 The factors that influence the acquisition of a second language

Introduction
Some students learn a new language more quickly and easily than others. This simple fact is known by all who have
themselves learned a second language or taught those who are using their second language in school. Clearly, some
language learners are successful by virtue of their sheer determination, hard work and persistence. However there are
other crucial factors influencing success that are largely beyond the control of the learner. These factors can be broadly
categorized as internal and external. It is their complex interplay that determines the speed and facility with which the new
language is learned.
Internal factors
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation.
• Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who already have solid literacy skills
in their own language, seem to be in the best position to acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can
be very successful too, but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation.
• Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills.
They are less likely to take advantage of opportunities to speak, or to seek out such opportunities. More outgoing students
will not worry about the inevitability of making mistakes. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves much more
practice.
• Motivation (intrinsic): Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with educational achievement. Clearly,
students who enjoy language learning and take pride in their progress will do better than those who don't.
Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to learn English in order to take a
place at an American university or to communicate with a new English boy/girlfriend are likely to make greater efforts and
thus greater progress.
• Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a stronger position to develop a
new language than those who haven't. The student, for example, who has already lived in 3 different countries and been
exposed to various languages and cultures has a stronger base for learning a further language than the student who
hasn't had such experiences.
• Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities (intelligence) will make the faster progress.
Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in
others.
• Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same language family as their first
language have, in general, a much easier task than those who aren't. So, for example, a Dutch child will learn English
more quickly than a Japanese child.
External factors
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation.
• Curriculum: For ESL students in particular it is important that the totality of their educational experience is appropriate for
their needs. Language learning is less likely to place if students are fully submersed into the mainstream program without
any extra assistance or, conversely, not allowed to be part of the mainstream until they have reached a certain level of
language proficiency.
• Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing appropriate and effective learning
experiences for the students in their classrooms. These students will make faster progress.
The same applies to mainstream teachers in second language situations. The science teacher, for example, who is aware
that she too is responsible for the students' English language development, and makes certain accommodations, will
contribute to their linguistic development.
• Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own culture has a lower status than
that of the culture in which they are learning the language make slower progress.
• Motivation (extrinsic): Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragment to learn by their teachers and
parents will generally fare better than those who aren't. For example, students from families that place little importance on
language learning are likely to progress less quickly.
• Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom is
a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic models and can provide appropriate feedback. Clearly, second-
language learners who have no extensive access to native speakers are likely to make slower progress, particularly in the
oral/aural aspects of language acquisition.
 Top factors that influence second language acquisition
by administrator on December 23, 2010
Why language schools are often ineffective? I did about about one month German language course and found that I was
gaining very little out of it. I had different teachers and I noticed that a good teacher can make a huge difference by
creating a learning environment that involves students and does not bore them.
When I started to read literature about the factors that influence language learning, but also “learning” in general, I found
out that the approach that some of my teachers were following was totally wrong.
I summarize what I think are crucial factors for efficient language learning and will then explain each one more in detail:
1. Motivation
Turns out that the more you are motivated toward learning the faster and better you will learn. This seems obvious but the
crucial point is that to be motivated you have actually to believe that you can learn the language, and that you can learn it
pretty quickly.
2. Regular practice
It is better to practice the language every day 20-30 minutes than 2 hours 2 times a week. Regular practice it is very much
linked to other factors such as time management and motivation.
3. Emotional involvement
Our memory can retain much better information that is associated with strong emotions and more than one sense. For
example, associating the sound of a word with images and smell could be more effective than just reading the word on a
dictionary. One important factor is that a person memory may have preference for one of the senses. Therefore,
discovering what is your favourite sense for memory retention can be highly useful to decide how to learn languages.
4. Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes
When we are bored we do not learn. When we are having fun we are more receptive. This is one of the reason why boring
language school is usually very ineffective. I think that is also important to not worry about sounding a bit ridiculous during
the first months speaking a foreign language. Willingness to make mistakes allows you to improve by getting feedback on
what are you doing wrong and how to fix it. A playful approach to language learning can be highly rewarding because
allows you to say anything and without having to worry too much about it.
5. Humble approach – Starting from the basic
We learn better when we interiorize very well some small knowledge chuncks or principles before adding new ones.
Therefore, a beginner that start by an humble approach, and recognize that is better to learn very good very few things at
the beginning before learning a lot of advanced rules will actually learn faster. In other words, I think that the secret to
learn fast is actually to learn “slowly” (gradually).
6. Grammar is secondary to practice.
Generally speaking I believe that second language acquisition is more successful when it imitates children language
acquisition. Children do not learn grammar first and then how to speak, they learn how to speak by a trial and error
process which involve constant engaging with their environment. Children do not learn reading by starting to read
literature. They learn to read by starting to read simple single words, and then simple single sentences. Grammar should
be taught very sparingly and sparingly used to check the sentences that one has already pronounced instead than the
opposite.
 LEARNER FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Second language (L2) learners are different. They learn with different speed and different results. There are
many explanations for that issue. The general factors that influence second language learning are: age, aptitude and
intelligence, cognitive style, attitudes, motivation and personality (Ellis 1985). The aim of this article is to present these
factors and their contribution to success or failure in language learning.
1 Age
Age is one of the factors that influence second language learning. It is generally believed that children are better
at languages than adults. However, only the studies conducted in naturalistic learning settings provide the evidence that
supports this assumption. Researchers have proved that learners who start learning a foreign language
as children achieve a more native-like accent than those who start as adolescents or adults (Oyama 1976; Asher and
Garcia 1969) and they are also better in the acquisition of grammar (Patkowski 1980; 1990). On the other hand, the
research carried out in formal learning environments give the opposite results. In the case of classroom learning adul
ts appear to be better both in syntax and morphology, while adolescents are the best (Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle 1978;
Fathman 1975) and they also progress faster. The studies concerning the age factor were summarised by Ellis (1985)
who states that the route of SLA is not influenced by the starting age,but there is a relationship between the rate of
learning and the age of the learners. Adolescents learn faster than adults and children as far as grammar and vocabulary
are concerned.
Although young learners do not learn as fast as older ones, they are prompt to gain a higher overall success because of a
longer exposure to the language. He also provides some explanations of the research results. The studies do not support
the critical period hypothesis, which states that children can acquire a language naturally and with no effort to some age.
The starting age is important only as far as pronunciation is concerned. Selinger (1978) claims that there is a possibility of
multiple critical periods. Cognitive explanations draw attention to the differences between children a
nd adults in the relation to their abilities to learn a language. Older learners are able to apply linguistic rules when they use
the language. For children language is a tool for expressing meaning and they can not respond to it as a form. The
explanation can also lie in affective states of the learners. Neufeld (1978) distinguishes two levels of language: ‘primary’ -
vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar rules, and ‘secondary’ - ability to handle complex grammatical structures and
different language styles. He states that all people have an inborn ability to acquire primary levels, but children are more
likely to acquire secondary levels and be more successful in learning a foreign language. Although adults learn faster,
children are more motivated because they want to be accepted by peers.
The aim of the studies investigating the age factor was to establish the optimal age of learning a foreign
language. It has to be noticed that each age bringssome advantages and disadvantages to the learning process and the
decision when to start learning a foreign language depends on the situation of the individual learner.
Students are taught in all age groups and teachers’ task is to use appropriate methods to suit the demands of a given age
group. The next part of this chapter deals with the issue of intelligence and aptitude that are believed to be inborn
and essential for SLA.
2 Intelligence and aptitude
Intelligence is defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. Success in life and
learning should correlate with high IQ (intelligence quotient) tests scores. The studies on intelligence show a strong
relationship between intelligence and acquisition of a foreign language but only as far as academic skills are concerned.
Learners with high IQ achieve better results on language tests. It is proved that intelligence can predict the rate and
success of SLA in the formal language classroom (Genesee 1976). “The ability to perform well in standa
rd intelligence tests correlates highly with school related second language learning, but is unrelated to the learning
of a second language for informal and social functions” (Spolsky 1989:103).
It is assumed that some people are gifted and they learn foreign languages with ease. It was observed that
learners acquire a language with different results despite the fact that they are at the same age and are equally
motivated. It is not just intelligence that can explain these differences. Students need aptitude – some specific abilities,
which are responsible for learning languages. The first tests that measured aptitude are Carrolland Sapon’s Modern
Language Aptitude Test (1959) and Pimsleur’s Language Aptitude Battery (1966). Carroll describes aptitude as a stable
factor, which can not be trained; it is separate from motivation, achievement and intelligence. It is an ability that allows to
learn a L2 faster and with less effort. He identified four factors in language aptitude: phonemic coding ability, grammatical
sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and rote learning ability. Later studies conducted by Skehan (1986) were
concentratedon the underlying complexity of language aptitude and its relation to first language acquisition and second
language learning. He has shown two predictors of the language aptitude: ‘a general
language processing capability’ and an ‘ability to use language in a decontextualized way.’ Skehan’s findings show that
aptitude consists of abilities identified by earlier researchers and the ability to deal with context-free language, which is
connected with learning academic skills and intelligence (Ellis 1994). It is still not known whether intelligence is a part of
attitude or they are separate notions. Cummins (1983) distinguished language abilities into two: cognitiv
e/academic language proficiency (CALP) and basic impersonal communication skills (BICS). He suggested that CALP
might be related to general intelligence while BICS to aptitude.
The studies, which were concerned with formal classroom learning and measured academic language proficiency, found
aptitude as a predictor of second language achievement. The researchers agree that it is necessary to
improve and develop new aptitude tests, which will measure not only cognitive abilities but also communicative
competence. Some researchers do not believe that something like general intelligence can influence learning a fore
ign language. All children acquire their first language successfully. Gardner (1983) introduced a theory of Multiple
Intelligences. He described eight types of intelligence:
1. linguistic (sensitivity to spoken and written language, the capacity to use the language to accomplish certain goals);
2. logical-mathematical (ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically);
3. spatial (ability to recognise and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas);
4. musical (capacity to recognise and create musical pitches and rhythmic patterns);
5. bodily-kinaesthetic (ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements);
6. interpersonal (capacity to understand intentions, motivations and desires of other people);
7. intrapersonal (ability to understand oneself, todevelop a sense of self-identity)
8. naturalistic (ability to understand the natural world).
He states that every person possesses the eight intelligences, which evolve independently at different
times and to different degrees. Learners should be encouraged to develop all types of intelligences because they ar
e closely bound and the growth of one area increases the capacity of the whole. Teachers should use a variety of
techniques and materials in order to enable students to learn using their strengths and achieve better results. He cl
aims that people are intelligent in different ways and they also learn in different ways. The next part of this chapter des
cribes different learning styles which can not be mistaken with multiple intelligences because a learning style is the way
we approach a learning task while intelligence is a capacity to deal with this task.
3 Learning styles
Keefe (1979, cited by Ellis 1994:499) described learning styles as “the characteristic cognitive, affective, and
physiological behaviours that serve relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the
learning environment.” Students’ learning styles can be influenced by many factors among which are the
ir genetic background, their culture and previous learning experience. It is said that if teachers match their teaching
methods to the students’ learning styles, the students will be more successful and more interested in the language.
Researchers have developed many different types of the learning styles. Field dependence/independence is one of the
most widely studied classifications. It was proved that people who are field independent prefer deductive way of
introducing a language, and achieve high level of proficiency in the classroom (Neiman at al. 1978; Abraham 1985).
The field dependent students do better in naturalistic language environment. Brown (1994) states that neither of
styles decides about success or failure in the language learning. Both types of learners can achieve a lot but in the
appropriate conditions of learning. He also suggests that fielddependence/ independence does not have to be a sta
ble factor and some people can change their style in different contexts and situations.
Another classification is left-/right-brain dominance, which is strongly related to field dependence/independence.
Brown (1994) presents a table listing left and right- brain characteristics by Torrance (1980). Left-brain dominated
students are intellectual, prefer established, certain information and rely on language in thinking and remembering while
right-brain dominated students are intuitive, process information in a holistic way, rely on drawing and manipulating to help
them think and learn. Reid (1987) identified four learning modalities: visual (seeing), auditory (listening), kinaesthetic
(moving) or tactile (touching). Visual learners learn through seeing. They prefer to see a teacher during a lesson, learn by
visuals: pictures, wall displays, diagrams, videos. They make notes during lectures and use lists to organise their
thoughts. Auditory learners learn through listening. They prefer verbal instructions, like dialogues, discussions and plays,
solve problems by talking about them, use rhythm and sound as memory
aids. Kinaesthetic learners learn through moving and doing. They learn best when they are active. It is difficult for them to
sit still for long periods. Tactile learners learn through touching. They use writing and drawing. They learn well in hands-on
activities like projects and demonstrations.The other learning styles are described by Willing(1987), who distinguished:
1. Concrete learning style - direct means of processing information; people-oriented; spontaneous; imaginative;
emotional; dislikes routinized learning; prefers kinaesthetic modality.
2. Analytical learning style - focuses on specific problems and proceeds by means of hypothetical-deductive reasoning;
object oriented; independent; dislikes failure; prefers logical, didactic presentation
3. Communicative learning style - fairy independent; highly adaptable and flexible; responsive to facts that do not fit;
prefers social learning and a communicative approach; enjoys taking decisions.
4. Authority-oriented way of learning - reliant to other people; needs teacher’s directions and explanations; likes a
structured learning environment; intolerant to facts that do not fit; prefers a sequential progression; dislikes discovery
learning (Ellis 1994:507). Ellis (1985: 116) states that “the existing research does not conclusively show that it [cognitive
style] is a major factor where success is concerned.” It was observedthat learners produce different kind of errors,
depending on their cognitive style. It is complicated to measure because learning styles are influenced by other learner
factors. Learning styles do not seem to predict the possible success in L2, but they show the most effective way to
achieve the best results. If students are aware of their learning style, are highly motivated and have positive attitudes, they
are likely to succeed but these factors are discussed in the next part.
4 Motivation and attitudes
Motivation is one of the most important factors insecond language acquisition. It is obvious that learners who
want to learn are likely to achieve more than thosewho do not. The role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has been
investigated by Gardner and Lambert (1972), who define motivation in terms of ‘ the learner's overall goal or orienta
tion’, and attitudeas ‘the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal’ (Ellis 1985:117). They distinguish
two types of motivation:
a) integrative - when learners study a language because they are interested in the people and culture of the target
language;
b) instrumental - when learners’ goals for learning the second language are functional, for example
they need the language to get a better job. It has been stated that learners can be influenced
by both types of motivation. However, there are situations when one can be more effective than the other. Integrative
motivation plays a major role where L2 is learned as a 'foreign language', while an instrumental motivation is more
important where L2 functions as a 'second language'. Gardner (1979) links an integrative motivation to 'additive biling
ualism' which means that learners add a second language to their skills with no harm to their mother tongue. Instrumental
motivation is more likely to be linked to 'substractive bilingualism', where the learners tend to replace the mother tongue
by the target language (Ellis 1985). Stern (1983) claims that the level and type of motivation is strongly influenced by the
social context in which language learning takes place and the relationship between L1 and L2. For example, if the status
of target language is higher than of L1 the learner can be integratively motivated and wish to assimilate with the people
ofthe L2 speaking country. The learner can be also negatively motivated in the form of 'fear of assimilation' (Clement1979;
Taylor et al. 1977) and will learn only to satisfy instrumental needs. Motivation can be also distinguished into intrinsic and
extrinsic. “Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. (...)
Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings
of competence and self-determination” (Edward Deci 1975:23, cited by Brown1994:155). Extrinsically motivated
behaviours expect a reward, for example money, a praise or positive feedback. Maslow (1970) and other researchers
claim that intrinsic motivation leads to greater success in learning a foreign language, especially in a long run (Brown
1994). Gardner and Lambert have investigated a number of
different attitudes, which were classified by Stern(1983: 376-7) into three types:
1) attitudes towards the community and people who speak L2,
2) attitudes towards learning and language concerned,
3) attitudes towards languages and language learning in general.
Certain personality characteristics and general interest in foreign languages of learners can influence them in a
positive or negative way. It is also important howthey feel about learning a particular language in a particular course and
from a particular teacher. It is obvious that learners who have positive attitudes learn more, but also learners who learn
well acquire positive attitudes.
There is no doubt that motivation and attitude are very important issues as far as second language learning is
concerned. But they themselves are not the key to success. They depend on success, are not stable and
can change during studying the second language. Teachers should be aware of that and try to develop positive moti
vation in their students by making the classroom itself an environment in which they experience success. The next partof
this chapter presents the role of personality, which appears to be a very important factor in SLA and is closely related to
motivation.
5 Personality
Personality has been described as a set of features that characterise an individual. It has been stated that this
concept is difficult to define and measure because of its complicated nature. Studies which investigate personality traits
are based on the belief that learners bring to the classroom not only their cognitive abilities but also affective states which
influence the way they acquire a language. Some of them have been found as a benefit while the others
as an obstacle in learning a second language. The most important personality factors are: introversion/extroversion, self-
esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety and empathy.
5.1 Self-esteem People need some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence in order to succeed in any activity.
Coopersmith (1967:4-5, cited by Brown 1994:137) provided the following definition of self-esteem: “By self-esteem,
we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses an
attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable,
significant, successful and worthy.” People develop their sense of self-esteem as a result of the information they
receive about themselves from others. Brown (1994:137) described three levels of self-esteem: global, situational an
d task self-esteem. He claims that situational self-esteem “might referto SLA in general, and task self-esteem might
appropriately refer to one’s self-evaluation of a particular aspect of theprocess: speaking, writing, a particular class in
a second language, or even a special kind of classroom exercise.” Wiliams and Burden (1997) present social comparison
theory that claims that classroom interactions have a great influence on how learners perceive their a
bilities. Their sense of achievement is strongly affected by the information they get from the teacher and their peers in the
classroom. Teachers should realise that they influence not only students’ academic performance but also their emotional
states. They should create such atmosphere in the classroomthat will help to build students’ confidence and lead them to
success. The results of the research suggest that self-esteem is an important variable in SLA. Many st
udies show a positive relationship between high self-esteem and academic achievement (Brodkey and Shore 1976,
Gardner and Lambert 1972).
5.2 Inhibition and risk-taking
The concept of inhibition is closely related to the notion of self- esteem. All people protect their ego by building
sets of defences. The higher self-esteem the lower walls of inhibition and greater success in learning
a foreign language. It has been suggested that inhibition influences language learning in a negative way because it
discourages the risk-taking, which is an essential element in this process. It is necessary to make mistakes if a person
wants to learn a foreign language. People make hypotheses about the languageand then test them out by trial and many
errors. If learners do not want to speak until they are absolutely certain that they are correct they will never acquire
communicative skills (Brown 1994). This is mainly a problem of adults who are more self-conscious than children are. A
child adopts a new language and accent more rapidly than an older person who isless open to the influences and
changes. The nextthing that language learners have to face is the loss of status. They must accept the fact of being
depended on others and sometimes be prepared to reveal their weaknesses or look foolish. “An individual who is
detached, self-critical, and has a sense of humour can cope with this demand of language learning better than a rigid or
status-consciousindividual who lacks self-awareness or humour” (Stern 1983:382). It has been also suggested that
tolerance of ambiguityis an advantageous feature as learning a second language is closely connected with baffling and
confusing situations. “The learner who is capable of accepting with tolerance and patience the frustrations of ambiguity
that second language learning inevitably involves is emotionally in a better position to cope with them in a problem-solving
frame of mind than a student who feels frustrated or angry in ambiguous
situations” (ibid.).
5.3 Anxiety
Anxiety is another important aspect of personality that affects learning a foreign language. Brown (1994:141)
describes anxiety as a state of mind connected with“feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and worry.” MacIntyre
and Gardner (1991) distinguish anxiety into: trait anxiety, when some people have some general predisp
osition to be anxious and state anxiety, which can be experiencedin a particular situation. They also identify thre
e components of foreign language anxiety: communication apprehension, fear of negative social evaluation and test
anxiety. Their studies show that “foreign language anxiety can be distinguished from other types of anxiety and that it can
have a negative effect on the language learning process” (ibid.p.112, cited by Brown 1994). It is important to differentiate
between debilitative and facilitative anxiety. Although anxiety is regarded as a negative factor which must be avoided, the
concept of facilitative anxiety, “a little nervous tension in the process”, is a positive factor. It must be remembered that
“both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the process of successful second language learning” (Brown 1994:143).
There has been some research that investigated the reasons of the state anxiety in the classroom. Bailey (1983)
found that competitiveness among students, their relationship with a teacher and tests could increase anxiety. Skehan
(1989) states that it is possible that anxiety can be a result of low achievement. Poor and average students are prompt to
encounter failure because of debilitative anxiety more often than high-ability students are. It was also suggested that
different kind of anxiety appears depending on the level of students. The more proficient learners arethe more facilitating
anxiety they experience (Scovel 1978).
5.4 Empathy and extroversion
The other aspect of personality that has been studied is empathy – “the willingness and capacity to identify with
others” (Stern 1993:381). It is perceived as an important factor in learning a foreign language but only as far as
communication skills are concerned as it involves the participation in other people’s feelings and ideas. Some studies
tried to link empathy with the acquisition of the native-like pronunciation (Guiora 1972; Guiora et al. 1972) but it is
considered as “an essential factor in the overall ability to acquire a second language rather than simply in the ability to
acquire an authentic pronunciation” (Schumann 1975:226). People need some basic predisposition in order to a
cquire a foreign language effectively. Extroversion and introversion are personality characteristics that can influence
language learning in a positive or negative way depending on the measured aspect. It is believed that extroverts, who are
sociable and open to other people, are more successful in learning languages thanintroverts, because they have more
contact with L2.On the other hand, well-organised and serious introverts are seen as better learners as far as the
systematic study is concerned (Stern 1983). This assumption has been only partially confirmed by the research results
(Naiman et al.1978; Swain and Burnaby 1976).But, to be friendly and approachable does help in the developm
ent of communicative skills and has been supported by a few studies (for example Pritchard 1952; Pimsleur et al
. 1966). These personality traits will be discussedin detail in the next chapter. Many researchers believe that personality
has an important influence on success in language learning. Ellis (1985) claims that the effects of personality on SLA are
difficult to investigate because these factors are not easy to define and measure as most of the tests used lack validity.
Most of personality traits are not stable and may change depending of a situation. The same student may behave
differently in a similar setting only because ofsome external reasons like mood or tiredness. Personality is saidto influence
only the acquisition of speaking skills and it can not predict the overall success in learning a language. It is true that
talkativeness and responsiveness help a lot to improve the acquisition of communicative competence but it does not
mean at all that a shy person who prefers studying alone has no
chance to master a language. Everything depends on how hard he works, how much time he spends studying a
language and what motivates him to do it. It is important for a teacher to recognise students’ personality in order to supply
them with suitable instructions and create the accurate atmosphere for learning.
Conclusion In conclusion, it has to be said that individual differences are important factors in SLA. They influence the way
learners encounter language learning and may hinderor support them in their efforts to master L2. Moreover, these
elements seem to be an essential part of the learning process, which can contribute to the success or
failure of a learner. To be a good language learner does not mean to acquire languages easily and quickly but to have an
ability to continue studying steadily and with detrmination in spite of difficulties, to overcome frustrations, to be ready to
make many trials and errors before achieving success (Naiman et al. 1978).
 9 Factors that Influence Language Learning for Kids
1. Motivation
Is the child being forced to learn, or do they want to learn the language?When a child understands the importance of
understanding a language and can see how it directly applies to their life, they learn faster. We’ve found that a contextual,
theme-based curriculum can help get students more excited to dive into language learning. When they are interested in
learning a language and they see meaningful connections to their lives, they begin to take risks to produce language,
which helps them to acquire it faster.
2. Support at Home
Is another language spoken at the child’s home? What’s their exposure level to different languages?We’ve found that
exposure is an important factor in language comprehension and acquisition. If a child’s family only speaks one language,
are they able to provide help when the student needs it? It also matters how much value parents place in learning an
additional language. Parents who prioritize language learning are more likely to push their child to keep trying even when
it feels difficult.
3. Prior Linguistic Knowledge
Is the language they’re learning their first foreign language?Once a child has studied and acquired a language, their skill
at learning another will increase. Language learners have the ability to translate skills from one language to another
because they’re able to recognize the rules and patterns of language, even if the vocabulary is different.
4. Learning Environment
How does the child feel in the classroom?Another key factor is how comfortable students feel in their language learning
environment. Does their classroom feel cold and tense, or positive and relaxing? What’s the school’s culture and beliefs
about language learning? We’ve found that a student’s learning environment has an impact on their motivation—a low
anxiety language learning environment increases the chance for acquisition.
5. Teaching Strategies
How is the language taught?The strategies a language teacher uses have a big impact on language learning. How does
the teacher help students understand the concepts of a language? How does the teacher take different learning styles into
account, as well as different levels of comprehension? For example, watching a film in the target language and writing and
performing skits in the target language reach multiple learning styles. Offering an immersion experience helps students
connect the language learning to their everyday lives, but rote vocabulary memorization and grammar drills create
'meaning-less' language lessons.
6. Comprehensible Input
How attainable does the language feel to the student?Linguist Stephen Krashen is known for developing the input
hypothesis of second-language acquisition. In this context, the titular “input” is the language curriculum. Krashen wrote
that teaching at just any level of difficulty isn’t sufficient: the input received by a student must be comprehensible. In other
words, the curriculum must reach a child at their current level and challenge them with activities and just 1 level beyond
their current stage. If the material feels out of reach, the student can feel “shut down” and have trouble engaging with the
lesson. To make sure that students feel motivated to learn, it’s important to ensure that they feel like they have the ability
to progress to the next level of learning.
7. Student Personality
Is the student introverted or extroverted?A student’s personality can affect how they learn a second language. More
introverted students have been shown to take longer to acquire a language because they’re more hesitant to make
mistakes. Extroverted students, on the other hand, are more likely to go out on a limb and try out their newly learned
vocabulary. To ensure that both personality types succeed, it’s important to create an environment where students
understand that mistakes are part of the learning process and it’s more important to speak than to be perfect.
8. Age
How old is a student when they start learning a foreign language?While students of all ages can learn a foreign language,
there is consensus that certain aspects are affected by the age of the learner. It becomes harder for students to have
native pronunciation from the teen years. Some students also find that it’s more difficult to fully acquire a foreign language
as they get older, but this isn’t true of everyone.
9. Comfort in their Country of Residence
How happy are students in the country where they are studying a language?A final factor in language learning is the
child’s comfort in the current country of residence. Most children move to a new country because of a parent's job, not by
choice. As a result, their motivation to learn a new language can depend on whether they’re happy to be in a new place,
or if they’ve come kicking and screaming. Luckily, even if a child is unhappy at first, their attitude can shift if they feel
welcomed by their teachers and supported by their parents.
 Language is essential for sharing feelings, knowledge and experiences. Learning a second language is a difficult
task which depends upon the characteristics of the learner but the benefits of language learning help on raising multiple
opportunities in one's life. Lightbown P.M. and Spada N. (2000) suggested that in second language learning, it has been
observed countless times, in the same classroom setting that some students progress rapidly through the initial stages of
learning a new language while others struggle along making very slow progress (p 28). When learning a second language
the learners use everything that they have. This includes their culture, their first language, their educational background,
their personal experiences and the new environment. While learning a new language a learner must learn about new
phonetics, a new grammar, and lots of new words to mend communication breakdowns. Learners also need to learn how
to say things appropriately in different social contexts and many different function of the language i.e. disagreeing,
complaining, arguing, etc. Similarly, learners acquire a second language when they receive understandable message so
the learners need understandable input. For the better learning receiving, responding, valuing, organization and self
characterization through one's value system have also a greater impact on learning process and hence personal
behaviours have greater affect on learning second language. According to Maitland, K. (1997), factors primarily in the
student (S), factors primarily in the family (F) and factors primarily in the environment of the second culture (E) are the
factors that affect second language learning.
According to Lightbown and Spada (2000) to find out whether an individual factor such as motivation affects second
language learning, the researchers used to select a group of learners for their study based on some defined assumptions.
For this they used questionnaires and conducted relevant tests to find correlation of the concerned factors affecting
second language learning. They found that there are various factors as described below which affect on the effective
language learning (p 30). On the basis of different studies and findings, the following are some major factors that affect
second language learning process.
Intelligence: Usually it is related with the performance of the learner in a certain test. The IQ of the learner plays a positive
role on language learning. Many studies using a variety of IQ tests and different methods of assessing language learning
have found that IQ scores are a good means of predicting how successful a learner would be. Since, intelligence is
multifaceted and individuals have different kinds of abilities and strengths that cannot be measured by traditional IQ tests.
Aptitude: Aptitude refers to the special ability involved in second language learning. The relationship between aptitude and
second language learning success is a very important one and various studies, such as Gardner (1985) and Skehan
(1989) have reported that aptitude is a major factor determining the level of success of second language learning. Good
aptitude for learning such as understanding of the function of the words in sentences, understanding and use grammatical
rules and use supports the language learning process effectively.
Personality: According to Lightbown and Spada (2000) a number of personality characteristics have been proposed as
likely to affect second language learning, but it has not been easy to demonstrate their effects in empirical studies (p32).
There is a common argument that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning however the studies have not
shown this conclusion. Studies have shown that self-esteem, risk taking behaviour, empathy, talkativeness and
responsiveness are all qualities of the learner affecting the second language learning process. Coleman and Klapper,
(2005) said that introverts generally perform better academically where as an extroverts appears more likely to take
advantage of social opportunities for second language input.
Motivation and attitudes: According to Gardner (1985), the overall findings show that positive attitudes and motivation are
very much related to success in second language learning. There is still limited evidence on the topic of whether it is
motivation that produces better learning or effective learning that enhances motivation or if both are affected by the
others. But it is found that both Integrative motivation and instrumental motivation are related to success in second
language learning. Different studies have tried to come to a conclusion that the social dynamic or power relationship
between the languages helps to the learner on being more motivated. Gardner (1985) suggested that if the language
learners don't like the other language community, they can never really learn their language.
Learner preferences: Reid (1995) has used the term 'learning style' to describe an individual's natural, habitual, and
preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills. Visual learners, aural learners and
kinaesthetic learners can make their own progress while learning a second language because of their different learning
style. Learners who try to learn the language in a holistic way make the best progress in learning. Similarly, individual
nature plays a vital role on giving focus to the learning process.
Learner's beliefs: The strong beliefs and opinions of the learners on how their instruction should be delivered play an
active role while learning language. The learners' beliefs are taken as strong mediating factors while learning a second
language and teachers can develop their teaching learning strategies and thus manage greater flexibility while
approaching language learning classes.
Age of acquisition: The researchers found that language learning is more active and efficient in the critical age of
language development. According to Butler, Y.G and Hakuta, K. (2006) to get mastery in second language, it is best if the
process of learning starts in early childhood (pg 126). Adults are often embarrassed by their lack of competency in their
second language if they start to learn at a late stage of their life.
Learning strategies: learning strategies are factors of second language learning. The steps or actions by learners to
improve the development of their language skills are known as learning strategies. Different strategies work best for
different people while learning the second language. Researchers are trying to know more about every aspect of the
learning strategies.
In conclusion, the context of the learner also plays a vital role on learning process. Readiness of the learner for learning is
essential to make significant progress on learning a second language. More studies will be carried out in this field to find
out more generalized affect of the respective factors while learning a second language.