may be determined by the existing‬‬

‫‪business situation.‬‬
‫‪Both email and Web surveys are Self–administered; response are a little lower‬‬
‫‪then other methods, but may result in less guarded answers.‬‬
‫طرق إدارة االستبيان يملك المحلل عدة خيارات في إدارة االستبيان وعادة يتم تحديد كيفية إدارة االستبيان بحسب‬
‫ظروف العمل الحالي ومن هذه الخيارات‬
‫‪ -1‬جمع جميع األشخاص المستهدفين معا في نفس الوقت ثم توزيع االستبيان عليهم‬
‫‪ -2‬ان يقوم المحلل بنفسه بتوزيع االستبيانات الفارغة واستعادة االستبيانات مملوءة‬
‫‪ -3‬تمكين األشخاص المستهدفين من إدارة وتوزيع االستبيان في العمل بأنفسهم ومن ثم وضع االسبيان في صندوق‬
‫موصوع في مكان مركزي‬
‫‪ -4‬ارسال االستبيانات بواسطة البريد الى الموظفين الموجودين في فروع المؤسسة وتحديد موعد نهائي لتلقي اإلجابات‬
‫على االسبيان وتحديد التعليمات واجرة البريد المدفوعة العادة االستبيان‬
‫‪-5‬إدارة االستبيان الكترونيا اما عبر البريد االلكتروني او عبر الويب‬
Slide 43
Electronically Submitting
Questionnaires
• Reduced costs
• Collecting and storing the results
electronically
Reminders can be sent.

Slide 44
Summary
• Interviewing
• Interview preparation
• Question types
• Arranging questions
• The interview report
• Involvement and location
• Questionnaires
• Writing questions
• Using scales and overcoming problems
• Design and order
• Administering and submitting
Slide 1
7
Using Dataflow Diagrams

Kendall & Kendall

Slide 2
Learning Objectives
• Comprehend the importance of using logical and

physical data flow diagrams (DFDs) to graphically
depict movement for humans and systems in an
organization.
• Create, use, and explode logical DFDs to capture and
analyze the current system through parent and child
levels.
• Develop and explode logical DFDs that illustrate the
proposed system.
• Produce physical DFDs based on logical DFDs you
have developed.
• Understand and apply the concept of partitioning of
physical DFDs.
‫ادراك أهمية استخدام مخططات تدفق البيانات المنطقية والفيزيائية في تمثيل حركة البيانات في المنظمة بشكل رسومي‬
‫انشاء واستخدام مخططات تدفق البيانات المنطقية من اجل تفكيك نظام المعلومات الحالي وتحليله عن طريق مستويات‬
‫المخططات اإلباء واالبناء‬
‫انشاء مخططات تدفق البيانات المنطقية من اجل النظام الجديد‬
‫انتاج مخططات تدفق البيانات الفيزيائية باالعتماد على مخططات تدفق البيانات المنطقية‬
‫استيعاب مفهوم تقسيم مخططات تدفق البيانات الفيزيائية وتطبيقه‬
‫‪Slide 3‬‬
‫‪Data Flow Diagrams‬‬
‫‪• Graphically characterize data processes‬‬

‫‪and flows in a business system.‬‬
‫‪• Depict:‬‬
‫‪• System inputs‬‬
‫‪• Processes‬‬
‫‪• Outputs‬‬
‫‪A series of layered data flow diagrams may be used to represent and analyze‬‬
‫‪detailed procedures in the larger system.‬‬
‫مخططات تدفق البيانات تصف بطريقة رسومية العمليات التي تتم على البيانات وتدفقات البيانات ضمن نظام‬
‫المعلومات‬
‫مخطط مستوى السياق هو اول مخطط تدفق بياتات يتم إنشاؤه بتمثيل أوسع مشهد ممكن لمدخالت النظام وعمليات‬
‫المعالجة فيه والمخرجات‬
‫بعد ذلك يمكن انشاء سلسلة من مخططات تدفق البيانات في المستوى األدنى من اجل تمثيل وتحليل اإلجراءات‬
‫التفصيلية الموجودة في النظام األكبر والتي تظهر في مخطط مستوى السياق‬
‫استخدام تدفقات البيانات من اجل تحديد المتطلبات‬

‫لكي يسهل على محللي النظم فهم متطلبات المعلومات للمستخدمين يجب ان يتخيلوا كيفية انتقال البيانات ضمن المنظمة‬
‫والعمليات التي تقوم بمعالجة وتحويل البيانات وما هي مخرجات هذه العمليات‬
‫على الرغم من ان المقابالت الشخصية تزودنا بقصة النظام كالميا‬
‫وان التحرى في البيانات الورقية بكافة أنواعها يزودنا بقصة النظام كتابيا‬
‫اال ان الرسم البياني يبقى له تميزه في بلورة تلك المعلومات بطريقة فعالة‬
‫من خالل المخططات تدفق البيانات وباستخدام مزيج من أربعة رموز فقط يستطيع محلل النظم ان يبين بشكل رسومي‬
‫العمليات التي تتم على البيانات ضمن المنظمة‬
Slide 4
Major Topics
• Data flow diagram symbols

• Data flow diagram levels
• Creating data flow diagrams
• Physical and logical data flow diagrams
• Partitioning
• Communicating using data flow
diagrams
‫‪Slide 5‬‬
‫‪Advantages of the Data Flow‬‬

‫‪Approach‬‬
‫‪• Freedom from committing to the‬‬
‫‪technical implementation too early‬‬
‫‪• Understanding of the interrelatedness‬‬
‫‪of systems and subsystems‬‬
‫‪• Communicating current system‬‬
‫‪knowledge to users‬‬
‫‪• Analysis of the proposed system‬‬
‫نقاط القوة في طريقة مخططات تدفق البيانات‬

‫‪ -1‬التحرر من االلتزام بالتنفيذ التقني للنظام في مرحلة مبكرة‬
‫‪ -2‬فهم اعمق لعالقات النظام والنظم الفرعية‬
‫‪-3‬توصيل المعرفة الحالية بالنظام الى المستخدمين من خالل مخططات تدفق البيانات‬
‫‪ -4‬نحليل النظام المقترح للتاكد من تمام تعريف البيانات والعمليات الظرورية‬
‫تركز مخططات تدفق البيانات على معالجة البيانات او على تحويل البيانات من شكل الى اخر عندما تمرر من خالل‬
‫العمليات‬
Slide 6
Basic Symbols
• A double square for an external entity

• An arrow for movement of data from
one point to another
• A rectangle with rounded corners for
the occurrence of a transforming
process
• An open-ended rectangle for a data
store
‫هناك أربعة رموز يتم استخدامها لتمثيل حركة البيانات على مخططات تدفق البيانات هي‬
- ‫مربع له ظل يستخدم لرسم كيان خارجي‬
- ‫سهم‬- ‫يظهر حركة البيانات وانتقالها من نقطة الى أخرى‬
- v ‫مستطيل ذو زويا مستديرة روز العملية‬
- ‫مستطيل ذو نهاية مفتوحة مغلق من الطرف االيسر ومفتوح من الطرف األيمن‬
Slide 7
The Four Basic Symbols Used in Data Flow

Diagrams, Their Meanings, and Examples
(Figure 7.1)
An entire system and numerous subsystems can be depicted graphically with

these four symbols in combination.
‫يمكن رسم نظام كامل وعدة نظم فرعية بيانيا باستخدام الرموز األربعة معا‬
Slide 8
External Entities
• Represent another department, a

business, a person, or a machine
• A source or destination of data, outside
the boundaries of the system
• Should be named with a noun
An external entity (outside the boundaries of the system) sends data to (source) or
receives data from (destination) the system.
Each entity is labeled with a name, generally a noun.
The same entity may be used more than once on a given data flow diagram.
) ‫الة‬, ‫ شخص اخر‬, ‫ عمل اخر‬, ‫المربع يستخدم لرسم كيان خارجي (قسم اخر من المنظمة‬
‫حيث يمكن لهذا الكيان ان يرسل البيانات الى النظام او يستقبل البيانات من النظام هذا الكيان الخارجي هومصدر‬
‫للبيانات او وجهة لها ويعتبر خارجيا بالنسبة ببنظام الذي يجري وصفه أي انه ال ينتمى اليه صحيح ان الكيان يتفاعل‬
‫مع النظام لكنه يعتبر خارج حدود النظام‬
‫ويمكن ان يظهر نفس الكيان اكثر من مرة على مخطط تدفق اليانات الواحد تفاديا لحدوث تقاطع بين خطوط تدفقات‬
‫البيانات‬
Slide 9
Data Flow
• Shows movement of data from one

point to another
• Described with a noun
• Arrowhead indicates the flow direction
• Represents data about a person, place,
or thing
Data flows occurring simultaneously can be depicted doing just that through the
use of parallel arrows.
‫يظهر السهم حركة البيانات وانتقالها من نقطة الى اخرى حيث يشير راس السهم الى اتجاه وجهة البيانات يجب ان‬
‫يسمى السهم باسم النه يمثل بيانات متعلقة بشخص او مكان او شيء‬
‫‪Process‬‬
‫‪• Denotes a change in or transformation of‬‬

‫‪data‬‬
‫‪• Represents work being performed in the‬‬
‫‪system‬‬
‫‪• Naming convention:‬‬
‫‪• Assign the name of the whole system when‬‬
‫‪naming a high-level process.‬‬
‫‪• To name a major subsystem attach the word‬‬
‫‪subsystem to the name.‬‬
‫‪• Use the form verb-adjective-noun for detailed‬‬
‫‪processes.‬‬
‫‪The data flow leaving a process is always labeled differently then the data flow‬‬
‫‪entering the process.‬‬
‫‪A process must also be given a unique identifying number indicating its level in the‬‬
‫‪diagram.‬‬
‫المستطيل ذو الزويا المستديرة يرمز للعملية حيث ان البيانات الداخلة الى العملية يتم اجراء معالجة عليها فتتحول الى‬
‫مخرجات سيل البيانات الخارج من عملية ما يسمى دائما باسم مختلف عن سيل البيانات الداخلة الى هذه العملية‬
‫بما ان العمليات تمثل العمل الذي يتم إنجازه في النظام ولذا يجب ان يكون االسم واضحا لكي يسهل على قارئ‬
‫المخطط معرفة ما تقوم به العملية وأيضا يجب تسميته بإحدى الصيغ التالية‬
‫‪ -1‬ضع اسم النظام العام اذا اردت تسمية عملية من مستوى عال مثال‬
‫‪ inventory control system‬نظام التحكم بالمستودعات‬
‫‪ -2‬من اجل تسمية نظام فرعي أساسي استخدم اسما مثل‬
‫النظام الفرعي الرساال تقارير المستودعات‬
‫‪Inventory reporting subsystem‬‬
‫او النظام الفرعي الكمال معلومات الزبون على االنترننت‬
‫‪Internet customer fulfillment subsystem‬‬
‫‪-3‬من اجل تسمية العمليات التفصيلية استخدم الصيغة التالية (فعل – صفة – اسم ) حيث يدل الفعل على نوع النشاط‬
‫‪compute ,verify,print,add‬مثل احسب ‪ ,‬تحقق اطبع اضف‬
‫‪record report‬في حين يدل االسم على ماهية الخرج األساسي للعملية مثل سجل او تقرير‬
‫اما الصفة فتوضح نوع الخرج الذي يتم انتاجه مثل طلبات في االنتظار او مجرودات‬
‫فيما يلي أسماء عمليات كاملة‬
‫تحقق من حالة حساب الزبون‬
‫‪Verify customer account status‬‬
‫احسب ضرائب المبيعات‬
‫‪Compute sales tax‬‬
‫اطبع السجل الذي هو قيد االنتظار‬
‫‪Print backordered record‬‬
Slide 11
Data Store
• A depository for data that allows examination,

addition, and retrieval of data
• Named with a noun, describing the data
• Data stores are usually given a unique
reference number, such as D1, D2, D3
• Represents a:
• Database
• Computerized file
• Filing cabinet
Data stores represent a person, place, or thing which is why they are named with a
noun.
Temporary data stores, such as scratch paper or a temporary computer file are not
included on the data flow diagram.
‫المشتطيل ذو النهاية المفتوحة يمثل مخزن البيانات ويتم تمثيله بخطين متوازيان يوصل بينهما خط قصير مخزن‬
‫البيانات يمثل فقط مستودعا للبيانات والذي يسمح لنا بمعاينة البيانات التي فيه واضافة البيانات اليه واستخراجها منه‬
‫يجب ان يعطى كل مخزن بيانات رقما مرجعيا فريدا وذلك لإلشارة الى مستواه‬
‫خزانة ملفات‬
‫ملف على الحاسب‬
‫قاعدة بيانات‬
‫‪Steps in Developing Data Flow‬‬

‫)‪Diagrams (Figure 7.2‬‬
‫‪Data flow diagrams can and should be drawn systematically.‬‬
‫‪To begin a data flow diagram, collapse the organization’s system narrative into a‬‬
‫‪list with four categories of external entity, data flow, process, and data store. This‬‬
‫‪list helps determine the boundaries of the system. Next begin drawing the context‬‬
‫‪diagram.‬‬
‫يجب ان يتم رسم مخططات التدفق بشكل مدروس وفيما يلي ملخص للخطوات التي يجب اتباعها من اجل انشاء‬
‫مخطط تدفق بيانات ناجحة‬
‫‪ -1‬قم بتشكيل قائمة من األنشطة التي تتم في العمل واستخدمها من اجل تحديد االتي‬
‫‪-‬كيانات خارجية‬
‫‪-‬تدفقات بيانات‬
‫‪-‬عمليات‬
‫‪-‬مخازن بينات‬
‫‪ -2‬أنشئ مخطط مستوى السياق الذي يظهر الكيانات الخارجية وتدفقات البيانات الداخلة الى النظام وتدفقات البيانات‬
‫الخارجة من النظام وال تقم باظهار أي عمليات مفصلة او أي مخازن بيانات‬
‫‪ -3‬قم برسم المخطط ‪ 0‬وهو مخطط المستوى التالي اظهر العمليات ولكن ابق على صيغة العمومية لها واظهر في هذا‬
‫المستوى مخازن البيانات‬
‫‪ -4‬أنشئ مخططا ابنا من اجل كل عملية من العمليات التي وردت في المخطط ‪.0‬‬
‫‪-5‬تاكد من عدم وجود أخطاء وتاكد من ان التسميات التي اعطيتها للعمليات وتدفقات البيانات هي تسميات مفهومة‬
‫‪ -6‬االن قم بانشاء مخطط تدفق البيانات الفيزيائي من مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي ميز بين العمليات اليدوية‬
‫والعمليات االلية اعط وصفا لكل الملفات الحقيقية والتقارير باالسم واعط عناصر تحكم تشير الى انتهاء العمليات من‬
‫المعالجة وعناصر تحكم تشير الى حدوث خطأ‬
‫‪-7‬قم بتجزئة مخطط البيانات الفيزيائي عن طريق فصل او تجميع أجزاء المخطط من اجل تسهيل نشاطي البرمجة‬
‫والتنفيذ على ارض الواقع‬
Slide 13
Creating the Context Diagram
• The highest level in a data flow diagram

• Contains only one process, representing
the entire system
• The process is given the number 0
• All external entities, as well as major
data flows are shown
Basically the context diagram consists of

one process – depicting the entire system
external entities
data flows from the external entities to the process
The diagram does not contain any data stores.

‫مخطط السياق هو اعلى المستويات في مخطط تدفق البيانات وهو يحتوى على عملية واحدة فقط تمثل النظام كامال‬
‫ (صفر) ويتم وضع كافة الكائنات الخارجية على مخطط السياق ووضع تدفقات‬0 ‫وتعطى هذه العملية الرقم المعرف‬
‫البيانات الرئيسية القادمة من هذه الكائنات ومخططات تدفق البيانات الذاهبة اليها ويجب ان ال يحتوى هذا ابمخطط على‬
‫اية مخازن بيانات‬
‫هذا المخطط سهل االنشاء كل ماهو مطلوب من المحلل ان يحدد الكيانات الخارجية وتدفق البيانات الذاهب الى هذه‬
‫الكيانات وتدفق البيانات القادم منها‬
Slide 14
Basic Rules
• The data flow diagram must have one

process.
• Must not be any freestanding objects
• A process must have both an input and
output data flow.
• A data store must be connected to at least
one process.
• External entities should not be connected to
one another.
Slide 15
Context Diagram (Figure 7.3)
Slide 16
Drawing Diagram 0
• The explosion of the context diagram.

• May include up to nine processes.
• Each process is numbered.
• Major data stores and all external
entities are included.
Including more than nine processes will result in a cluttered diagram that is difficult
to understand.
Each process is numbered with an integer, starting form the upper left-hand corner
and working toward the lower right-hand corner.
Because a data flow diagram is two-dimensional, you can start at any point and
work forward or backward through the diagram.
‫المخطط صفر هو المخطط الناجم عن تفصيل مخطط السياق ويمكن ان يضم أي عدد من العمليات تصل الى تسع‬
‫عمليات ويستحسن ان ال تزيد الن إضافة المزيد من العمليات سيئودي الى حدوث نوع من الفوضى واالرباك ويصبح‬
‫من الصعب فهم المخطط‬
‫يتم ترقيم كل عملية بعدد صحيح ويبدا الترقيم عادة من الزاوية العلوية اليسرى من الكخطط باتجاه الزاوية السفلى‬
‫اليمنى يتم في المخطط صفر إضافة مخازن البيانات الرئيسية للنظام والتي تمثل الملفات الرئيسية ويتم أيضا إضافة‬
‫جميع الكيانات الخارجية‬
‫)‪Drawing Diagram 0 (Continued‬‬
‫‪• Start with the data flow from an entity‬‬

‫‪on the input side.‬‬
‫‪• Work backwards from an output data‬‬
‫‪flow.‬‬
‫‪• Examine the data flow to or from a data‬‬
‫‪store.‬‬
‫‪• Analyze a well-defined process.‬‬
‫‪• Take note of any fuzzy areas.‬‬
‫‪Because a data flow diagram is two-dimensional, you can start at any point and‬‬
‫‪work forward or backward through the diagram.‬‬
‫من مزايا مخطط تدفق البيانات انه مخطط ثنائي البعد وليس خطيا ولذا يمكنك البدء برسم المخطط من أي نقطة ترغب‬
‫بها ثم تنطلق باتجاه االمام او الخلف في المخطط‬
‫يمكن ان تركز على كائن خارجي او عملية او مخزن ثم تبدا برسم تدفق البيانات بداء منه وذلك على النحو التالي‬
‫‪ -1‬يمكنك البدء بتدفق بيانات يخرج من كيان موجود على طرف الدخل وذلك بالتساؤل ماذا يحدث للبيانات الخارجة‬
‫من هذا الكيان والتي تدخل النظام ؟هل يتم تخزينها ؟هل هي لعدة عمليات ؟‬
‫‪ -2‬يمكنك االنطىق في عملك باتجاه الخلف من تدفق البيانات الذاهب الى طرف خارجي انظر الى حقول الخرج‬
‫الواقعة على شاشة ما او على وثيقة خرج ما (تعد هذه الطريقة اسهل اذا تم انشاء النماذج األولية ) ثم اسال من اين اتى‬
‫هذا التدفق ؟هل هو قيمة محسوبة ام مخزنة في ملف ؟‬
‫الموظف ‪TIMERECORD‬مثال اذا كان الخرج شيك الراتب فان اسم الموظف والعنوان يمكن ايجادهما في ملف‬
‫وساعات العمل يمكن ايجادها في السجل‬
‫والراتب اإلجمالي والمقطوع منه يتم حسابهما فيجب اذا ربط كل ملف وكل سجل بالعملية التي تنتج شيك الراتب‬
‫‪-3‬او يمكنك النظر الى تدفقات البيانات الداخلة الى مخزن بيانات او تدفقات البيانات الخارجة منه واسال أسئلة مثل (ما‬
‫العمليات التي تضع البيانات داخل المخزن ؟) او ( ما العمليات التي تستخدم هذه البيانات ؟) الحظ انه يمكن ان يكون‬
‫لمخزن البيانات المستخدم في النظام الذي تعمل عليه عالقة محتوى في نظام اخر مختلف‬
‫‪-4‬او يمكنك تحليل احدى العمليات التي تتميز بالوضوح وسهولة الفهم ‪.‬انظر ما هي البيانات الداخلة للعملية ؟ وما هي‬
‫البيانات التي تنتجها تلك العملية وبعد ذلك قم بربط الدخل والخرج مع مخازن البيانات والكيانات المناسبة‬
‫‪-5‬او يمكنك البحث عن أي مناطق غامضة والتي تكون حائرا بشان ما ستضعه فيها او ما هو الدخل او الخرج‬
‫المطلوب وضعه في هذه المناطق الن تحديد مواقع االشكال سيساعدك على وضع قائمة باالسئلة التي ستطرحها على‬
‫المستخدمين في المقابالت الشخصية االستئنافيه ‪.‬‬
Slide 18
Note Greater Detail in Diagram 0

(Figure 7.3)
Slide 19
Data Flow Diagram Levels
• Data flow diagrams are built in layers.

• The top level is the context level.
• Each process may explode to a lower
level.
• The lower level diagram number is the
same as the parent process number.
• Processes that do not create a child
diagram are called primitive.
Slide 20
Creating Child Diagrams
• Each process on diagram 0 may be

exploded to create a child diagram.
• A child diagram cannot produce output
or receive input that the parent process
does not also produce or receive.
• The child process is given the same
number as the parent process.
• Process 3 would explode to Diagram 3.
The process on Diagram 0 that is exploded is called the parent process, and the
diagram that results is called the child diagram.
On Diagram 3, the processes would be numbered 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and so on. This
allows the analyst to trace a series of processes through many levels of explosion.
‫المخطط االبن ال ينتج خرجا ال تنتجه العملية االب وال يستقبل دخال ال تستقبله العملية االب‬
‫يجب ان تظهر كل تدفقات البيانات الداخلة الى العملية االب داخلة الى المخطط االبن وجميع تدفقات البيانات الخارجة‬
‫من العملية االب خارجة من المخطط االبن‬
‫ ثم يتم ترقيم‬3 ‫ تنتج لنا المخطط‬3 ‫يأخذ المخطط االبن نفس الرقم المعطى للعملية في المخطط صفر فمثال العملية‬
‫العمليات الموجودة علي المخطط االبن باستخدام رقم عملية االب وفاصلة عشرية ثم رقم فريد لكل عملية ابن وهذا‬
‫ فان هذا‬1.2.3 ‫يسمح للمحلل بان يتعقب أي عملية مهما تعددت مستوياتها فاذا كان المخطط صفر يرسم العمليات‬
‫ كلها تقع في نفس المستوى‬1.2.3‫يعني ان المخططات‬
Slide 21
Creating Child Diagrams

(Continued)
• Entities are usually not shown on the
child diagrams below Diagram 0.
• If the parent process has data flow
connecting to a data store, the child
diagram may include the data store as
well.
• When a process is not exploded, it is
called a primitive process.
In addition, the lower-level diagram may contain data stores not shown on the
parent process.
‫عادة ال يتم رسم الكيانات الخارجية في المخططات االبناء الناجمة عن المخطط صفر‬
‫اذا كانت العملية االب ترتبط بتدفق بيانات ات من مخزن بيانات او ذاهب الى مخزن بيانات فان هذا المخزن يمكن ان‬
‫يضاف الى المخطط االبن‬
‫ومن األمثلة على ذلك الملف الذي يحتوى على جدول معلومات كجدول الضرائب مثال او الملف الذي يربط عمليتين‬
‫من المخطط االبن معا‬
‫يمكن ان ال يتم تفصيل عملية ويقال انها أولية وظيفيا وتدعى عملية أولية‬
Slide 22
Differences between the Parent Diagram (above)

and the Child Diagram (below) (Figure 7.4)
‫بالنسبة للبيانات الثانوية مثل بيانات الخطاء فانه يمكن وضعها على المخطط االبن وبكن اليتم وضعها على المخطط‬
‫االب‬
‫‪Checking the Diagrams for Errors‬‬

‫)‪(Figure 7.5‬‬
‫‪• Forgetting to include a data flow or‬‬
‫‪pointing an arrow in the wrong direction‬‬
‫‪ -1‬نسيان وضع تدفق بيانات واحيانا يتم توجيه سهم باتجاه خاطئ ومن األمثلة عليها نرسم عملية تظهر كل بياناتها اما‬
‫بيانات داخله فقط او خارجة فقط وكما نعلم فان كل عملية تقوم بمعالجة البيانات فال بد ان تستقبل دخال وتنتج خرجا‬
‫الحظ ان العملية ‪ 1‬تستقبل مدخالت فقط وال تنتج مخرجات وذلك الن السهم ‪GROSSPAY‬‬
‫يشير في االتجاه الخاطئ والخطاء نفسه سيؤثر على العملية ‪ 2‬التي ال تستقبل أي مدخالت‬
‫‪Checking the Diagrams for‬‬

‫)‪Errors (Continued Figure 7.5‬‬
‫‪• Connecting data stores and external‬‬
‫‪entities directly to each other‬‬
‫ربط مخازن البيانات مع الكيانات الخارجية مباشرة حيث ان الواجب ان ترتبط الكيانات او مخازن البيانات بإحدى‬
‫العمليات حصرا الن الملف ال يمكن ان يرتبط مباشرة بملف اخر دون مساعدة برنامج او شخص يحرك البيانات‬
‫بينهما‬
‫وأيضا يجب ان ال يكون هناك طريق مباشر من الكيانات الخارجية الى الملفات النه ال احد يريد ان يقوم الزبون‬
‫بتفتيش ملف الزبائن الرئيسي‬
‫اذا وجد كيان خارجي مرتبط مباشرة مع كيان خارجي اخر فان هذا يشير الى رغبة احدهما في االتصال مع االخر هذا‬
‫النوع من االتصال ال يتم تضمينه على مخطط تدفق البيانات مالم يكن النظام يدعم هذا النوع من االتصال ومن األمثلة‬
‫على هذا النوع من االتصال انتاج تقرير ولكن رغم ذلك ال بد من وضع عملية بين الكيانات من اجل انتاج التقرير‬
Slide 25
Checking the Diagrams for

Errors (Continued)
• Incorrectly labeling processes or data
flow
• Including more than nine processes on
a data flow diagram
Incorrectly labeling processes or data flow:

Each object or data flow is properly labeled
Data flow described with a verb.
Processes should indicate the system name or use the verb-
adjective-noun format.
Having too many processes creates a cluttered diagram that is confusing to read
and hinders rather than enhances communication.
‫ التسمية غير الصحيحة للعمليات او تدفقات البيانات فالعملية يجب ان تشير الى اسم النظام او ان‬-3
‫اسم واما تدفق البيانات فيجب ان يسمى باسم معين‬-‫تستخدم الصيغة فعل – صفة‬
‫ عمليات على مخطط تدفق البيانات مما يجعل المخطط مربكا فاذا اضطررت‬9 ‫وضع اكثر من‬-4
‫ عمليات في نظام ما فقم بجمع بعض العمليات التي تعمل معا في نظام فرعي‬9 ‫الى إضافة اكثر من‬
‫وضعها معا في مخطط ابن‬
‫‪Checking the Diagrams for‬‬

‫)‪Errors (Continued‬‬
‫‪• Omitting data flow‬‬
‫‪• Creating unbalanced decomposition (or‬‬
‫‪explosion) in child diagrams‬‬
‫‪Each child diagram should have the same input and output data flow as the parent‬‬
‫‪process.‬‬
‫حذف احد تدفقات البيانات يدعى تدفق البيانات الذي تملك فيه كل عملية دخال واحدا وخرجا واحدا بالتدفق الخطي ولذا‬
‫تفحص مخططك بحثا عن التدفقات الخطية عادة ال تكون مخططات تدفق البيانات األبناء مفصلة جدا ولذا من النادر ان‬
‫توجد تدفقات بيانات خطية وهكذا فان وجودها يدل عادة على ان المخطط يفتقد الى تدفق بيانات ما فعلى سبيل المثال‬
‫العملية ‪CALCULATE-WITHHOLDING-AMOUNT‬‬
‫تحتاج الى عدد األشخاص الذي يعولهم الموظف و ‪WITHHOLDING-RATE‬‬
‫كدخل لها‬
‫مثال اخر ال يمكن حساب الراتب النهائي للموظف من معرفة الكمية المقطوعة منه كما اليمكن انشاء شيك راتب‬
‫الموظف من الراتب النهائي وحده بل البد من معرفة اسم الموظف والراتب الحالي ومجموع الرواتب من اول العام‬
‫حتى التاريخ الحالي والكمية المقتطعة منه‬
‫التفصيل غير المدروس في المخططات األبناء يجب ان يمتلك كل مخطط ابن نفس تدفق البيانات الدخل ونفس تدفق‬
‫بيانات الخرج الذي تمتلكه العملية االب واالستثناء الوحيد لتلك القاعدة هي خطوط الخطاء والتي يتم تضمينها فقط في‬
‫المخطط االبن‬
Slide 27
Typical Errors that Can Occur in a Data

Flow Diagram (Payroll Example)
(Figure 7.5)
Slide 28
Logical and Physical Data Flow

Diagrams
• Logical
• Focuses on the business and how the business
operates
• Not concerned with how the system will be
constructed
• Describes the business events that take place and
the data required and produced by each event
• Physical
• Shows how the system will be implemented
• Depicts the system
‫يركز مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي على العمل وكيفية سيره وال عالقة له بكيفية بناء النظام بل يقوم بوصف احداث‬
‫العمل الجارية والبيانات المطلوبة لكل حدث والبيانات التي بقدمها كل حدث‬
‫اما مخطط البيانات الفيزيائي فالهدف منه هو كيفية تنفيذ النظام مثل تحديد التجهيزات والبرمجيات والملفات الالزمة‬
‫للنظام وتحديد االفراد المشاركين في النظام‬
Slide 29
Features Common of Logical and Physical

Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 7.7)
Slide 30
‫‪The Progression of Models from‬‬

‫)‪Logical to Physical (Figure 7.8‬‬
‫‪The progression of creating data flow diagrams is:‬‬

‫‪Analyze the current system (current logical DFD).‬‬
‫‪Add features the new system should include (the proposed logical DFD).‬‬
‫‪Finally the best methods for implementing the new system should be‬‬
‫‪developed (the physical DFD).‬‬
‫كيفية االنتقال بين النماذج من المخطط المنطقي الى الفيزيائي‬
‫قم بانشاء مخطط تدفق البيانات للنظام الحالي عن طريق النظر الى مخطط تدفق البيانات الفيزيائي وعزل أنشطة العمل‬
‫الفريدة‬
‫أنشئ مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي للنظام الجديد عن طريق إضافة المدخالت والعمليات الالزمة في النظام الجديد الى‬
‫مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي للنظام الحالي‬
‫قم بانشاء مخطط تدفق البيانات الفيزيائي عن طريق النظر الى العمليات في المخطط المنطقي الجديد حدد المواصع‬
‫التي يجب ان توضع فيها واجهات المستخدمين طبيعة العمليات ومخازن البيانات الالزمة‬
‫مخطط التدفق المنطقي والفيزيائي المين صندوق سوبر ماركت‬

‫يقوم الزبون باحضار البضائع الى المسجل‬
‫ثم بعد ذلك يتم البحث عن أسعار جميع البضائع وجمعها‬
‫ويتم بعدها دفع الميلغ الى امين الصندوق الذي يعطي الزبون إيصال بالدفع‬
‫يوضح مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي العمليات دون الخوض في تفاصيل التنفيذ الفيزيائي لالنشطة‬
‫اما المخطط الفيزيائي فيظهر انه تم استخدام باركود (قارئ الرموز) الحظ أيضا ان مخطط تدفق البيانات الفيزيائي‬
‫يذكر العمليات اليدوية كالمسح ويوضح انه تم استخدام ملف مؤقت لتخزين المجموع الجزئي للبضائع ويشير الى ان‬
‫الدفع يمكن ان يكون نقدا او باستخدام شيك او بطاقة ائتمان وفي النهايةيوضح المخطط الفيزيائي اسم االيصال المعطى‬
‫للزبون‬
Slide 33
Developing Logical Data Flow

Diagrams
• Better communication with users
• More stable systems
• Better understanding of the business by
analysts
• Flexibility and maintenance
• Elimination of redundancy and easier
creation of the physical model
Better communication with users – centered on business activities.
More stable systems – based on business events and not on a particular

technology or method of implementation.
‫من اجل انشاء مخطط البيانات المنطقي للنظام الجديد يستحسن ان نقوم أوال بانشاء مخطط تدفق البيانات المنطقي‬
‫للنظام الحالي هناك عدة فوائد ال ستخدام النموذج المنطقي منها‬
‫ تعزيز تواصل مع المستخدمين‬-1
‫زيادة استقرار النظام‬-2
‫زيادة فهم المحللين للنظام‬-3
‫المرونة وقابلية الصيانة‬-4
‫التخلص من األمور الزائدة وسهولة انشاء النموذج الفيزيائي‬-5
Slide 34
Developing Physical Data Flow

Diagrams
• Clarifying which processes are performed by
humans and which are automated
• Describing processes in more detail
• Sequencing processes that have to be done in
a particular order
• Identifying temporary data stores
• Specifying actual names of files and printouts
• Adding controls to ensure the processes are
done properly
‫وتتميز مخططات تدفق البيانات الفيزيائية بمزايا منها‬

‫توضيح العمليات اليدوية والعمليات الفيزيائية‬-1
‫وصف العمليات بتفصيل اكبر من المخططات المنطقية‬-2
‫سلسلة العمليات التي يجب ان تتم وفق ترتيب معين‬-3
‫تعريف مخازن مؤقتة للبيانات‬-4
‫تحديد أسماء فعلية للملفات والوثائق المطبوعة‬-5
‫إضافة عناصر تحكم لضمان إتمام العمليات على النحو المطلوب‬-6
Slide 35
Physical Data Flow Diagrams Contain Many

Items Not Found in Logical Data Flow Diagrams
(Figure 7.10)
Physical data flow diagrams are often more complex than logical data flow
diagrams simply because of the many data stores present in the system.
The acronym CRUD is used for Create, Read, Update, and Delete
A CRUD matrix shows which programs or processes add, read, update, or delete
master file records.
Intermediate data stores – consist of transaction files used to store data between
processes.
A physical data flow diagram may appear more linear that a logical model.
Slide 36
Event Modeling and Data Flow

Diagrams
• An input flow from an external entity is
sometimes called a trigger because it starts
the activities of a process.
• Events cause the system to do something and
act as a trigger to the system.
• An approach to creating physical data flow
diagrams is to create a data flow diagram
fragment for each unique system event.
Triggers start activities or processes, which in turn use data or produce output.
‫نمذجة االحداث وعالقتها بمخططات تدفق البيانات‬
‫من الطرق العملية النشاء مخططات تدفق البيانات الفيزيائية ان نقوم بانشاء قطعة بسيطة من مخطط تدفق البيانات من‬
‫اجل كل حدث فريد في النظام‬
‫االحداث تحرض النظام على القيام بشئ ما والقوادح هي التي تقوم بتشغيل األنشطة والعمليات التي تقوم بدورها‬
‫بمعالجة البيانات وإنتاج المخرجات‬
‫ زبون يقوم بحجز مقعد في رحلة عن طريق الويب‬: ‫مثال عن الحدث‬

‫عند ارسال نموذج الويب يتم تنشيط عمليات معينة مثل التحقق من البيانات وتخزينها واالنتقال الى صفحة الويب التالية‬
‫وعرضها‬
‫‪Event Response Tables‬‬
‫‪• An event table is used to create a data‬‬

‫‪flow diagram by analyzing each event‬‬
‫‪and the data used and produced by the‬‬
‫‪event.‬‬
‫‪• Every row in an event table represents‬‬
‫‪a data flow diagram fragment and is‬‬
‫‪used to create a single process on a‬‬
‫‪data flow diagram.‬‬
‫يتم عادة تلخيص االحداث في جدول االستجابة لالحداث‬

‫يتم تمثيل القطعة من مخطط تدفق البيانات بسطر في الجدول وتعتبر كل قطعة من مخطط تدفق البيانات عملية وحيدة‬
‫على مخطط تدفق البيانات‬
‫يتم بعد ذلك ضم كل القطع لتشكل المخطط صفر‬
‫حيث تصبح أعمدة القادح تدفقات بيانات االدخل‬
‫واعمدة االستجابة تدفقات بيانات الخرج‬
‫وتصبح األنشطة عمليات‬
‫ويجب على المحلل ان يحدد مخازن البيانات الالزمة للعملية عن طريق النظر في تدفقات بيانات الدخل والخرج‬
Slide 38
An event response table for an

Internet storefront.
Slide 39
Data flow diagrams for the first three rows

of the Internet storefront event response
table
‫مخططات تدفق البيانات ألول ثالثة اسطر من جدول االستجابة للالحداث السابق‬
‫ميزة بناء مخططات تدفق البيانات اعتمادا على االحداث هي انها تعتمد على تألف المستخدمين مع االحداث التي تقع‬
‫في العمل وعلى معرفتهم بكيفية قيادة االحداث للالنشطة األخرى‬
The advantage of building data flow diagrams based on events is that the users
are familiar with the events that take place in their business are and know how the
events drive other activities
Slide 40
An Event Response Table for an

Internet Storefront (Figure 7.12)
Slide 41
Data Flow Diagrams for the First Three Rows of

the Internet Storefront Event Response Table
(Figure 7.13)
• A dataflow diagram fragment is represented by one row in the table.

• Each DFD fragment is a single process on a data flow diagram.
• All the fragments are then combined to form Diagram 0.
• The trigger and response column becomes the input and output data flows.
• The activity becomes the process.
• The data stores are determined by examining the input and output data flows.
The advantage of building data flow diagrams based on events is that the users
are familiar with the events that take place in their business area and know how
the events drive other activities.
Slide 42
Use Cases and Data Flow

Diagrams
• Each use case defines one activity and
its trigger, input, and output.
• Allows the analyst to work with users to
understand the nature of the processes
and activities and then create a single
data flow diagram fragment
‫حاالت االستخدام ومخططات تدفق البيانات‬

‫يمكن استخدام حاالت االستخدام في انشاء مخططات تدفق البيانات‬
‫فحالة االستخدام عبارة عن استخدام نشاطا واحدا وقادحه ودخله وخرجه‬
‫هذه الطريقة تمكن المحلل من العمل مع المستخدمين لفهم طبيعة العمليات واألنشطة ومن ثم انشاء قطعة مخطط تدفق‬
‫بيانات واحدة‬
Slide 43
Partitioning Data Flow Diagrams
• Partitioning is the process of examining a

data flow diagram and determining how it
should be divided into collections of manual
procedures and computer programs.
• A dashed line is drawn around a process or
group of processes that should be placed in a
single computer program.
Analyze each process to determine whether it should be a manual or automated

procedure.
Group automated procedures into a series of computer programs.
‫تقسيم مخططات تدفق البيانات‬
‫هو ان يقوم المحلل بتقسيم المخطط الى مجموعات من اإلجراءات اليدوية ومجموعات من برامج الحاسوب وذلك‬
‫بالنظر في مخطط تدفق البيانات وتحديد كيف يجب ان يتم التقسيم يجب على المحلل ان ينظر كل العمليات ويصنفها‬
‫الى إجراءات يدوية او مؤتمته بعد ذلك يقوم بجمع اإلجراءات المؤتمتة وترتيبها في سلسلة من برامج الحاسوب‬
‫ثم يقوم برسم خط متقطع حول العملية (او مجموعة العمليات ) التي يجب وضعها في برنامج حاسب مستقل‬
Slide 44
Reasons for Partitioning
• Different user groups

• Timing
• Processes may be separated into different
programs for security
• Similar tasks
• Efficiency
• Consistency
• Security
‫األسباب التي تدعو الى تقسيم مخططات تدفق البيانات‬

‫ اختالف مجموعات المستخدمين هل يتم انجاز العمليات من قبل مجموعات مختلفة من المستخدمين وتقع كل‬-1
‫مجموعة في موقع فيزيائي مختلف من الشركة هنا يجب تقسيم هذه العمليات الى برامج مختلفة‬
‫التوقيت النظر في توقيت العمليات اذا وجدت عمليتان تنفذان في وقتين مختلفين فال يمكن الجمع بينهما في لرنامج‬-2
‫واحد‬
‫المهام المتماثلة عمليتان تنفذان مهاما متماثلة فيمكن جمعهما في برنامج حاسب واحد‬
‫الفاعلية‬
‫انتظام البيانات‬
‫االمن‬
Different user groups – Are the processes performed by several different user
groups, often at different physical locations in the company? If so, they should be
partitioned into different computer programs.
Timing - Processes that execute at different times must be in separate programs
Similar tasks - may be included in the same program
Efficiency - Several batch processes may be included in the same program for
efficiency
Consistency - Several processes may be included in the same program or job

stream for consistency of data.
Security – may be partitioned into different programs for security reasons.

Slide 45
Partitioning Web Sites
• Improves the way humans use the site

• Improves speed of processing
• Ease of maintaining the site
• Keep the transaction secure
Each time data must be obtained from a data store or an external partner, a Web
site designer might consider creating a unique Web form and DFD process to
validate and process the data or may also use Ajax, sending a request to the
server and obtain a small amount of data or an XML document returned to the
same page.
‫تقسيم مواقع الويب مفيد جدا عند تصميم الموقع الى سلسلة من الصفحات مما يزيد السرعة المعالجة ويسهل الصيانة‬
Slide 46
Communicating Using
Data Flow Diagrams
• Use unexploded data flow diagrams
early when ascertaining information
requirements.
• Meaningful labels for all data
components
‫استخدام مخططات التدفق االصلية وغير التفصيلية مفيد جدا في المراحل األولى النشطة التحليل والتصميم وذلك عندما‬
‫يقوم بجمع متطليات المعلومات الن استخدام مخططات التدفق في هذه المرحلة يساعد على إعطاء نظرة شاملة عن‬
‫حركة البيانات شمن النظام وإعطاء تخيل لهذه الحركة‬
‫يجب انشاء المخططات وتسمية العناصر بأسماء معبرة من اجل تسهيل التواصل مع المستخدمين من خالل‬
‫المخططات‬
Use unexploded data flow diagrams early when ascertaining information
requirements – at this stage they can provide an overview of data movement
through the system, lending a visual perspective unavailable in narrative data.
Meaningful labels for all data components – labels should not be generic.
Data flow diagrams can be used for documenting high and low levels of analysis
and helping to substantiate the logic underlying the data flows of the organizations.
Slide 47
Summary
• Data flow diagrams

• Structured analysis and design tools that
allow the analyst to comprehend the system
and subsystems visually as a set of
interrelated data flows
• DFD symbols
• Rounded rectangle
• Double square
• An arrow
• Open-ended rectangle
Slide 48
Summary (Continued)
• Creating the logical DFD

• Context-level data flow diagram
• Level 0 logical data flow diagram
• Child diagrams
• Creating the physical DFD
• Create from the logical data flow diagram
• Partitioned to facilitate programming
Slide 49
Summary (Continued)
• Partitioning data flow diagrams

• Whether processes are performed by
different user groups
• Processes execute at the same time
• Processes perform similar tasks
• Batch processes can be combined for
efficiency of data
• Processes may be partitioned into different
programs for security reasons
Slide 50


7-50
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Compare treating information as a resource to treating humans as a resource.

2. List the differences between OAS and KWS.
3. Define what is meant by MIS.
4. How does MIS differ from DSS?
5. Define the term expert systems. How do expert systems differ from decision support systems?
6. List the problems of group interaction that group decision support systems (GDSS) and
computersupported
collaborative work systems (CSCWS) were designed to address.
7. Which is the more general term, CSCWS or GDSS? Explain.
8. Define the term mcommerce.
9. List the advantages of mounting applications on the Web.
10. What is the overarching reason for designing enterprise (or ERP) systems?
11. Provide an example of an open source software project.
12. List the advantages of using systems analysis and design techniques in approaching computerized
information systems for business.
13. List three roles that the systems analyst is called upon to play. Provide a definition for each one.
14. What personal qualities are helpful to the systems analyst? List them.
15. List and briefly define the seven phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
16. What are CASE tools used for?
17. What is the difference between upper and lower CASE tools?
18. Define what is meant by the agile approach.
19. What is the meaning of the phrase “the planning game”?
20. What are the stages in agile development?
21. Define the term object-oriented analysis and design.
22. What is UML?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the three groups of organizational fundamentals that carry implications for the development
of information systems?
2. What is meant by saying that organizational subsystems are interrelated and interdependent?
3. Define the term organizational boundary.
4. What are the two main purposes for feedback in organizations?
5. Define openness in an organizational environment.
6. Define closedness in an organizational environment.
7. What is the difference between a traditional organization and a virtual one?
8. What are the potential benefits and a drawback of a virtual organization?
9. Give an example of how systems analysts could work with users as a virtual team.
10. What are enterprise systems?
11. What is ERP, and what is its purpose?
12. What problems do analysts often encounter when they try to implement an ERP package?
13. What are the two symbols on a use case diagram, and what do they represent?
14. What is a use case scenario?
15. What are the three main parts of a use case scenario?
16. What are the four steps in creating use case descriptions?
17. What are the five altitude metaphors for describing use case on different levels? What do they
represent?
18. What does a process represent on a context-level data flow diagram?
19. What is an entity on a data flow diagram?
20. What is meant by the term entity-relationship diagram?
21. What symbols are used to draw E-R diagrams?
22. List the types of E-R diagrams.
23. How do an entity, an associative entity, and an attributive entity differ?
24. List the three broad, horizontal levels of management in organizations.
25. How can understanding organizational subcultures help in the design of information systems?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the five major project fundamentals?
2. List three ways to find out about problems or opportunities that might call for a systems solution.
3. List the five criteria for systems project selection.
4. Define technical feasibility.
5. Define economic feasibility.
6. Define operational feasibility.
7. List four criteria for evaluating system hardware.
8. What are the three main options for the acquisition of computer hardware?
9. What does COTS stand for?
10. What does ASP stand for in terms of software delivery?
11. Define tangible costs and benefits. Give an example of each one.
12. Define intangible costs and benefits. Give an example of each one.
13. List four techniques for comparing the costs and benefits of a proposed system.
14. When is break-even analysis useful?
15. What are the three drawbacks of using the payback method?
16. When is cash-flow analysis used?
17. As a general guideline, when should present value analysis be used?
18. What is a Gantt chart?
19. When is a PERT diagram useful for systems projects?
20. List three advantages of using a PERT diagram over a Gantt chart for scheduling systems projects.
21. Define the term critical path.
22. How does a project manager assess the risk of things going wrong and take that into consideration
when planning the time needed to complete the project?
23. List the two types of team leaders.
24. What is meant by a dysfunctional team norm?
25. What is meant by team process?
26. What are three reasons that goal setting seems to motivate systems analysis team members?
27. What are four ways in which ecommerce project management differs from traditional project
management?
28. What elements are contained in a project charter?
29. What is a fishbone diagram used for?
30. What are the three steps the systems analyst must follow to put together an effective systems
proposal?
31. List the 10 main sections of the systems proposal.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of information should be sought in interviews?
2. List the five steps in interview preparation.
3. Define what is meant by open-ended interview questions. Give eight benefits and five drawbacks of
using them.
4. When are open-ended questions appropriate for use in interviewing?
5. Define what is meant by closed interview questions. Give six benefits and four drawbacks of using
them.
6. When are closed questions appropriate for use in interviewing?
7. What is a probing question? What is the purpose of using a probing question in interviews?
8. Define what is meant by pyramid structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?
9. Define what is meant by funnel structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?
10. Define what is meant by diamond-shaped structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?
11. Define joint application design (JAD).
12. List the situations that warrant use of JAD in place of personal organizational interviews.
13. List the potential benefits of using joint application design.
14. List the three potential drawbacks of using JAD as an alternative to personal interviews.
15. What kinds of information is the systems analyst seeking through the use of questionnaires or
surveys?
16. List four situations that make the use of questionnaires appropriate.
17. What are the two basic question types used on questionnaires?
18. List two reasons why a systems analyst would use a closed question on a questionnaire.
19. List two reasons why a systems analyst would use an open-ended question on a questionnaire.
20. What are the seven guidelines for choosing language for the questionnaire?
21. Define what is meant by scaling.
22. What are two kinds of information or scales that are most commonly used by systems analysts?
23. What are nominal scales used for?
24. Give an example of an interval scale.
25. When should the analyst use interval scales?
26. Define reliability as it refers to the construction of scales.
27. Define validity as it refers to the construction of scales.
28. List three problems that can occur because of careless construction of scales.
29. What are four actions that can be taken to ensure that the questionnaire format is conducive to a good
response rate?
30. Which questions should be placed first on the questionnaire?
31. Why should questions on similar topics be clustered together?
32. What is an appropriate placement of controversial questions?
33. List five methods for administering the questionnaire.
34. What considerations are necessary when questionnaires are Web-based?

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Slide 1

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

• Recall the basic types of computer-based systems

• Recall the basic types of computer-based systems

Information—A Key Resource

• Fuels business and can be the critical

Needs to be managed correctly. Costs are associated with the production,

• Fundamentals of different kinds of

Systems Analysts Recommend, Design, and

• Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

• Transaction Processing System (TPS)

It is essential to the day-to-day operations of business that Transaction processing

• Office Automation System (OAS)

KWS – support professional workers such as scientists, engineers, and doctors by

(CAD) Computer Aided Design - Automates creation, revision of products, and

• Management Information System (MIS)

MIS – Support management functions of organization. Transaction processing systems are a

• Executive Support System (ESS)

ESS – Help executives to make decisions at the strategic level by providing

GDSS – aids in group collaboration permitting group members to interact with

Integrating New Technologies into

Systems Analysts Need to Be Aware that

Ecommerce and Web Systems

Enterprise Resource Planning

Instituting ERP requires enormous commitment and organizational change.

Wireless and Mobile Systems

• A system analyst may be asked to design

Open Source Software

• An alternative of traditional software

A movement to create, distribute, share and modify software which is not

Need for Systems Analysis and

User involvement throughout the systems project is critical to the successful

Roles of the Systems Analyst

• The analyst must be able to work with

Qualities of the Systems Analyst

The successful systems analyst must possess a wide range of qualities.

Systems Development Life Cycle

The Seven Phases of the Systems

HCI is that aspect of a computer that enables communications and interactions

Determining Human Information

Determining human needs of the users involved.

Trying to understand what information users need to perform their jobs.

Who – the people who are involved

Analyzing System Needs

Designing the Recommended

Developing and Documenting

The analyst uses structure charts and pseudocode to communicate to the

Testing and Maintaining the

Implementing and Evaluating the

Training users to handle the system.

Actually evaluation takes place during every phase.

Some Researchers Estimate that the Amount of Time Spent

The Impact of Maintenance

• Maintenance is performed for two

Computer programs must be modified and kept up to date.

Resource Consumption over the

Area under the curve represents the total dollar amount.

Approaches to Structured Analysis and Design

• Traditional systems development

• CASE tools are productivity tools for

Increasing analyst productivity –

Case Tool Classifications

• Upper CASE tools perform analysis