CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Rahul Roy student of

XII science Roll no.__________ worked on
project titled- “AND gates”
held in Bhavans Tripura Vidya Mandir School
during the academic year 2018-2019.

He worked sincerely under the guidance of

faculties and prepared this dissertation.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

PRINCIPAL
 DECLARATION

This project is done by me which is based on the topic of

AND gate its process and the formation of its model
according to the truth table. The information provided in
this are all real and genuine such all the information
collected are all done by me all with the help of the
teachers and friends. Even some of the information are
collected from several books. The project resembles all the
difficulties and hard work done for taking to a mark.

Teacher’s signature

Date:- Signature of candidate

Place:-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty god for his blessings

and grace without which I could not have undertaken this task and my
and honor to express my heartiest and profound gratitude to Mam
Swapna Shome, principal BTVM, Narsingarh. For her appropriate
directions, valuable suggestion, under judging assistance so generously
extended to me.

I wish to express my deepest feelings of gratitude to Mam Aparna ,

physics department, her guidance helped me in getting valuable
information regarding my project. For her erudite involvement and
sustained guidance which has been pivotal in my project work, her
minute observation, precious insights, critical comments have indeed
greatly helped to shape my ideas. This guidance and support received
from my entire classmates who contributed there information to this
project, which is vital for the success of this project. I am grateful for
their constant support and help.
I also owe sense of gratitude to my parents for encouragement and
support throughout the project.

~ RAHUL ROY
OBJECTIVES
 INTRODUCTION

A GATE is defined as a digital circuit which follows some logical

relationship between the input and output voltages. It is a digital circuit
which either allows a signal to pass through or stop it.

The logic gates are building blocks at digital electronics. They are
used in digital electronics to change one voltage level into another
according to some logic statement relating to them.
A logic gate may have one or more than one inputs, but it has only one
output. The relationship between the possible values of input and output
voltages are expressed in the form of a table called truth table.
Truth table of a logic gate is a table that shows all the inputs and
outputs that are possible for the logic gates.
The AND Gate: -
It is a device that combines A with B to give Y as the result. The AND
gate has two or more inputs and one output. In Boolean algebra,
multiplication sign is referred as the AND. The Boolean expression:
A.B=Y
or
A x B=Y
This indicates that Y equals to A and B.
 BASIC ELEMENTS USED
BREADBOARD:-A breadboard is a reusable base board used to
prototype and experiment with electronic circuits without soldering any
components. Sections A and D are typically known as the power rails. In
a larger breardboard there may be multiple, disconnected power rails.
Breadboards make it convenient to connect components and build
circuits.

DIODE :- A diode is a specialized electronic component with two

electrodes called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made
with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium.
Some diodes are also known as photovoltaic cells on the basis for solar
electric energy systems and photosensors. The fundamental property of
a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one direction.

LED:- A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits

visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is not
bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic single wavelength. An
LED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type
semiconductors and N-type semiconductors. These two element are
placed in direct contact, forming a region called the P-N junction.

RESISTOR:- A resistor is an electrical component that limits or

regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit. Resistors
can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such
as a transistor a particular type of it is of carbon-composition such that it
is mixed with clay and hardened and resistance depends on ratio
depends on proportion of carbon to clay. Here a resistor of 100Ω is
used.

BATTERY:-A battery is an electrochemical cell (or enclosed and

protected material) that can be charged electrically to provide a static
potential for power or released electrical charge when needed. A battery
of 9V is used.

SWITCH:- A switch is a device that channels incoming data from any

of multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take it toward
its intended destination.
 The AND Gate.
Aim:
To design and stimulate the AND gate.

Components:
Two p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R, a battery, LED,
logics, switch.

Theory and Construction:

An AND gate can be realized by the electronic circuit, making use of
two diodes D1 and D2. The resistance R is connected to the positive
terminal of a 5V battery permanently.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to

the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery corresponds to the
level 1. The output Y is the voltage at C with respect to earth.

The AND gate s a basic digital logic gate that implements logical
conjunction- it behaves according to the truth table given below. A
HIGH output results only if both the inputs to the AND gate s HIGH. If
neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a low output results.
In another sense, the function of AND effectively finds the minimum
between two binary digits, just as the OR function finds the maximum
between two binary digits. Therefore, the output is always 0, except
when all the inputs are 1. between two binary digits. Therefore, the
output is always 0, pt when all the inputs are 1.

The following conclusion can be easily drawn from the working of this
circuit:
(i)If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0,B=0), then bulb does
not glow., hence Y=0.
(ii)If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0), then bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0.
(iii)If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1), then bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0.
(iv)If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), then bulb glows,
hence Y=1.

TRUTH TABLE

INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
An AND gate requires two or more inputs and produce only one output.
The AND gate produces an output of logic 1 state when each of the
inputs are at logic 1 state and also produces an output of logic 0 state
even if any of its inputs are at logic 0 state. The symbol for AND
operation is ‘.’, or we use no symbol for representing. If the inputs are
of X and Y, then the output can be expressed as Z=XY. The AND gate
is so named because, if 0 is called “false” and 1 is called “true,” the gate
performs in the same way as the logical “and” operator. The AND gate
is also named as all or nothing gate. The logic symbols and truth tables
of two-input and three-input AND gates are given below.

2 Input AND Gate – Truth Table

3 Input AND Gate – Truth Table

Discrete AND gates may be realized by using diodes or transistors. The
inputs represented as X and Y may be either 0V or +5V
correspondingly. The output is represented by Z . In the diode of AND
gate, when both the inputs are of same value, X=+5V and Y= +5V, then
the diodes are in OFF condition. As a result, no current flows through
the resistor and there will not be any voltage drop across the resistor.
Here the output will be Z=+5V. Similarly, when both the inputs such as
 X and Y are equal to 0V, then the corresponding diodes such as either
D1 or D2 or both the diodes are at ON state and act as short circuits.
Here the output will be Z corresponds to 0V. In practical cases the
output z corresponds to 0.6V or 0.7V, which is treated as logic 0 state.

2 Input Diode AND Gate

2-Input Transistor AND Gate

In the case of transistor AND gate, When the inputs X, Y = 0V or when
X=0V and Y= +5V or when X=+5V and Y=0V, both the transistors Q1
and Q2 are at OFF state. At the same time, Transistor Q3 gets enough
base drive from the supply through Resistor R3 and so transistor Q3 will
be ON. Thereby the output voltage Z= Vce(sat) corresponds to 0V. When
both the inputs are equal to +5V, the transistors Q1 and Q2 will be ON
and therefore the voltage at the collector of transistor Q1 will drop.
Due to this the transistor Q3 doesn’t get enough base drive and turns
OFF. As a result no current flows through the collector resistor of Q3
and , thereby no voltage drop across it. So the final output voltage
corresponds to +5V. The truth table for this gate circuit is shown below:

Discrete AND Gate Truth Table

ADVANTAGES OF AND GATE
1. It is generally very easy to realiably distinguish between logic 1
and logic 0.
2. These gates are used in TTL and CMOS circuitary.
3. It allows logical steps quickly and repeatedly.
disadvantage
 USES OF AND GATE

1. AND gate s used to obtain the product of two digits. It is used for
various combinational and sequential circuits.
2. AND gates are used to combine multiple signals, if all the signals
are TRUE then the output will also be TRUE. F any f the signals
are FALSE, then the output will be FALSE.
3. ANDs aren’t as much as NAND gates; NAND gates use less
components and have the advantage that they can be used as an
inverter.
4. And is a logical function of two or more implication. To make a
statement to be true all inputs must be true otherwise the output s
FALSE.
5. While the application are extensively used in computer. This
function was used long before computer as a logic discussion or
statement.
6.
 APPLICATION OF AND GATE

There are mainly two applications of AND gate as Enable gate and
Inhibit gate. Enable gate means allowance of data through a channel
and Inhibit gate is just the reverse of that process i.e. disallowance of
data through a channel. We are going to show an enabling operation
to understand it in an easier way. Suppose in the measurement of
frequency of a pulsed waveform. For measurement of frequency a
gating pulse of known frequency is sent to enable the passage of the
waveform whose frequency is to be measured. The diagram below
shows the arrangement of the above explained operation.
 RESULT

In this expirement the result is that when the input in the

logics are FALSE and if any one of is FALSE also
FALSE the output of all the resultant circuit is FALSE, but
if both the inputs are TRUE then the output s also TRUE
that is the LED glows. If among the two input if any one is
FALSE the LED doesnot glows. Thus we can conclude
that the output is the resultant is the product of both the
inputs.
conclusion
GLOSSARY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

This project would not be possible without the help and guidance of my
respected physics teacher and friends.
Even my family had also helped me with many informations.
The books such as the:
 NCERT Physics book
 H.C. Verma
 S.L. Arora
Many other information from various websites as.