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  ) = 0 because off the negative
•It is clear from ((11-65)) that h' ((oo) g
exponential term.
•Thus, the addition of integral action eliminates offset for a step
change in disturbance
disturbance.
•It also eliminates offset for step changes in set point.
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•In fact, integral action eliminates offset not only for step changes,
b also
but l for
f any type off sustained
i d change
h in
i disturbance
di b or set
point.
•Byy a sustained change,
g , we mean one that eventuallyy settles out at
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a new steady-state value, as shown in Fig. 11.20.

•However, integral action does not eliminate offset for a ramp
disturbance.
disturbance
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 Equation (11-63)
(11 63) and Fig.
Fig 11.21
11 21 indicate that increasing
Kc or decreasing τI tends to speed up the response. In addition,
the response becomes more oscillatory as either Kc or τI
decreases. But in general, closed-loop responses become more
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oscillatory as Kc is increased. These inconsistent results occur

because the small dynamic
y lags
g associated with the control
valve and transmitter were neglected. If these lags are
included, the transfer function in (11-60) is no longer second-
order and then increasing Kc makes the response more
order,
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oscillatory.
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 A comparison of Eqs. 11-67 and 11-69 indicates that feedback
control significantly changes the relation between Q1 and H. Note
that Eq. 11-67 is the transfer function for the uncontrolled process,
whereas Eq. 11-69 is the closed-loop transfer function for
disturbance changes.
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From the analysis of second-order transfer functions, we know that

th closed-loop
the l dl response is
i oscillatory
ill t for
f 0 < ζ4 < 1. 1 Thus,
Th Eq. E 11-
11
72 indicates that the degree of oscillation can be reduced by
increasing either Kc(Kc > 0) or τI . The effect of τI is familiar,
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because we have noted previously that increasing τI tends to make

closed-loop responses less oscillatory. However, the effect of Kc is
just the opposite of what normally is observed. In most control
problems, increasing Kc tends to produce a more oscillatory
response. However, (11-72) indicates that increasing Kc results in a
less oscillatory response.
response This inconsistent behavior is due to the
integrating nature of the process.
 This liquid-level system illustrates the insight that can be
obtained from block diagram g analysis.
y It also demonstrates the
danger in blindly using a rule of thumb such as "decrease the
controller gain to reduce the degree of oscillation.” The analysis
of the level control system in Fig.
Fig 11.22
11 22 has neglected the small
dynamic lags associated with the transmitter and control valve.
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If these lags were included, then for very large values of Kc the
closed-loop
l dl response would ld indeed
i d d tendd to become
b more
oscillatory. Thus, if τI is held constant, the effect of Kc on the
g
higher-order system
y can be summarized as follows:
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 Because the liquid-level system in Fig. 11.22 acts as an integrator,
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the question arises whether the controller must also contain

i t
integral
l action
ti to
t eliminate
li i t offset.
ff t This
Thi question
ti is
i considered
id d
further in Exercise 11.6. In the previous examples, the
denominator of the closed-loop transfer function was either a first-
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or second order polynomial in s. Consequently, the transient

responses to specified inputs were easily determined. In many
control problems,
problems the order of the denominator polynomial is
three or higher, and the roots of the polynomial have to be
determined numerically. Furthermore, for higher-order (n>2)
systems,
t feedback
f db k control
t l can result
lt in
i unstable
t bl responses if
inappropriate values of the controller settings are employed.
 11.4 STABILITY OF CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
An important consequence of feedback control is that it can cause
oscillatory responses. If the oscillation has a small amplitude and
damps out quickly, then the control system performance is
generally
ll considered
id d to t be
b satisfactory.
ti f t However,
H under
d certain
t i
circumstances, the oscillations may be undamped or even have an
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amplitude that increases with time until a physical limit is reached,

such as a control valve being fully open or completely shut. In
these situations, the closed-loop system is said to be unstable.
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In the remainder of this chapter, we analyze the stability

characteristics of closed-loop systems and present several useful
criteria for determining whether
hether a system
s stem will
ill be stable.
stable But
B t first
we consider an illustrative example of a closed-loop system that
can become unstable.
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 The unstable response for Example 11.4 is oscillatory, with the
amplitude growing in each successive cycle.
cycle In contrast,
contrast for an
actual physical system, the amplitudes will increase until a physical
limit is reached or an equipment failure occurs. Because the final
control
t l element
l t usually
ll has
h saturation
t ti limits
li it (see
( Chapter
Ch t 9), 9) the
th
unstable response will manifest itself as a sustained oscillation with
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a constant amplitude instead of a continually increasing amplitude.

Sustained oscillations can also occur without having the final
control element saturate, as was mentioned in Section 11.3.
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Clearly, a feedback control system must be stable as a prerequisite

for satisfactory control. Consequently, it is of considerable practical
importance to be able to determine under
nder what
hat conditions a control
system becomes unstable. For example, for what values of the PID
controller parameters Kc, τI, and τD is the controlled process stable?
 11.4.1
11 4 1 General
G l Stability
S bili Criterion
C i i
Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control.
Thus,, theyy are said to be open-loop
p p stable, or self-regulating.
f g g An
open-loop stable process will return to the original steady state
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after a transient disturbance (one that is not sustained) occurs. By

contrast there are a few processes,
contrast, processes such as exothermic chemical
reactors, that can be open-loop unstable. These processes are
extremely difficult to operate without feedback control.
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Before presenting various stability criteria, we introduce the

followingg definition for unconstrained linear systems.
y We use the
term unconstrained to refer to the ideal situation where there are no
physical limits on the input and output variables.
 Definition of Stability. An unconstrained linear system is said
to be stable iff the output
p response
p is bounded for
f all bounded
inputs. Otherwise it is said to be unstable.

By a bounded input,
input we mean an input variable that stays within
upper and lower limits for all values of time. For example,
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consider a variable u(t) that varies with time. If u(t) is a step or

sinusoidal
i id l function,
f i thenh iti is
i bounded.
b d d However,
H the
h functions
f i
u(t) = t and u(t) = e3t are not bounded.
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