CERTIFICATE:

This is to certify that R.SHYAM SUNDER of class XI-A, Roll no: 42

has satisfactorily completed his chemistry project prescribed by CBSE course
during academic year 2017-18.

TEACHER IN CHARGE:

PRINCIPAL SIGNATURE:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

I would like to sincerely and profusely thank our chemistry teacher

DR.S.VASUDHEVAN .PGT CHEMISTRY and our lab attendant for their able
guidance and support in completing our project.

We would also like to extend our gratitude to our principal

Miss. R. VIJAYALAKSHMI for providing us with all facilities that were
required.

CANDIDATE SIGNATURE:

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INDEX:

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1) Preface 4

2) Introduction 4

3) Aim 5

4) Apparatus Required 5

5) Theory 6

6) Procedure 10

7) Observation 12

8) Bibliography 13

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 PREFACE:

International Society of Blood Transfusion has recently recognized 33 blood

group systems. Apart from ABO and Rhesus system, many other types of
antigens have been noticed on the red cell membranes. Blood grouping and
cross-matching is one of the few important tests that the anaesthesiologist
orders during perioperative period. Hence, a proper understanding of the blood
group system, their clinical significance, typing and cross-matching tests, and
current perspective are of paramount importance to prevent transfusion-related
complications.

INTRODUCTION:

The term “blood group” refers to the entire blood group system comprising red
blood cell (RBC) antigens whose specificity is controlled by a series of genes
which can be allelic or linked very closely on the same chromosome. “Blood
type” refers to a specific pattern of reaction to testing antisera within a given
system. Over a period of time, our understanding on blood groups has evolved
to encompass not only transfusion-related problems but also specific disease
association with RBC surface antigens. Karl Landsteiner has been credited for
the discovery of ABO blood group system in 1900. His extensive research on
serology based on simple but strong scientific reasoning led to identification of
major blood groups such as O, A, and B types, compatibility testing, and
subsequent transfusion practices. He was awarded Noble Prize in 1930 for this
discovery. His obituary lists an immense contribution of more than 346
publications. Later, Jan Jansky described classification of human blood groups
of four types.

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AIM:
To identify blood groups of given sample using ABO blood typing method

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Blood sample, Anti-A monoclonal, Anti-B monoclonal, Anti-D monoclonal,
Glass slide, Dropper, Tooth pick.

CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
1) ANTI-A MONOCLONAL
2) ANTI-B MONOCLONAL
3) ANTI-D MONOCLONAL

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 THEORY:
1) WHAT IS BLOOD?

 Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary
substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

 Blood circulates through our body and delivers essential substances like
oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells.

 It also transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

 There is no substitute for blood. It cannot be made or manufactured.

 Generous blood donors are the only source of blood for patients in need
of a blood transfusion.

2) BLOOD COMPONENTS:

There are four basic components that comprise human blood RBC:

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2.1) RED BLOOD CELLS: (ERYTHROCYTES)

Red blood cells represent 40%-45% of your blood volume. They are generated
from your bone marrow at a rate of four to five billion per hour. They have a
lifecycle of about 120 days in the body.

2.2) BLOOD PLATELETS:

Platelets are an amazing part of your blood. Platelets are the smallest of our
blood cells and literally look like small plates in their non-active form. Platelets
control bleeding. Wherever a wound occurs, the blood vessel will send out a
signal. Platelets receive that signal and travel to the area and transform into their
“active” formation, growing long tentacles to make contact with the vessel and
form clusters to plug the wound until it heals.
2.3) BLOOD PLASMA:

Plasma is the liquid portion of your blood. Plasma is yellowish in colour and is
made up mostly of water, but it also contains proteins, sugars, hormones and
salts. It transports water and nutrients to your body’s tissues.

2.4) WHITE BLOOD CELLS: (LEUCOCYTES)

Although white blood cells (leucocytes) only account for about 1% of your
blood, they are very important. White blood cells are essential for good health
and protection against illness and disease. Like red blood cells, they are
constantly being generated from your bone marrow.

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3) ABO BLOOD GROUPS:

Blood types are classified in several ways. The most basic system is called
ABO, which divides blood into four groups, or types: A, B, AB and O.
There are two distinct antigens (a type of protein) present on the surface of
some people's red blood cells.
Each person's blood contains a specific and inherited set of these. In the ABO
system, one antigen is labelled "A" and the other "B."
If the red blood cell has only A antigen on it, that blood is called "type A". If the
red blood cell has B antigen only, that blood is called "type B".
If the red blood cell has both A and B antigens, the blood is called "type AB". If
the red blood cell has neither antigen, the blood is called "type O".

4) ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODY:

The blood groups A, B, AB or O can be detected by the presence or absence of
antigens on the surface of the red blood cells. They can also be determined by
antibodies in the blood plasma. Paired with the red blood cell antigens, your
plasma also contains a specific set of antibodies. These are proteins that will
attack the antigens on the surface of red blood cells of a different blood type.
Consequently, successful blood transfusions require the "matching" of donor
and recipient blood type.

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People have antibodies only against antigens their red blood cells lack. In other
words, people with type A blood have A antigens on their red cells and
antibodies against type B antigens in their plasma, while those with type B have
B antigens on their cells and antibodies against blood group A in their plasma.

5) THE RHESUS SYSTEM:

The second major blood grouping system is the Rhesus (Rh) system. Like the
ABO blood types, the Rh factor is an inherited blood protein, or antigen, on red
blood cells. People who have it are "Rh positive"; those who don’t are "Rh
negative". (The Rh factor was first discovered in the rhesus monkey, which
explains the Rh.)
6) THE EIGHT BLOOD TYPES:
To summarise, the four major ABO blood types or groups - A, B, AB and O
- are each further divided into Rh positive or Rh negative types, putting
people generally into one of eight blood groups. The eight groups, and their
approximate percentage of the population, are as follows:

7) BLOOD TYPE AND BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Mix:
First mix the patient's blood with three different reagents including either of the
three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.

2. Look for agglutination:

Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has clumping, or
agglutination, occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted
with a certain antibody and is therefore not compatible with blood containing
that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it indicates that the
blood does not have the antigens binding the special antibody in the reagent.

3. Figure out the ABO blood group:

Start by taking a look at the test tubes containing A and B antibodies. No
agglutination in test tube A, indicates that the patient's red blood cells do not
have A antigens.

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Agglutination in the tube containing B antibodies indicates that the patients' red
blood cells have got B antigens, thus belongs to blood group B.

4. Figure out the Rh blood group:

Now have a look at the test tube containing Rh antibodies. No agglutination
indicates that the patient's red blood cells don't have Rh antigens, thus the blood
is Rh-.

5. Figure out the blood type:

Now that you know which antigens are in the patient's blood, you can figure out
the blood type.
Since agglutination only occurred in the test tube containing B antibodies, the
blood got B antigens but no A or Rh antigens. Thus the blood type is B Rh- .

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1) BHARANI CLINICAL LABS.No:88, 7th street, vinobaji

nagar, hasthinapuram, Chennai – 600 064.
Mobile:9080173569

2) https://www.britannica.com/science/blood-biochemistry

3) https://images.google.com/

4) https://www.health24.com/Medical/Diseases/ABO-and-
Rhesus-Blood-Groups-20120721

5) https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/tc/blood-
transfusion-blood-types

6) https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/bloodt
ypinggame/2.html

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