Acids, Bases & Salts

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Introduction
In this Chapter, we will study the reactions of acids and bases, how acids and
bases cancel out each other’s, effects and many more interesting things that we use and
see in our day-to-day life.
For thousands of years, people have known that vinegar, lemon juice, Amla,
tamarind and many other food items taste sour. However, only a few hundred years ago
it was proposed that these things taste sour because they contain ‘acids’. The term acid
comes from Latin term ‘acidus’ which means sour. It was first used in the seventeenth
century by Robert Boyle to label substances as acids and bases according to the
following characteristics :

Acids Bases
• taste sour • taste bitter
• are corrosive to metals • feel slippery or soapy
• change blue litmus red • change red litmus blue
• become less acidic on mixing with • become less basic on mixing with
bases acids

While Robert Boyle was successful in characterizing acids and bases he could not
explain their behavior on the basis of their chemical structure. This was accomplished
by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in the late nineteenth century. He proposed that
on dissolving in water, many compounds dissociate and form ions and their properties
are mainly the properties of the ions they form.

Ionic Compounds
The molecule of an ionic compound has two constituents, namely, cation
(postive ion/ basic radical) and anion (negative ion /acidic radical). There is a force of
attraction between these ions as they are oppositely charged, and that is called the
ionic bond. The force of attraction between one positive charge on a cation and one
negative charge on an anion makes one ionic bond. Ionic bond containing compounds
called, Ionic compounds.
Dissociation of Ionic Compounds
On dissolving in water, an ionic compound forms an aqueous solution. When
an ionic compound begins to dissolve in water, the water molecules push themselves
in between the ions of the compound and separate them from each other. That is to
say, an ionic compound dissociates while forming an aqueous solution.
dissociation
NaCls + Water → Na+aq + Cl−
aq

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KUSHAL’S NOTES
Arrhenius theory of acids and bases
Acid
An acid is a substance which on
dissolving in water gives rise to H+ ion
as the only cation.
Base
An base is a substance which on
dissolving in water gives rise to the OH-
ion as the only anion.

dissociation dissociation
HClg + Water → +
Haq + Claq
− NaOHs + Water → Na+aq + OHaq
−

Some examples of acids are:
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric
• juice
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) in soft drinks
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in lemon
and many fruits
• Citric acid in oranges and lemons
• Acetic acid in vinegar
• Tannic acid in tea
• Nitric acid (HNO3) used in
laboratories
• Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) used in
laboratories
Classification of acids and bases
Strong / weak acids and bases
Acids and bases are classified into strong and weak types on the basis of the
extent to which they dissociate in their aqueous solutions.
Strong acid
On dissolving in water, a strong
acid dissociates almost completely and
the resulting aqueous solution contains
mainly H ions and the concerned acidic
+
radical.
Hydrochloric acid completely
dissociates in water
dissociation
HClg + Water → +
Haq + Claq
− dissociates in water, double arrows
For example
• HCl Hydrochloric Acid
• HBr Hydrobromic Acid
The term ‘alkali’ is often used for water
soluble bases.
Some examples of bases are:
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic
soda used in washing soaps.
• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) or
potash used in bathing soaps.
• Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) or lime
water used in white wash.
• Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) or
milk of magnesia used to control
acidity.
• Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
used in hair dyes.
Weak acid
On dissolving in water a weak
acid does not dissociate completely, and
the resulting aqueous solution contains
H+ ion and the concerned acidic radical
in small proportion along with large
proportion of the undissociated
molecules of the acid.
Hydrofluoric acid partial
indicates here that –
dissociation
HFaq + Water ↔ +
Haq + Faq−

• HI Hydroiodic Acid For example

• HClO4 Perchloric Acid • CH3COOH Ethanoic (acetic)acid,
• HClO3 Chloric Acid • HF Hydrofluoric acid
• H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid • HCN Hydrocynic acid
• HNO3 Nitric Acid • C6H5COOH Benzoic acid
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KUSHAL’S NOTES
Strong base
On dissolving in water, a strong
base dissociates almost completely and
the resulting aqueous solution contains
mainly OH- ions and the concerned basic
radicals.
Potassium hydroxide completely
dissociates in water
KOHs + Water →
dissociation
aq + OHaq
K+ −
For example
• LiOH Lithium hydroxide
• NaOH Sodium hydroxide
• KOH Potassium hydroxide
• RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
• CsOH Caesium hydroxide
• Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
• Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide
• Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
Weak base
On dissolving in water a weak
base does not dissociate completely, and
the resulting aqueous solution contains
a small proportion of OH- ions and the
concerned basic radical along with a
large proportion of undissociated
molecules of the base.
Ammonium hydroxide partial
dissociates in water, double arrows
indicates here that –
NH4 OHaq + Water NH4 + + OHaq
−
dissociation
↔
aq
For example,
• NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide
• Cu(OH)2 Copper (II)hydroxide
• Cr(OH)3 Chromium (II)hydroxide
• Zn(OH)2 Zinc hydroxide

Basicity and acidity

Acids and bases are also classified according to their basicity and acidity
respectively.
Basicity of acids Acidity of bases
The number of H+ ions The numbers of OH- ions
obtainable by the dissociation of one obtainable by the dissociation of one
molecule of an acid is called its basicity. molecule of a base is called its acidity.
Acids No. of H + Basicity Bases No. of OH- Acidity

HCl 1 1 NaOH 1 1
H2SO4 2 2 KOH 1 1
HNO3 1 1 Ca(OH)2 2 2
H2CO3 2 2 NH4OH 1 1
H3BO3 1 1 Ba(OH)2 2 2
H3PO4 3 3 Al(OH)3 3 3
CH3COOH 1 1 Fe(OH)3 3 3

• Monobasic Acids – HCl, HNO3, H3BO3, • Monoacidic Bases – NaOH, KOH,

CH3COOH NH4OH
• Dibasic Acids – H2SO4, H2CO3 • Diacidic Bases – Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
• Tribasic Acids – H3PO4 • Triacidic Bases – Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3
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KUSHAL’S NOTES
Concentration of acid and base
The Proportion of a solute in a solution is called the concentration of the solute
in the solution. When the concentration of a solute in its solution is high, it is a
concentrated solution, while the solution is called a dilute solution when the
concentration of the solute is low.
Several units are used to express the concentration of a solution. Two of these
units are used more frequently. The first unit is the mass of solute in grams dissolved in
one litre of the solution. (grams per litre, g/L). The second unit is the number of moles
of the solute dissolved in one litre of the solution. This is also called the molarity (M) of
the solution.
Number of moles of the solute Given mass
Molarity (M) = Mole = Molecular mass
Litre of the solution

For example
What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 15.0 g of NaOH in enough
water to make a total of 225 mL of solution?
Solution: 1 mol of NaOH has a mass of 40.00 g, so
given mass NaOH 15.00
Moles of NaOH = molecular mass of NaOH = 0.375 mol NaOH
40.00
225mL soln×1 L soln
Litres of solution = =0.225 L soln
1000mL soln
number of moles of NaOH 0.375 mol
Molarity (M) = = Molarity =1.67 mol/L.
litre of the solution 0.225 L

pH of solution (pH stands for 'potential of Hydrogen')

A figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity
of a solution on a logarithmic scale (0-14) on
which 7 is neutral, lower values are more acid and
higher values more alkaline. Solutions with a pH
less than 7 are acidic, solutions with a pH greater
than 7 are basic and solutions with a pH 7
are neutral.

Indicators
A natural indicator is a natural substance
that can be used to determine the pH of another
substance. Red Cabbage and grape juice are
examples of natural indicators. Litmus is a natural
dye found in certain lichens. It was the earliest
indicator to be used. It shows red colour in acidic
solutions and blue colour in basic solutions.
A synthetic indicator is a man made chemical
substances used to determine pH.
Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic

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KUSHAL’S NOTES
indicators. The colours of these indicators in acidic, neutral and basic solutions are
given below -
Indicator Colour in Acidic Colour in Neutral Colour in Basic
solutions solutions solutions

Litmus Red Purple Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

Universal Indicator
In 1933, developed Universal Indicator by Yamada. A indicator contain several
mixture of indicators in specific proportions called, Universal Indicator. A common
mixture includes thymol blue, methyl red, bromothymol blue, and phenolphthalein. The
pH of a solution can be determined by means of a universal indicator solution or the pH
paper made from it. However, the most accurate method of measuring the pH of a
solution is to use an electrical instrument called pH meter.

Reactivity of Acids and Bases

1. Reaction of Acids with Bases
The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is known as a
neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
For example
• HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
• H2SO4 + 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O
• HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
• H2SO4 + 2NH4OH → (NH4)2SO4 + H2O
• HBr + KOH → KBr + H2O

2. Reaction of Acids with Metals

The reaction of acids with metals is determined by the strength and the
concentration of the acid and also by the reactivity of the metal and the temperature.
The metal in the reactions displaces hydrogen from the acids. This is seen as hydrogen
gas. The metal combines with the remaining part of the acid and forms a compound
called a salt.
Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas
For example
• Zn + H2SO4 → Zn(SO4)2 + H2 ↑
• Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 ↑

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KUSHAL’S NOTES
3. Reaction of bases with metals
When alkali (base) reacts with metal, it produces salts and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen gas
The reaction that takes place can be written as follows.

For example
• Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2 ↑
• 2Al + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2 ↑

Those metals reacts with acids as well as base, called Amphoteric metals. Examples –
Zinc, Aluminium, Tin, Beryllium, etc.

4. Reaction of acids with oxides of metals

Metal oxides react with acids to give salts and water, similar to the reaction of a
base with an acid, metal oxides are said to be basic oxides.
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
For example
• Fe2O3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl3 + 3H2O
• CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
• MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O
• ZnO + 2HCl →ZnCl2 + H2O
• Al2O3 + 6HF→ 2AlF3+ 3H2O

Many metals form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Metal oxides which react with
both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as amphoteric oxides.
Amphoteric oxides + Base → Salt + Water
For example
Beryllium (BeO), Aluminum (Al2O3) , Gallium (Ga2O3), Antimony (Sb2O3 & Sb2O5), Tin
(SnO, SnO2), Lead (PbO, PbO2), Zinc (ZnO).
ZnO+NaOH→Na2ZnO2 + H2O
5. Reaction of bases with oxides of non-metals
Bases react with oxides of non-metals to form a salt and water. Oxides of non-
metals are acidic in nature.
Non-metal oxide + Base → Salt + Water
For example
• CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
• CO2 + 2KOH → K2CO3 + H2O
• SO3 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + H2O
• SO2 +2NaOH → Na2SO3 + H2O
6. Reaction of acids with carbonates and bicarbonates of metals
When Metal carbonate / Metal hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) react with
acids to give salts, water and carbon dioxide.
Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide /
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KUSHAL’S NOTES
 Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
For example
• Na2CO3+ 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2↑
• NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 ↑
• CaCO3+ 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2↑
• K2CO3 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + H2O + CO2↑

Salts
Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H+ ion and an anion other
than OH– ion. The Various salts such as baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder,
sodium chloride and many more used in daily life.
1. Bleaching powder
Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
Bleaching powder Uses -
• For bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
• As an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
• For disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.

2. Baking soda
The soda commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras is baking
soda. Sometimes it is added for faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). It is produced using sodium chloride as one of
the raw materials.
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Baking soda Uses -
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it
neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
• It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.

3. Washing soda
Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na2CO3.10H2O
(washing soda). You have seen above that sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating
baking soda; recrystallization of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic
salt.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3.10H2O
Washing soda Uses -
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
• It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
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KUSHAL’S NOTES
Water of Crystallization
Water of crystallization or water of hydration is water molecules that are present
inside crystals.
• CuSO4.5H2O - Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (blue vitriol)
• CoCl2.6H2O - Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
• SnCl2.2H2O - Tin(II) (or stannous) chloride dihydrate
On heating, the crystalline structure of blue vitriol broke down to form a colourless
powder and water came out. This water was part of the crystal structure of blue vitriol.
It is called water of crystallization.
∆
CuSO4. 5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue Colourless

______________________________________________________
KUSHAL KHOLGADE
MOB. – 9021762036
kushalkholgade@rediffmail.com
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