• The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear

piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins",
additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from
each cylinder attach.

It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or
vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the
cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

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Chapter 2 Heating Systems

Heating systems carry heat from the point of production to the place of use. Heating-system designs are complex with many
variations. They are classified by the medium used to carry the heat from the source to the point of use. Steam, hot-water, and
forced-air systems are the most common. Hot-water heating is used extensively. Forced-air heating is used in most
semipermanent constructions and in most barracks. Appendix B provides plumbing plans to include a list of heating symbols used
on heating-system plans.

HOT-WATER HEATING SYSTEMS 2-1.

A hot-water heating system is made up of a
heating unit, pipes, and radiators or connectors.
Water is heated at a central source, circulated
through the system, and returned to the heating
unit. Usually a pump (rather than a gravity system)
is used to keep the water circulating. The two
types of hot-water systems are the one-pipe and
the two-pipe.

PLANS 2-2. A hot-water heating system

may have a separate plan or may be combined
with the hot- and cold-water and sewer lines on the
plumbing plan. A hot-water-system plan shows the
layout of units, pipes, accessories, and
connections. Figure 2-1 shows a typical system.
This figure also shows the location of the boiler,
circulating pump, and compression tank. A one-
pipe system is shown; however, the hot water will
flow in two directions (or loops), each loop
containing two radiators. The second radiator in
each loop is larger than the first. (Appendix B
provides heating symbols that are used on
architect's plans.)

Figure 2-1. Hot-Water (One-Pipe) Heating-System Plan

 ONE-PIPE SYSTEM

2-3. A one-pipe system is the

simplest type of hot-water
system and is adequate for
very small installations
(Figure 2-2). Hot water
circulates through one set of
pipes through each radiator.
As a result, the water
reaching the last radiator is
cooler than the water in the
first radiator. To obtain the
same amount of heat from all
the radiators, each radiator
must be larger than the one
before.

Figure 2-2. One-Pipe Hot-Water Heating System

TWO-PIPE SYSTEM

2-4. In a two-pipe system the

hot water goes from the
heating unit to each radiator
by way of the main,
connected by Ts and elbows
(Figure 2-3). The cooler
water leaving the radiators
returns to the heater through
separate return piping.

Figure 2-3. Two-Pipe Hot-Water Heating System

STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS 2-5. A steam-heating system consists of a boiler that heats the water, producing the
steam; radiators in which the steam turns back to water (condenses), giving heat; and connecting pipes that carry the steam from
the boiler to the radiators and returns the water to the boiler. This system includes either an air valve or other means of removing
air from the system. The two types of steam-heating systems are the one-pipe and the two-pipe, which are classified as—

• High-pressure. A high-pressure system operates above 15-psi gauge.

• Low-pressure. A low-pressure system operates from 0- to 15-psi gauge.

• Vapor. A vapor system operates under both low-pressure and vacuum conditions.

• Vacuum. A vacuum system operates under low-pressure and vacuum conditions with a vacuum pump.
ONE-PIPE SYSTEM

2-6. The one-pipe system uses a

single main and riser to carry
steam to radiators or other heating
units and to return condensed
steam (condensate) to the unit.
This system is best for small
installations where low cost and
easy operation are important.
Each radiator or other heating unit
is equipped with an air valve,
controlled by heat (thermostatic),
as shown in Figure 2-4. Larger air
valves are installed at the end of
steam mains. These valves
should be the vacuum-type with a
small check valve to keep air from
flowing back into the system when
heat input is reduced. The
connection to the unit may have
shutoff (angle) valves. Since the
restricted opening causes a
repeated banging sound (water
hammer), these valves cannot be
partly closed for heat input control.

Figure 2-4. Radiator Connections for a One-Pipe Steam

System
 TWO-PIPE SYSTEM

2-7. The two-pipe system has

two sets of mains and risers: one
set distributes steam to the
heating unit and the other
returns condensate to the boiler.
Figure 2-5 shows a two-pipe
steam system. This system
operates under high- or low-
pressure, vapor, or vacuum
conditions, and with either upflow
or downflow distribution. This
system allows adjustment of
steam flow to individual heating
units. It uses smaller pipes than
the one-pipe system. A two-pipe
upflow vapor system, which can
operate over a range of
pressures, is shown in Figure 2-
6.

Figure 2-5. Two-Pipe Steam Heating System (Upflow

or Downflow)

Figure 2-6. Two-Pipe Upflow Vapor System

FORCED-AIR HEATING SYSTEMS

2-8. A forced-air upflow heating

system distributes heated air
through a duct system (Figure 2-
7). The air is usually heated by a
gas-fired or oil-fired furnace. This
system consists of a furnace, a
bonnet, warm-air supply ducts
and registers, return cold-air
registers and ducts, and a fan or
blower forced-air circulation.
Figure 2-8 shows a downflow
furnace with a crawl space duct
system and a crawl space
plenum system.
Figure 2-7. Forced-Air Upflow System

Figure 2-8. Forced-Air Downflow System

PLANS

2-9. In a forced-air heating-

system plan, solid lines
indicate warm-air ducts; cold-
air return ducts are indicated
by dashed lines (Figure 2-9).
(Appendix B gives the most
common heating symbols used
on plans.) All duct sizes give
the horizontal or width
dimensions first. (Depth, the
second dimension, is not
shown on a plan drawing.) Use
the plan to determine the
location and sizes of warm-air
registers needed. When ceiling
registers (diffusers) are used,
the neck dimensions are given.
When wall or baseboard
registers are used, face
dimensions are given. Look in
the notes on a plan for the
height of the wall registers
above the finished floor line.
Return (cold-air) registers are shown recessed into the wall. The face dimensions of the return registers are
noted adjacent to the register symbol.

Figure 2-9. Partial View of a Forced-Air Heating-System Plan

INSTALLATION AND OPERATION 2-10. The bonnet above the heat plant (furnace) collects the heated air for
distribution to various rooms. The warm air is distributed from the bonnet through rectangular-shaped supply ducts and registers
(warm-air) into the rooms. The warm-air registers are installed in the ceiling. The air, after circulating through the rooms and losing
heat, is returned to the furnace by the return (cold-air) registers and ducts. The return registers are placed in the wall, just below
the opening; the return air ducts are installed in the crawl space. The warm-air distribution by branch ducts is the same as the
examples shown in Figure 2-9.

2-11. Forced-air systems are laid out so that the warm air from the registers is directed at the cold exterior walls. In some
systems, the warm-air registers are located in exterior walls below windows. The registers for cold-air return are normally installed
at baseboard height. Cold air moves to the floor where it is collected by the cold-air registers and returned through ducts to the
furnace for reheating and recirculation. Furnace location is important for proper forced-air heating. This design equalizes duct
lengths by centrally locating the furnace room (Figure 2-9) .

Comfort Zone Design 2-12. The comfort zone is a horizontal area between the top of the average person's head and
knees. Air blowing from the supply is uncomfortable. To avoid this, registers are placed either above or below the comfort zone-
high on the wall or in the baseboard.

Duct Connections 2-13. The main trunk

should run above a central corridor to equalize
branch duct lengths to individual rooms. Figure 2-
10 shows common rectangular duct connections.
(Figure 2-10. Rectangular Duct Connections)

2-14. Figure 2-10 also shows a

typical warm-air bonnet with two
main supply ducts. It shows two
possible elbow connections and
two duct Ts. The split T is used to
direct the air flow on the warm
side of the system. The straight T
may be used on the cold-air
return. Trunk takeoffs are shown.
In the double-branch connection,
less air is present in the main
duct after some of it has been
channeled into branch ducts. The
size of the main duct can then be
reduced on the far side of the
connection point. The single-
branch connection shows two
methods of reduction. First,
reduction in the duct is made at
the connection. Secondly, a
reduction in duct depth is made on the far side of the connection. In both double- and single-branch takeoffs, the
branch connections form a natural air scoop to encourage airflow in the desired direction.

2-15. A boot is one method to

change the shape of a duct
without changing the equivalent
cross section area or
constricting the air flow. A boot
fitting from branch to stack, with
the stack terminating at a warm-
air register, is shown in Figure
2-11. Table 2-1 gives the
equivalent lengths of gravity
duct fittings.

Figure 2-11. Duck (Boot) Fittings

Table 2-1. Equivalent Lengths of Gravity Duct Fittings

 Equivalent Number
Warm-Air Boot Name of Combination of 90-
Degree Elbows

45-degree angle boot

A 1
and 45-degree elbow

B 90-degree angle boot 1

Universal boot
C 1
and 90-degree elbow

D End boot 2

E Offset boot 2 1/2

F 45-degree angle boot 1/2

G Floor register, second story 3

H Offset 3

I Offset 2 1/2

AIR SOURCE HEAT PUMPS An air source heat pump uses outside air as a heat source or heat sink. A
compressor, condenser and refrigerant system is used to absorb heat at one place and release it at another. An air source heat
pump works in exactly the same way as a ground source heat pump, only it extracts heat from the air (instead of the ground)
outside a building, and uses it to heat water in the building (air-water system), or the air in the building (air-air). The advantage of
an air source heat pump over a ground source heat pump is that an air source heat pump requires far less space to install, and no
excavations. This makes air source heat pumps far more suitable for the average urban home.

Outside air, necessarily existing at some temperature above absolute zero, is a heat container. An air-source heat pump moves
("pumps") some of this heat to provide hot water or household heating. This can be done in either direction, to cool or heat the
interior of a building.

The main components of an air-source heat pump are made up of three main components - an evaporator coil, a compressor,
and a heat exchanger.

• a heat exchanger, over which outside air is blown, to extract the heat from the air

• a compressor, which acts like a refrigerator but in reverse and raises the temperature from the outside air

• a way to transfer the heat into a hot water tank or heating system, such as radiators or under-floor heating tubes

Heating and cooling is accomplished by moving a refrigerant through the heat pump's various indoor and outdoor coils and
components. A compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator are used to change states of the refrigerant from a liquid
to hot gas and from a gas to a cold liquid. The refrigerant is used to heat or cool coils in a building or room and fans pull the room
air over the coils. An external outdoor heat exchanger is used to heat or cool the refrigerant. This use of outside air has led to the
term "Air Source" Heat Pump. The overall operation uses the concepts described in classic vapor compression refrigeration.

When the liquid refrigerant at a low temperature passes through the outdoor evaporator coils, the temperature of the outside
air causes the liquid to boil. This change of state from liquid to a vapor requires a considerable amount of energy or "latent heat"
which is provided by outside air passing over the coils.

This vapor is then drawn into the compressor where the temperature of the vapor is boosted to well over 100 degrees Celsius.
At this point we have used heat from the outside air to change the liquid refrigerant to a gas and added an amount of compression
"work" to raise the temperature of the vapor. The vapor now enters the condenser heat exchanger coils where it begins to transfer
heat to the air being drawn across the coils. As the vapor cools, it condenses back to a liquid and in so doing releases and
transfers considerable latent heat to the air passing over the condenser unit coils. We have used the heat energy of outside air to
change the phase of the refrigerant and then released this heat for heating, a typical heat pump operation.

At this stage we now have a very cold liquid refrigerant compressed to a high pressure. The refrigerant is next passed through
an expansion valve which turns it back to a low pressure cold liquid ready to re-enter the evaporator to begin a new cycle.
The heat pump can also operate in a cooling mode where the cold refrigerant is moved through the indoor coils to cool the room
air.

The evaporator coil is fitted to the outside of an external wall. Here it absorbs heat from the outside air. The compressor
pushes the refridgerant gas through the system compressing it until it is at the desired temperature (typically up to 35-40 degrees
Celcius). The hot refridgerant then passes through the heat exchanger where the heat from the refridgerant is transferred to water
or air.

In the schematic above the evaporator coil is labelled as outdoor coil, and the heat exchanger is the indoor coil since the
system illustrated is an air-air heating system. Note that the operation of a heat pump can be reversed and used to cool
down the air in a building by radiating it outside - behaving in exactly the same way as a refridgerator:

Efficiency The 'efficiency' of air source heat pumps is measured by the Coefficient of performance (COP). In
simple terms, a COP of 3 means the heat pump produces 3 units of heat energy for every 1 unit of electricity it consumes. In mild
weather, the COP of an air source heat pump can be up to 4. However, on a very cold winter day, it takes more work to move the
same amount of heat indoors than on a mild day. The heat pump's performance is limited by the Carnot cycle and will approach
1.0 as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases at around −18 °C (0 °F) outdoor temperature for air source heat
pumps. However, heat pump construction methods that enable use of carbon dioxide refrigerant extend the figure downward to -30
°C (-22 °F). A Geothermal heat pump will have less change in COP as the ground temperature from which they extract heat is
more constant than outdoor air temperature.

Seasonally adjusted heating and cooling efficiencies are given by the heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF) and seasonal
energy efficiency ratio (SEER) respectively.

Advantages
• Typically draws approximately 1/3 to 1/4 of the electricity of a standard resistance heater for the same amount of heating,
reducing utility bills.[1] This typical efficiency compares to 70-95% for a fossil fuel-powered boiler[citation needed].
• Few moving parts, reducing maintenance requirements. However, it should be ensured that the outdoor heat exchanger and
fan is kept free from leaves and debris. Morover, it must be borne in mind that a heat pump will have significantly more moving
parts than an equivalent electric resistance heater or fuel burning heater.
• As an electric system, no flammable or potentially asphyxiating fuel is used at the point of heating, reducing the potential
danger to users, and removing the need to obtain gas or fuel supplies (except for electricity).
• May be used to heat air, or water.
• The same system may be used for air conditioning in summer, as well as a heating system in winter.
• lower running costs, the compressor being the thing that uses most power - when in comparison with traditional electrical
resistance heaters.[citation needed].

Disadvantages
The following disadvantages are associated with all air source heat pump designs:
• Air source heat pumps require electricity for operation. Electricity generation accounts for a significant amount of emissions
pollutants and greenhouse gases.
• External space needs to be found for the outside condenser unit which can be somewhat noisy[citation needed] and possibly
unsightly.
• The cost of installation is high (though less than a Ground Source heat pump because a ground source heat pump requires
installation of a ground loop).
The following disadvantages are associated with units charged with HFC refrigerants:
• Usually marketed as low energy or a sustainable technology, the HFCs have the potential to contribute to global
warming[citation needed]. The effect the refrigerant could have is measured in global warming potential (GWP) and ozone depletion
potential (ODP).
• Air source heat pumps lose their efficiency as external temperatures fall. In colder climates the system needs to be installed
with an auxiliary source of heat to providing heat at low temperatures or if the heat pump should require repair.
• The COP is reduced when heat pumps are used to reach over 55°C for heating domestic water or in conventional central
heating systems using radiators to distribute heat (instead of an underfloor heating array).
• Retrofit is difficult when used with conventional heating systems using radiators or radiant panels. The lower Heat Pump
output temperatures would mean radiators would have to be increased in size or a low temperature underfloor heating system be
installed instead.

Coefficient of Performance Heat pumps are measured by their coefficient of performance (CoP). The CoP for air
source heat pumps is very similar to that for ground source heat pumps at approximately 2-3. With a CoP for instance of 3, 3 units
of heat are produced for every 1 unit of electricity consumed. (The two free units of heating were extracted from the outside air).
Even with ambient air temperatures of -10 to -15 degrees Celcius, an air source heat pump can extract useful heat (i.e. > 1 unit of
heat generated per unit of electricity consumed).

What Is a Catalytic Converter?

The catalytic converter is a device located in the exhaust system of all modern motor vehicles. It is an important device in the exhaust
gas de-pollution process, which reduces harmful environmental exhaust emissions of motor vehicle’s combustion cycle by-products.
Its function is to chemically change harmful pollutants that the engine has combusted in the process of its various starting, driving,
power and idle conditions.

What Are The Pollutants?

These pollutants include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, etc. A catalytic converter chemically changes these into
harmless substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.

How Are Harmful Exhaust Pollutants Eliminated?

The catalytic converter uses an inside structure called a substrate. This is a ceramic or stainless steel monolith block that is covered
with precious metals such as platinum, palladium and rhodium. The monolithic block consists of many fine channels, which are covered
by a coarse washcoat above which the catalytically effective precious metal layer is placed. It is these elements, which cause the
chemical change.

Catalytic Converter Longevity In Service

For a catalytic converter to last in normal vehicle service operation, it is essential the engine, its ignition system, fuel system, and
emission devices must all operate within manufacturer specifications properly, consistently, efficiently and correctly at all times.

If the catalytic converter you replaced or are about to replace was damaged or destroyed by the melting of the ceramic monolithic
structure or the metallic substrate, it means that excessive amounts of liquid fuel particles reached the catalytic converter substrate.
When this occurs, it raises temperatures, causing the substrate to exceed its fusion point of around 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit, thus
harming the substrate.

In such instances, THE INSTALLER MUST FIRST LOCATE AND CORRECT THE CAUSE OF THE MONOLITHIC OR SUBSTRATE
MELTING AND IN PARTICULAR ENSURE THAT ALL THE ENGINE, IGNITION, FUEL AND EMISSION SYSTEM/S AND OR
DEVICES ARE OPERATING correctly before replacing or renewing the catalytic converter.

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