Medical Office Procedures

Course Medical Office Procedures
This course is designed to help you develop professional relationships in

the workplace and professionally administer and manage office
communications and procedures. It also provides a review of basic math
operations, along with a basic introduction to working with Word and Excel.
Course Objectives
Apply knowledge of basic arithmetic skills to complete math related tasks

in an office setting
Identify how to create professional business correspondences
Recognize effective communication techniques in an office setting
Describe how to use Word and Excel to complete business related tasks
Medical Office Procedures : Basic Math for

Allied Health
Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 1

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Lesson 1 Overview
This lesson is a review of basic

math operations: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and
division. You’ll review these
operations as they relate to
whole numbers, decimals, and
fractions. You’ll also study
percentages—how to calculate
discounts and series discounts and how to determine the percent of
increase and decrease. Finally, you’ll take a look at the metric system and
learn how to convert units of measurement from the metric system to the
English system and from the English system to the metric system.
Throughout the lesson, you’ll also receive instruction in solving problems
using a basic handheld calculator.
The examples in this lesson have been geared to the business world in an
effort to help you see how math is used in an office situation. If you apply
yourself to the principles presented in the unit, you should have no difficulty
with any math you’ll encounter in your career.
1.1 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

problems that contain whole numbers
Business Math and Whole Numbers
READING ASSIGNMENT
Business Math and Whole Numbers
You’ve probably learned a great deal of mathematics during your lifetime.

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Unfortunately, you may seldom use what you’ve learned, and anything
that’s not used or practiced is soon forgotten. Maybe some of your math
skills have become a little rusty from lack of use. The purpose of this
lesson is to get those skills back into good working order.
There’s really nothing unique about math in the allied health fields. Like all
calculations, business math involves four operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. These four operations are basic to all
calculations you’ll encounter in both your business and your personal life.
Your task in this course is to call back the math you’ve already learned and
apply it to job situations.
Whole Numbers
An image of the top of a man's

head wearing glasses looking at
a clock set at 9:00
You encounter whole numbers

every day in a variety of ways.
Whether you realize it or not, you work with whole numbers every day.
Speed limit signs, Social Security numbers, telephone numbers, baseball
scores, mileage between cities, and temperatures are just a few examples

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of whole numbers in ordinary life. Whole numbers often tell us the answer
to simple questions such as “How long?” or “How many?” or “How much?”
For example, suppose someone asks you how much money you have in
your pocket. You answer, “I have five dollars.” Five is the whole number
that answers that question.
As a child, you learned how to count using whole numbers—one, two,

three, and so on. A whole number represents a quantity of whole things.
For example, suppose you must report the number of prospective clients
you call each day. When you count these calls, each number represents
one call.
Long ago, the Arabs (from whom we adopted the number symbols we use
today) realized that zero was also a whole number. Suppose that one day
you’re assigned to a special project at work and you’re unable to contact
any prospective clients that day. Therefore, you would have to report that
you contacted zero clients.
So, we can now define a whole number as any member of the following
group:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 . . .
The smallest whole number is zero, but there’s no largest whole number.
No matter what number you think of, there’s always a number that’s one
higher! The three dots (. . .) in the list indicate that whole numbers go on
and on forever.
Place Value of Digits
The numbers we use today are based on the decimal system. The word

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decimal comes from the Latin word for 10. In the decimal system,position,
or place value, is very important. To see what position means, take a look
at the numbers 729, 273, and 967. The digit 7 is in each of those three
numbers. However, since it’s in a different position in each one, it has a
different value each time. In the number 729, the 7 has a value of 700; in
273, it has a value of 70; and in 967, it has a value of 7. As you can see,
the value of any digit is determined by its position in a number.
Let’s take a closer look at this idea of place value. The first position at the
right end of a whole number is the ones position. Suppose you work in an
office with 398 employees. In the whole number 398, the 8 is located in the
first place at the right (the ones position), so it represents 8 ones, or 8
employees.
The second place from the right in a whole number, which has a value 10
times greater than the first place, is called the tens position. In the number
398, the digit 9 means 9 tens, or 90 employees. Since the digit 8 means 8
units, together the two digits mean 98 units, or 98 employees.
The third place from the right has a value 10 times greater than the second
place—it’s the hundreds position. In the number 398, the digit 3 indicates 3
hundreds, or 300 employees. Together the digits stand for 398, or 398
employees.
Look now at the image to see the place values of the different digits in the
whole number 9,603,172.
An image of how to read the place value of each digit in the whole number
9,603,172

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This figure shows you how to read the place value of each digit in the
whole number 9,603,172.
Example: What is the position and value of 7 in each of the following

numbers?
Numeral Position Place Value

417 Ones place
7,236 Thousands place
473 Tens place
7,566,432 Millions place
70,896 Ten thousands place
Hundred thousands
731,060
place
Adding Whole Numbers
Addition Basics
Adding is the process of combining numbers, called addends, to derive an

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answer, called the sum. For example, suppose you work in New York City
and you’re planning a business trip first to Philadelphia and then to
Washington, D.C. The distance between New York and Philadelphia is
approximately 90 miles. The distance from Philadelphia to Washington is
approximately 140 miles. How many total miles will you have to drive to get
to Washington, D.C.? The answer is 230 miles. In this example, the
numbers 90 and 140 are the addends and the number 230 is the sum.
An image of calculating the distance from New York City to Philadelphia to

Washington, D.C., using addition
To calculate the distance from New York City to Philadelphia to

Washington, D.C., you must use addition.
Preparing Numbers for Addition
When you must add two or more numbers with several digits each, you
must first make sure to properly set up the numbers. If you don’t set up the
numbers properly, you won’t get the correct answer.
You set up several whole numbers for addition by writing them one under
the other in a vertical column, with the ones digits lined up on the right.
Then draw a line under the column of numbers. You’ll eventually write the
answer under this line.

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Example: At the end of each week, you must report the number of calls
your department services. The totals you have for last week are Monday,
77 calls; Tuesday, 81 calls; Wednesday, 113 calls; Thursday, 94 calls; and
Friday, 102 calls.
Here’s how you would set up these numbers for addition:
1
7 7
8 1
1 1 3
9 4
+ 1 0 2
Notice that all the digits in the ones column are lined up at the right. Also
notice that all the digits in the tens and hundreds columns are aligned.
Keeping these columns aligned will help you avoid making mistakes.
Performing Addition
Once you have all the numbers properly set up, you’re ready to add them.
Let’s go back to the example of the number of crates shipped. Here’s the
problem:

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1
7 7 Always start your addition with the column of digits at the
8 1 extreme right. Add the digits in the ones column (7 + 1 +
1 1 3 3 + 4 + 2 = 17). Write the 7 below the ones column and
9 4 carry the 1 to the top of the tens column.
+ 1 0 2
7
2 1
Add the digits in the tens column, including the 1 you
7 7
8 1 carried (1 + 7 + 8 + 1 + 9 + 0 = 26). Write the 6 under the
1 1 3 tens column and carry the 2 to the top of the hundreds
9 4 column.
+ 1 0 2
6 7
2 1
7 7 Add the digits in the hundreds column, including the 2
8 1 you carried (2 + 1 + 1 = 4). Write the 4 in the answer
1 1 3
under the hundreds column.
9 4
+ 1 0 2
4 6 7
The answer is 467. Your department serviced 467 calls last week.
Checking Your Addition

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One nice thing about mathematical problems is that you can always check
your calculations in some way to be sure that you’ve done your work
correctly. To check your work in addition, you must apply one of the rules
of addition: The order in which you add two numbers or a group of
numbers doesn’t change the sum (this is called the commutative property).
No matter how you switch the numbers around, the sum will always be the
same. Consider the following example:
1+2+3=6 2+3+1=6 3+1+2=6
The sum is the same for all three arrangements of numbers.
Once you’ve completed your addition, you can check it by adding the
numbers a second time in a different order. Study the problems given
below to see how you perform this check.
Problem Check
1 1 1 1
6 4 3 2 4 8
2 7 2 7
+ 2 4 8 + 6 4 3
9 1 8 9 1 8
Problem Check

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1 1 1 1 1 1
3 7 4 9 2 7
6 8 1 3 7 4 9
+ 2 7 + 6 8 1
4 4 5 7 4 4 5 7
Calculator Applications: Addition
At regular points in this study unit, you’ll be learning how to use a

calculator to solve problems. A calculator can be a wonderful asset to
anyone who works with numbers regularly. Calculators can perform
mathematical operations much faster and much more accurately than we
can ever hope to do by hand.
At this point you may be asking yourself why you have to learn how to do
all this math by hand if a calculator can do it better and faster. That’s a fair
question, and the answer is quite simple. If you were to use a calculator to
perform mathematical operations without understanding those operations
yourself, you would run the risk of making errors. You would simply be
punching numbers into a machine without knowing what’s going on. This
can be especially troublesome when you begin to work with more
complicated problems. If you don’t understand the operations and how they
work to produce an answer, then you won’t be able to enter the problems
correctly into the calculator. You won’t be able to determine whether the
answer you get is a logical one—that is, does it make sense?
One important use of a calculator is for checking the work you perform by
hand. If the results of a calculation are the same by hand and on a
calculator, you can be sure the answer is correct. Get into the habit of

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using a calculator to check your work.
An image of important keys of a standard

handheld calculator
Standard Format of a Basic Handheld

Calculator with Important Keys
HINTS FOR USING CALCULATORS
Enter each number carefully and accurately.

Always check your answers by performing the calculation a second
time. (Even though the calculator won’t make a mistake, you may
enter a number incorrectly or press the wrong operation key.)
Use your calculator to check problems that you perform by hand. If the
answers are the same, you’ll know that your calculations are correct.
Subtracting Whole Numbers
Subtraction Basics

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Subtraction is the opposite of addition. In addition, you combine numbers
to make a larger total; in subtraction, you take one number away from
another number to make a smaller total.
In subtraction, the number you start with is the minuend. The number you
subtract, or take away, is the subtrahend.
The result of subtraction is the difference. The symbol for subtraction is –,

the minus sign.
5 Minuend
Minus Sign − 2 Subtrahend
3 Difference
As we just mentioned, subtraction is the opposite of addition. To show you

how this works, consider the problem 9 – 2 = 7. To turn this into an addition
problem, simply read it backwards and insert a plus sign (+). Therefore, 7 +
2 = 9.
Preparing Numbers for Subtraction
The numbers in subtraction are set up exactly as they are for addition.
Remember to line up the ones digits on the right if you’re working with
whole numbers.
The only new thing you must remember is to place the minuend above the
subtrahend. Here are two subtraction problems that are properly set up:
142 928

−6 −6 3

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Performing Subtraction
Example: Janet works 38 hours each week. So far this week she has
worked 26 hours. How many more hours does she have to work this week?
To determine the answer, you must subtract 26 from 38 to see how many
hours are left. Here’s how it’s done:
Set up the problem. Begin your subtraction with the ones

3 8
column at the extreme right (just as you did in addition).
− 2 6
Subtract the numbers in the ones column (8 – 6 = 2) and
2
write the answer below that column.
3 8
Subtract the digits in the tens column (3 – 2 = 1) and write
− 2 6
that answer below the tens column.
1 2
The answer is 12. Janet still has to work 12 more hours this week.
Sometimes, when you’re subtracting in a column, you’ll discover that the

digit in the subtrahend is larger than the digit in the minuend. When this
happens, you have to borrow. The following examples illustrate the
process of borrowing.
Example: In one week you were to prepare 4,550 pieces of mail for a bulk
mailing. At the end of the day on Thursday, you had completed 3,562. How
many more pieces of mail must you complete on Friday to finish the job?
To find the answer, you must subtract 3,562 from 4,550.

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Set up the problem. Begin at the right. Since you
can’t subtract 2 from 0, you must borrow. The
4 10
example at the left shows you how. You borrow 1
4, 5 5 0
ten from the tens column. Cross out the 5 and write
− 3, 5 6 2
4. Then, cross out the zero in the ones column and
write 10 above it (10 + 0 = 10).
Subtract the digits in the ones column and write the
14
answer (10 – 2 = 8). Move to the tens column.
4 4 10
4, 5 5 0 Again, you have to borrow. You borrow 1 hundred
− 3, 5 6 2 from the hundreds column. Cross out the 5 and write
8 4 above it. Then, cross out the 4 in the tens column
and write 14 above it (10 + 4 = 14).
Subtract the digits in the tens column and write the
14 14
answer. Go on to the hundreds column and you’ll
3 4 4 10
4, 5 5 0 find you have to borrow a third time. You borrow 1
− 3, 5 6 2 thousand from the thousands column. Cross out the
8 8 4 and write 3 above it. Then, cross out the 4 in the
hundreds column and write 14 above it (10+4= 14).
14 14
Subtract the digits in the hundreds column (14 – 5 =
3 4 4 10
4, 5 5 0 9) and write the answer. Finally, subtract the digits in
− 3, 5 6 2 the thousands column. Since 3 – 3 = 0, you write
9 8 8 nothing in that column.
The answer is 988. You must complete 988 pieces of mail on Friday to
finish the job.
Checking Your Subtraction

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Because subtraction is the opposite of addition, you can use addition to
check your work in subtraction. To check a subtraction problem, simply add
the difference (the answer) to the subtrahend. If your subtraction is correct,
the sum of these two numbers will equal the minuend.
Example: To show you how this works, let’s look at the two examples we
just covered.
Problem Check
3 8 1 2
− 2 6 + 2 6
1 2 3 8
Problem Check
4, 5 5 0 9 8 8
− 3, 5 6 2 + 3, 5 6 2
9 8 8 4, 5 5 0
Since the sum equals the original minuend, the subtraction is correct.
CAUTION
If you have to borrow when subtracting, always show the process of

borrowing. Don’t try to do the borrowing in your head. That’s when
mistakes happen!
HINTS FOR USING CALCULATORS

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Enter each number carefully and accurately. For subtraction, the
minuend must be entered first.
Multiplying Whole Numbers
Multiplication Basics
Multiplication is simply a shorthand method of making repeated additions.

Suppose you must make three copies of a manuscript for each of four
individuals. How many copies would you need all together?
To determine the number you need, you could, of course, use addition.
You have four individuals who need three copies each. Therefore, you
would need 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 copies. The sum of these numbers indicates that
you need 12 copies. A much quicker way to solve this problem is to
multiply (4 × 3 = 12).
Just as the numbers in an addition or subtraction problem have names, so

do the numbers in a multiplication problem. The two numbers you multiply
are the factors. In the preceding example, 4 and 3 are the factors. Each
factor has a separate name. The factor you multiply is the multiplicand (4),
and the factor you multiply by is the multiplier (3). The result, or the
answer, of a multiplication problem is the product (12).
4 Multiplicand
Times Sign × 3 Multiplier
12 Product
To learn to multiply efficiently, you must become familiar with the

multiplication chart. To make this job easier, consider the following rules of

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multiplication:
Rule 1: The product of any number and zero is always zero. If you know
this rule, you know the entire first column plus the first multiplication fact in
each column.
Rule 2: The product of any number and 1 is always that same number. If
you know this rule, you know the entire second column plus the second
multiplication fact in each of the other columns.
Rule 3: The order in which you multiply two numbers doesn’t change the
product. Knowing this rule automatically cuts your work in half. For
example, if you memorize the multiplication fact 2 × 4 = 8, then you also
know that 4 × 2 = 8.
Performing Multiplication
When one factor has more than one digit. Sometimes, you’ll have to
multiply numbers that have more than one digit.
An image of a multiplication table, 0-15 times 0-15.

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Example: There are 52 people who work in your office. Each person is
allowed 3 personal days per year. How many personal days will be taken if
all 52 employees use their 3 days?
Set up the problem with the number having the larger

5 2 number of digits on top and the ones digits lined up at
× 3 the right. Draw a horizontal line below the numbers and
then multiply.
5 2
First, multiply the 3 by the 2. Write the product below the
× 3
line in the ones place.
6
5 2
Then, multiply the 3 by the 5 and write the product below
× 3
the line and to the left of the 6.
1 5 6
The answer is 156. There will be 156 personal days taken.
Just as you did in addition, you’ll occasionally need to carry in a

multiplication problem. The following example shows the carrying process
in multiplication.
1
Set up the numbers and begin to multiply at the far right.
2 3 Since 3 × 5 = 15, you must write the 5 below the line and
× 5 carry the 1 to the next column—in this case, the tens
5 column.

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1
Next, multiply 2 by 5, which gives you 10. To this
2 3
product you must add the 1 you carried. Since 10 + 1 =
× 5
11, write this below the line in the answer.
1 1 5
The answer is 115.
When both factors have more than one digit. The numbers that you
multiply aren’t always as small as the ones in the preceding examples.
Sometimes both the multiplicand and the multiplier have two, three, or
even more digits. Let’s take a look at an example.
Example: It has been estimated that 123 people working 427 hours each
are needed to complete a project. What’s the total number of hours that will
be spent on the project?
During each month, a local manufacturer has contracted to build 427 sets.
To find the answer, multiply the number of hours (427) by the number of
people (123).
Set up the problem by aligning the ones
2
places of both factors. Start your
4 2 7 multiplication with the ones digit of the
× 1 2 3 multiplier. Multiply 427 by 3 and place the
← partial
1 2 8 1 answer under the line. This answer is a
product
partial product.

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Move on to the next digit in the multiplier
2
4 2 7 (2). Since this digit of the multiplier is in the
× 1 2 3 tens place, place a zero in the ones column
1 2 8 1 of the second partial product. Then multiply
8 5 4 0 427 by 2.
2 Multiply by the last digit in the multiplier (1).

4 2 7 Since this digit of the multiplier is in the
× 1 2 3
hundreds place, place zeros in the ones and
1 2 8 1
tens columns of the partial product. Then
8 5 4 0
multiply 427 by 1.
4 2 7 0 0
2
4 2 7
× 1 2 3 Draw a line under the partial products and
1 2 8 1 add them. Place the sum below the second
8 5 4 0 line. This is the final product.
+4 2 7 0 0
5 2, 5 2 1
The answer is 52,521. The total number of hours is 52,521. Notice that in
the previous example, we didn’t write down the carried numbers. For
example, when we added 8 + 4 = 12, we wrote 2 and carried 1 in our head.
This is common practice. You should have enough experience now to do
the same.
When there are zeros in the multiplier. The product of zero and any

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other number is zero. If a multiplier of several digits contains one or more
zeros, then one or more of the partial products will be zero.
Example:
1 2 3 6
× 2 0 1 2 3 6
0 0 0 0 × 2 0
+2 4 7 2 0 2 4, 7 2 0
2 4 7 2 0
As you can see from this example, there are two ways of handling zeros as
digits of multipliers. On the left, we wrote out all the zeros of the first partial
product. Then, we aligned all the digits of the second partial product below
them. On the right, we used a shorter method. We wrote a 0 in the ones
place of the product to hold the place. We aligned the second partial
product, 2472, below the 2 of the multiplier, but on the same line as the 0.
Both methods give the same answer, but the one on the right is slightly
quicker and just as accurate.
Example:
2 5 0 3
2 5 0 3
× 4 0 2
× 4 0 2
5 0 0 6
5 0 0 6
0 0 0 0
+1 0 0 1 2 0 0
+1 0 0 1 2 0 0
1, 0 0 6, 2 0 6
1, 0 0 6, 2 0 6

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In this example, the 0 in the multiplier is in the tens place, making the
second partial product 0. On the left, we wrote out all the zeros for the
second partial product. On the right, we used the shorter method. We
placed one 0 directly below the 0 in the multiplier to hold the place. Then,
we wrote the third partial product on the same line directly below the 4 in
the multiplier.
It really doesn’t matter which method you use. You still get the same
answer. When you use the shorter method, however, you must be very
careful to line up the partial products properly to achieve the correct
answer.
Checking Your Multiplication
You can check your multiplication without learning any new concepts. All
you have to do is to apply the commutative property rule, which states that
the order in which you multiply two numbers doesn’t change the product.
After you complete a multiplication problem, check it by reversing the
factors and performing the multiplication again. Your answer should be the
same both times.
Example:
Problem Check

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4 2 7 1 2 3
× 1 2 3 × 4 2 7
1 2 8 1 8 6 1
8 5 4 0 2 4 6 0
+4 2 7 0 0 +4 9 2 0 0
5 2, 5 2 1 5 2, 5 2 1
Notice that the partial products are very different, but the product—the
answer—is the same. Later in this study unit you’ll learn how to use
division to check your multiplication.
Dividing Whole Numbers
Division Basics
Division is the opposite of multiplication (just as addition is the opposite

operation of subtraction). Multiplication is the process of adding the same
number several times. Division is the process of finding how many times
one number is contained within another. In division, you separate a
number into equal parts.
Example: You have a job that should take about 48 hours to complete. If
you put 6 employees on the job, how long should the job take?
To do this, you must divide the 48 hours among 6 employees, which would
give you 8 hours.
An image of an example of
dividend, division sign, divisor,
and quotient.

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In a division problem, the number you divide is the dividend. The number
you divide by is the divisor. Finally, the result of division is the quotient. In
the preceding example, 48 is the dividend, 6 is the divisor, and 8 is the
quotient.
REMINDER
Make it a habit to check your work every time. It takes a little extra time, but
it may save you from making a larger mistake down the road.
Let’s see how multiplication can help you with division. In multiplication,
you have two factors and you’re looking for their product. In division, you
have the product and one factor and you’re looking for the other factor.
Example: Suppose you have 36 job assignments and a crew of four

employees to complete these assignments. How many assignments will
you give each employee?
You must divide the number of assignments (36) by the number of

employees (4). To solve the division problem 36 ÷ 4, you must ask yourself
what number multiplied by 4 gives 36? The answer is 9.

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36 ÷ 4 = 9, because 9 × 4= 36
An image showing 6 divided by

2 equals three with arrows
demonstrating 3 times 2 equals
six.
Multiplication and division are

opposite operations.
Knowing your multiplication tables isn’t the only thing that will help you
learn division.
These three division rules should make your job a little easier.
Rule 1: Zero (0) divided by any number equals 0.
Rule 2: Any number divided by 1 is equal to that same number.
Rule 3: Any number divided by itself equals 1.
Performing Division

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When the divisor has only one digit. Division by a single-digit number is
rather easy. Let’s take a look at how it’s done.
Example: In the next three weeks, the department your boss manages
must produce 936 electric motors. How many motors must the department
produce each week to complete the job on time?
To calculate the answer, divide the number of motors (936) by the number
of weeks (3). Here’s how you would do it:
Set up the division problem and then begin to divide. Unlike

3 addition, subtraction, and multiplication, you start the division
¯
3 )936 process from the left. Therefore, you divide 3 into 9. The result is
3. Write the 3 directly above the 9 in the quotient.
31 Move on to the next number in the dividend. Divide 3 into 3. The

¯
3 )936 result is 1. Write the 1 directly above the 3.
312 Finally, divide the last number in the dividend—3 divided into 6 is
¯
3 )936 2. Write the 2 directly above the 6.
The answer is 312. The department must produce 312 motors each week.
This is a good problem to start with because everything worked out evenly.
Let’s try one that’s a little more difficult.
Example: Nine employees decide to chip in to buy the boss a new

briefcase for her birthday. How much will each employee have to contribute
if the briefcase costs $144?

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To find the answer, you must divide the cost of the briefcase ($144) by the
number of employees (9).
Set up the problem and begin to divide. The divisor is too large
to be divided into the first digit of the dividend. Therefore, you
1 must use the first two digits of the dividend. Estimate how many
¯
9 )$144 times 9 will divide into 14. You know that 9 × 2 = 18, but that’s
more than 14. Therefore, 9 divides into 14 only once. Write 1
directly above the 4 in the tens column of the dividend.
1
¯ Multiply the 1 in the quotient by the divisor (1 × 9 = 9). Write this
9 )$144 number as shown at the left.
9
1
¯ Subtract 9 from 14. Note: If the result of this subtraction is
9 )$144 greater than the divisor, you know that you’ve estimated
− 9 incorrectly. You must increase your estimate. In this problem, 5
_
is less than the divisor (9), so you know your estimate is correct.
5
16
¯
Now, bring down the next digit (4) from the dividend. Estimate
9 )$144
how many times 9 will divide into 54. You know that 9 × 6 = 54.
− 94
_ So, you write a 6 above the line, directly above the 4 in the ones
54 column.

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16
¯
9 )$144
Multiply the 6 in the quotient by the divisor (6 × 9 = 54). Write
− 94
_ the answer as shown at the left.
54
54
16
¯
9 )$144
− 94
Finally, you subtract. Since there are no more digits left in the
_
dividend, you’re finished with this division problem.
54
54
−_
0
The answer is $16. Each employee must contribute $16 for the briefcase.
Follow this same division procedure no matter how many digits there are in
the dividend. Continue to bring down the digits one at a time until you
reach the last digit.
Here are some more examples for you to study:

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893 728
¯ ¯
9 )8037 302 5 )3640
¯
72 )2114 35
_ 7 _
− −
21
83 _ 14
−
81 − 10
0 14
−_ _
14
27 40
−_
27 − 40
0
−_ _
0 0
Pay particular attention to the second example. After you subtract 21 from
21, bring down the next number (1). Since you can’t divide 7 into 1, place a
zero in the quotient to hold the place. Then bring down the next number
and continue the division.
When the divisor has more than one digit. The divisor in a division
problem often has more than one digit. You use the same procedure for
dividing that we just covered. However, you estimate more when the
divisor has more than one digit. Here’s an example.
Example: You’re at your company’s credit union filling out an application

for a loan. You have to fill in your weekly salary on the application. If your
yearly salary is $23,450, how much do you make each week? (Note: There
are 52 weeks in one year.)
To calculate your weekly salary, divide your yearly salary ($23,450) by 52.

Course Version: 1
Set up the problem and begin to divide. Ask yourself, “How
many times is 52 contained in 2?” (Two is the first digit of
the dividend.) Since 2 is smaller than 52, try the first two
digits. Is 52 contained in 23? No. Then, try the first three
digits. Is 52 contained in 234? Yes. Now, you must
4 estimate how many times 52 is contained in 234. Although

¯ there’s some trial and error involved in making this
52 )$23, 450 estimate, you should be able to come quite close. One way
to estimate is to drop one digit from both the divisor and the
dividend and then ask yourself how many times 5 is
contained in 23. The answer is 4 and that’s our estimate.
You write 4 in the quotient directly above the 4 in the
dividend.
4
¯
Multiply 4 by the divisor (4 × 52 = 208) and write 208 as
52 )$23, 450
shown. Subtract. Since the result of the subtraction is less
20 8
− _ than the divisor, you know your estimate is correct.
26
4
¯ Bring down the next digit from the dividend. Then, estimate
52 )$23, 450 how many times 52 will go into 265. Since 265 is a little
20 8 larger than 234, let’s estimate 5. Write 5 in the quotient
− _
directly above 5 in the dividend.
2 65

Course Version: 1
45
¯
52 )$23, 450
20 8
− _
2 65
Multiply 5 by the divisor (5 × 52 = 260). Write 5 in the
2 60
−_ quotient and write 260 as shown. Subtract.
5
450
¯
52 )$23, 450
20 8 Bring down the next digit from the dividend. Then, estimate
− _ how many times 52 is contained in 50. The answer is 0.
2 65 Write the 0 in the quotient and your division is complete.
2 60
−_
50
The answer is $450. Your weekly salary is $450. (Notice that you’ve
reached the last digit in the dividend and you’re left with 50. Since you
can’t divide 52 into 50, your division is complete. The answer is $450, but
you have a remainder of 50.)
Checking Your Division

Course Version: 1
Since division is the inverse operation of multiplication, you can use
multiplication to check your division. To check your answer to a division
problem, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add any remainder. The
result should be the original dividend.
Example: Let’s check our division in the preceding problem.
Problem Check
450
¯
52 )$23, 450 450 Multiply the quotient (450) by the
20 8 × 52 divisor (52) and add any remainder
− _ 23, 400 (50). Since the result is the same as
2 65 + 50 the original dividend, our work is
2 60 $ 23, 450 correct.
−_
50
Now that you know how to divide, you’ve learned another way that you can
check your multiplication. You already know that you can check
multiplication by reversing the factors and multiplying, but you can also
check multiplication by using division. You use division to check a
multiplication problem by dividing the product by one of the factors. The
quotient should equal the other factor.
Example: Last week the company you work for received five shipments of
computers. Each shipment contained 75 computers. How many computers
did your company receive last week? (Find the solution and then check
your answer.)

Course Version: 1
First, you must multiply the number of computers in each shipment (75) by
the number of shipments (5).
75 Last week your company received 375 computers. To

× 5 check this answer, divide the product (375) by one of the
375 factors. Let’s divide by the 5 since that will be easier.
75
¯
5 )375
35
Since the quotient in the check, 75, is the same as the
− _
other factor, you know that your multiplication is correct.
25
25
−_
0
Rounding Whole Numbers
Sometimes, when you’re working with large numbers, it helps to round

them off. A rounded number is a close estimate or approximation for a
whole number. Rounding makes numbers easier to remember. So, it’s
often handy to round numbers when you don’t need an exact figure.
Example: Round 63 to the nearest ten.
Solution: In this problem, what you’re actually trying to figure out is whether
63 is closer to 60 or 70.

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Start by finding the digit you want to round to, and circle it. In this
63
case, the digit in the tens place, 6, is the one you’re rounding to.
Now, look at the digit immediately to the right of the circled digit. If
the digit to the right of the circled digit is 5 or greater, increase the
63
circled digit by 1. If the digit is less than 5, leave the circled digit
the same.
Replace
with In this case, the digit 3 is less than 5, so you’ll round down. The
zero circled digit will stay the same. The last step is to change all digits
to the right of the circled digit to zeros. In this case, you’ll be
putting a zero in the ones place. Answer: The number 63 rounded
to the nearest ten is 60.
60
Example: Round the number 296 to the nearest hundred.
Solution: In this problem, you’re trying to figure out whether 296 is closer to
200 or 300.
First, circle the digit you want to round to. In this case, that digit is
296
2, since 2 is in the hundreds place.
296 Now, look at the digit immediately to the right of the 2.

Course Version: 1
Replace
with
Is the 9 greater than or less than 5? It’s greater than 5, so you’ll
zero
increase the circled digit by 1. Finally, change all the digits to the
right of the 3 to zeros. In this case, you’ll be putting zeros in the
ones and tens places. Answer: The number 296 rounded to the
nearest hundred is 300.
300
Don’t forget, whether you’re rounding up or rounding down, it’s important to

remember to replace all the digits to the right of the rounded digit with
zeros.
Example: Round each of the following numbers to the nearest hundred.
Digit Being
Number Answer
Rounded
176 1 76 200
413 4 13 400
4,379 4, 3 79 4,400
Example: Round each of the following numbers to the nearest thousand.
Digit Being
Number Answer
Rounded
1,346 1 ,346 1,000
3,657 3 ,657 4,000
72,357 7 2 ,357 72,000

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Example: Round each of the following numbers to the nearest hundred
thousand.
Digit Being
Number Answer
Rounded
167,321 1 67,321 200,000
849,999 8 49,999 800,000
4,160,913 4, 1 60,913 4,200,000
Finding Averages
We commonly use both division and rounding to find averages. An average

is a mathematical picture of what to expect or what is usual for a given set
of circumstances. There are three types of averages used in business: (1)
the mean, (2) the median, and (3) the mode. Each has a different use and
involves a different procedure for calculation.
The mean is the most commonly used type of average. In fact, when
people refer to the average of something, they’re usually referring to the
mean. It’s most useful when there isn’t a large variation between the lowest
and highest values. Finding the mean requires more calculation than
finding other types of averages. To find the average of a group of numbers,
simply add the numbers and then divide that sum by the number of
addends.
If you’re a baseball fan, you’re probably familiar with batting averages. A

player’s batting average doesn’t tell you how well (or poorly) a player
batted on any particular day. It simply tells you how the player has batted
during the baseball season. A batting average may indicate what you can

Course Version: 1
expect the player to do in any particular game.
Let’s consider a production department. During one week in the

department, everything went wrong. Several employees were out sick, two
machines broke down, and the electricity was out for four hours. That
week, production was very low.
The next week, the machines were repaired and working well, no one
called in sick, and there was no electrical outage. Production that week
reached a record peak.
Neither one of those weeks is a good example of an “average,” or typical,

week of production. To determine average production for this department—
that is, to find what you can expect the department to produce in one week
—you need to look at several weeks. The more weeks you look at, the
more accurate will be your average.
Example: Here’s a record of this production department’s output for six

weeks. You must find the average number of units produced in a week.
Week Units Produced

1 6,127
2 5,992
3 6,221
4 3,987
5 6,542
6 5,483

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6, 1 2 7
5, 9 9 2
6, 2 2 1
3, 9 8 7 You add to find the total number of units produced by
6, 5 4 2
the department during the six-week period.
+ 5, 4 8 3
3 4, 3 5 2

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5725
¯
6 )34, 352
30
− _
43
−4 2
15
12
−_
32
30
−_ Finally, divide the sum (34,352) by the number of
2 addends, or in this case, the number of weeks (6).
The department produces an average of 5,725 units each week.
The rounding you learned in the previous section is important in using your
answers correctly when averaging. In averaging, always round to the

Course Version: 1
nearest sensible place value. For example, if averaging came out to 34.25
lamps, you wouldn’t sell .25 of a lamp; you would round to the nearest
whole number, 34, when setting average sales goals for the lamps. If you
were setting goals for average profits, which is in dollars, you would round
to the nearest penny, or hundredth of a dollar.
The median is the center number in a group of numbers running from

lowest to highest. This method of averaging is used when the lowest or
highest numbers are of considerably different values than the rest of the
numbers. In this case, the median would give a more accurate expectation.
Data arrangement is the most important part of the process.
Consider the case of a car manufacturer with car dealerships in a large

metropolitan area. The dealership located across the street from the
company’s factory sells many cars every month. Another dealership
located across the street from the competition’s factory sells few cars. The
company’s other dealerships sell in neighborhoods where there are no car
factories and all have similar sales volumes each month. The dealerships
next to car factories aren’t typical dealerships and thus don’t have typical
sales volumes. By looking at the median, the company can set reasonable
sales goals for their regular dealerships.
Example 1: Here are the car sales numbers for one recent month. Find the
median number of sales the company can expect in a month from a typical
dealership.
Dealership Cars Sold

A 150
B 32

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C 40
D 10
E 45
F 35
G 43
Median
10 32 35 40 43 45 150
The median would be 40 cars per month. By arranging the numbers in this
way, it’s easy to see that some of the data is vastly different than the rest of
the data and wouldn’t give a reliable expectation of performance of the
majority of dealerships. The mean for this group of numbers is 50.7, not at
all typical for the regular dealerships.
Obviously, the median is easiest to attain for sets of data with an odd
number of items. If you have an even number of items, though, simply find
the mean of the two center numbers.
Example 2: Suppose the company decided to include one additional

dealership that was just outside the metropolitan area, with sales of 38
cars for that same month. Granting an even number of dealerships, find the
median number of sales the company can expect in a month.
10 32 35 38 40 43 45 150
38 Add the two numbers in the middle to find the total number
+ 40 of sales.

Course Version: 1
39
¯
2 )78
Divide the total number of sales (78) by the number of
6
− _ dealerships (2) for which you need to find the mean. The
18 median sales for the dealerships is 39 cars.
18
− _
The mode is the value that occurs the most in a particular data set. This
method of averaging is most useful when the number of possibilities for
different values is low and you need to know what the majority of values
will be. The most important part of this process is examining the data.
Example 1: The marketing department of a satellite television company

would like to make a special offer for free service for additional televisions
in the home. By knowing the usual number of televisions per home in their
target area, they can choose the right number of free services to offer to
get the most interested households. Here’s the data they collected:
TVs in Household Households

1 50
2 200
3 700
4 65

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5 70
The mode for this data set is 700. Most of the households in the target area
have three televisions. By running an advertising campaign for free service
for two additional televisions, the company will get the most effective return
on their campaign.
If more than one value occurs frequently, the highest values are the
modes.
Example 2: A school offers a series of six classes to bring a student from

beginner to expert. Not all students complete all six classes because not all
students need the highest level of expertise for their curriculum. In planning
for future classes, the school needs to know at what point most students
are done with the series so that the school wouldn’t have to offer as many
sections of subsequent classes. Here are the numbers for a typical group
of 215 students starting in the class series:
Level Completed Non-continuing Students

1 5
2 5
3 100
4 3
5 2
6 100
In this case, because there are two highest values, the data is bimodal
(has two modes). One hundred students finish after level three and 100
students finish after level six. The school can plan to offer just over 200

Course Version: 1
seats in the first three levels, but only a little more than 100 for the last
three levels.
Sometimes a chart of values, such as the one shown, has many, many
entries, but only three or four really high values. In these cases, there may
be three (trimodal) or more modes.
If your data doesn’t have a value that occurs more often than another, then
it doesn’t have a mode.
Regardless of the kind of averaging you use for a particular set of values,
it’s important to know the range of those values. The range is the
difference between the lowest and highest values you’re working with. By
knowing the range and looking at the other numbers in that range as well,
you can determine which method will best work with your data. This, in
turn, will give you the kind of information you need.
When you’re not sure whether you want the mean, the mode, or the
median, remember the following:
When using mean, you want data relatively close in value.

If there’s a large range with many different values, consider calculating
a median.
If most of the data has the same value, then mode is the appropriate
choice.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT

Course Version: 1
Key Points
Business math involves four operations: addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division.
A whole number represents a quantity of whole things, such as 1, 2, 3,
4 and so on, with the smallest whole number being 0 (zero) and no
largest whole number.
In the decimal system, the value of any digit is determined by its
position in a number from right to left, for example the ones position,
tens position, hundreds position and so on.
A rounded number is a close estimate or approximation for a whole
number.
Adding is the process of combining numbers, called addends, to
derive an answer, called the sum.
Subtraction is the process of taking one number (called the
subtrahend) away from another number (called the minuend) to make
a smaller total.
Multiplication is simply a shorthand method of making repeated
additions. The two numbers you multiply are called factors. The factor
you multiply is the multiplicand, the factor you multiply by is the
multiplier, and the result, or the answer, of a multiplication problem is
the product.
Division is the process of finding how many times one number (called
the divisor) is contained within another (called the dividend). The
result of division is called the quotient.
You set up several whole numbers for addition, subtraction, or
multiplication by writing them one under the other in a vertical column,
with the ones digits lined up on the right. Then draw a line under the

Course Version: 1
column of numbers. You write the answer under this line.
If you have to multiply factors that don’t have the same number of
digits, place the larger factor on top.
Begin adding numbers starting with the right most column and working
left. When the digits in one column add up to more than ten, you carry
the value in the tens position to the top of the next column to the left
and add it in to the numbers in that column.
Begin subtracting numbers starting with the right most column and
working left. When the digit in the subtrahend is larger than the digit in
the minuend, you borrow ten from the column to the left, decreasing
this number by one and adding ten to the minuend to create a greater
number.
To check a subtraction result, add the difference (your answer) to the
subtrahend. If the sum of these two numbers equals the minuend,
your subtraction is correct.
The three rules that apply to multiplication are:
1. The product of any number and zero (0) is always zero (0).
2. The product of any number and one (1) is always that same
number.
3. The order in which you multiply two numbers doesn’t change the
product.
Begin multiplying starting with the bottom right number to the top right
number, working your way left on the top number. When the result of
multiplying two numbers is greater than ten, carry the digit to the next
column. You then add the carried number to the next column’s result.
To check a multiplication result, reverse the factors and perform the
multiplication again. If the results match, your multiplication is correct.
Division is the inverse of multiplication. Memorizing the multiplication

Course Version: 1
table will help you complete a division problem.
The three rules that apply to division are:
1. Zero (0) divided by any number is always zero (0).
2. Any number divided by one (1) is equal to that same number.
3. Any number divided by itself equals one (1).
Begin dividing starting with the left most digit in the dividend. If the left
most digit of the dividend is smaller than the divisor, move to the next
digit and use the two digits together as your partial dividend. Subtract
the quotient from the partial dividend and use this value as the tens
place for the next partial dividend in your calculation. Continue dividing
until there are no more digits left in the complete dividend.
To check a division result, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add
any remainder. If the result is the original dividend, your answer is
correct.
The mean (commonly referred to as the average) of a group of
numbers is the sum of all the numbers divided by the number of
addends.
The median is the center number in a group of numbers running from
lowest to highest.
The mode is the value that occurs the most in a data set.
Discover More 1
Questions 1–40: Perform the following calculations:
9
1.
+ 8
7
2.
+ 6

Course Version: 1
4
3.
+ 9
5
4.
+ 8
7
5.
+ 3
22
6.
+ 54
22
7.
+ 54
98
8.
+ 37
243
9.
+ 678
427
10.
+ 369
12
11.
− 8
18
12.
− 9
16
13.
− 7
12
14.
− 5
13
15.
− 6
28
16.
− 13
64
17.
− 31
91
18.
− 79
473
19.
− 384

Course Version: 1
826
20.
− 637
21. 9 × 8 =
22. 6 × 7 =
23. 3 × 9 =
24. 7 × 0 =
25. 5 × 1 =
23
26.
× 3
19
27.
× 4
65
28.
× 21
235
29.
× 16
689
30.
× 236
31. 24 ÷ 6 =
32. 63 ÷ 9 =
33. 72 ÷ 8 =
34. 48 ÷ 6 =
35. 32 ÷ 4 =
¯
36. 4)248
¯
37. 9)4347
¯
38. 23)391
¯
39. 69)13938
¯
40. 162)7614

Course Version: 1
41. You have four manuscripts to type. One manuscript is 12 pages long,
the second is 18 pages long, the third is 8 pages long, and the fourth
is 28 pages long. How many pages in all must you type?
42. During the month of July, the following employees are taking vacation
days:
John 6 days Patricia 4 days
Carl 11 days Jeffrey 9 days
How many vacation days will be taken in July?
43. Last year your company began a new safety program. The year before
the program was instituted, there were 78 job-related accidents. The
year the program was instituted, there were 49 job-related accidents.
The number of accidents was reduced by how many?
44. The attorney for whom you work had 249 clients last year. This year
the attorney had 276 clients. How many more clients did the attorney
have this year?
45. A typist in your office is required to produce 25 error-free pages of
copy each day. How many pages must the typist produce in a five-day
week?
46. Your department is to be recarpeted. The length of the room is 9 yards
and the width is 7 yards. How many square yards of carpeting are
needed for the room? (To find area, or square units, multiply length by
width.)
47. Suppose you’re the administrative assistant to the president of a
corporation that employs 425 people. Your boss asks you to organize
all employees into groups of 25 people each, which will meet once a
month to discuss safety in the workplace. How many groups will there

Course Version: 1
be?
48. As part of your job you spend time each day contacting former
customers. During one week, you contacted 15 people on Monday, 12
on Tuesday, 14 on Wednesday, 11 on Thursday, and 13 on Friday.
What is the average number of customers contacted each day? Which
averaging method did you use?
49. A fund-raising company is putting together a student kit of candy bars
for a school to use in its annual support campaign. To maximize sales,
the company will put more of the most popular candy bar sold in an
average day in each kit. The company’s research shows that of the
five most popular candies, local vending machines sell 100 of Candy
A, 14 of Candy B, 50 of Candy C, 6 of Candy D, and 45 of Candy E on
an average day. Which candy on average is the most popular candy?
Which averaging method did you use?
50. Round off the following numbers to the nearest hundred.
a. 618
b. 472
c. 6,507
d. 12,856
51. Round off the following numbers to the nearest ten.
a. 72
b. 87
c. 165
d. 432
52. Use a calculator to check your answers to problems 1–49.
Discover More Answer Key:

Discover More 1

Course Version: 1
9
1. + 8
17
7
2. + 6
13
4
3. + 9
13
5
4. + 8
13
7
5. + 3
10
22
6. + 54
76
16
7. + 73
89
98
8. + 37
135
243
9. + 678
921
427
10. + 369
796
12
11. − 8
4

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18
12. − 9
9
16
13. − 7
9
12
14. − 5
7
13
15. − 6
7
28
16. − 13
15
64
17. − 31
33
91
18. − 79
12
473
19. − 384
89
826
20. − 637
189
21. 9 × 8 = 72
22. 6 × 7 = 42
23. 3 × 9 = 27
24. 7 × 0 = 0
25. 5 × 1 = 5

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23
26. × 3
69
19
27. × 4
76
65
× 21
28. 65
1300
1365
235
× 16
29. 1410
2350
3760
689
× 236
4134
30.
20670
137800
162604
31. 24 ÷ 6 = 4
32. 63 ÷ 9 = 7
33. 72 ÷ 8 = 9
34. 48 ÷ 6 = 8
35. 32 ÷ 4 = 8
62
¯
36. 4)248

Course Version: 1
483
¯
9 )4347
36
_
74
37. 72
_
27
27
_
0
17
¯
23 )391
23
_
38.
161
161
_
0
202
¯
69 )13938
138
_
39.
138
138
_
0

Course Version: 1
47
¯
162 )7614
648
_
40.
1134
1334
_
0
41. To find the total number of pages, you must add together the number
of pages in each manuscript.
12
18
8
+ 28
66
42. To find the total number of days, add together the number of days for
each employee.
6
4
11
+ 9
30
There will be 30 vacation days taken in July.
43. Subtract the number of accidents after the program was instituted
from the number before the program was instituted.

Course Version: 1
78
− 49
29
There were 29 fewer accidents the year the program was instituted.
44. Subtract the number of clients for the last year from the number of
clients for this year.
276
− 249
27
This year the attorney had 27 more clients.
45. Multiply the number of pages by the number of days.
The typist must produce 125 pages each week.
46. 9 × 7 = 63
25
× 5
125
Recarpeting the department requires 63 square yards.

Course Version: 1
47. Divide the number of employees by the number of people in each
group.
25
¯
17 )425
25
_
175
175
_
0
There will be 17 groups.
48. First find the total number of customers contacted.
15
12
14
11
+ 13
65
Then divide this number by 5 (the number of days).

Course Version: 1
13
¯
5 )65
5
_
15
15
_
0
You contacted an average of 13 customers each day. You used the

mean to average.
49. More of Candy A will be in the box. You used the mode method.
50. a. 600
b. 500
c. 6,500
d. 12,900
51. a. 70
b. 90
c. 170
d. 430
52. After you perform each calculation on the calculator, check your
answers against those you did by hand and against the ones here in
the answer key.

Course Version: 1
problems that contain proper and improper fractions
Fractions
READING ASSIGNMENT
What Is a Fraction?
The word fraction means “broken.” A fraction represents part of a whole

that’s been broken into pieces. Fractions are written in different ways.
1
4
1⁄4 1⁄4
Let’s take a look at the fraction 1⁄5 (one-fifth). The top number (1) is the
numerator, and the bottom number (5) is the denominator. The
denominator tells you how many equal parts the whole unit is divided into.
In the fraction 1⁄5, the denominator of 5 tells you that the whole has been
divided into five equal parts. The numerator tells you how many of these
equal parts are represented by the fraction. The fraction 1⁄5 represents one
of the five parts. Figure below graphically represents fractions with the
denominator of 5.
An image of 5 colorful circle graphs representing 1/5, 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, and 5/5
The shaded area in each circle graphically represents the fraction shown
below it.

Course Version: 1
Kinds of Fractions
There are two kinds of fractions: proper and improper. If the numerator of a
fraction is less than its denominator, then the fraction is less than 1 and is
called a proper fraction. If the numerator is equal to or greater than its
denominator, the fraction is an improper fraction. If the numerator of a
fraction equals its denominator, the fraction equals 1. If the numerator is
greater than the denominator, the fraction represents an amount greater
than 1. Proper and improper fractions are illustrated below.
A third type of fraction you’ll encounter is a mixed number, which consists
of both a whole number and a fraction, such as 13⁄4.
An image of bar graphs showing 2/3, a proper fraction, and 5/3 and 3/3,
improper fractions
Graphic Representation of Proper and Improper Fractions
Reducing Fractions
Reducing fractions makes them easier to understand and to work with.
Take the fraction 18⁄54 as an example. Let’s reduce this fraction.

Course Version: 1
Set up the fraction and determine what number will divide
18
54 evenly into both the numerator and the denominator. (Usually
it’s easiest to start with 2.)
18 ÷ 2 9 Since 2 divides evenly into both numbers, we now have a new
52 ÷ 2 27
= equivalent fraction.
Look at the new fraction to see if you can reduce it further.
9 Neither number can be divided evenly by 2, so let’s try 3.
27
Although 3 will work, there’s an even larger number that goes
into both, 9.
9÷ 9 1 Divide both the numerator and the denominator by 9. The

27 ÷ 9 3
= resulting equivalent fraction is 1⁄3.
The fraction 1⁄3 is much easier to understand and work with than the
fraction 18⁄54, and yet they both stand for the same value—that is, they are
equivalent fractions.
Here are some more examples of how to reduce fractions:
9 9÷ 3 3 21 21 ÷ 7 3 20 20 ÷ 4 5
24 24 ÷ 3 8 77 77 ÷ 7 11 24 24 ÷ 4 6
= = = = = =
When a fraction can’t be reduced any further, it’s said to be in its lowest
terms.
When you solve fraction problems, you’ll often need to change a fraction to
an equivalent fraction with a specific denominator. The following example
illustrates these steps for you.
Example: What fraction with a denominator of 21 is equal to 2⁄3?

Course Version: 1
2 ?
3 21 Set up the problem as shown.
=
21 ÷ 3 = 7 Divide the higher denominator (21) by the lower one (3).
Multiply the quotient (7) by the given numerator (2). The
2 14
3 21
answer (14) is the missing numerator of the second fraction.
7× =
Therefore, the fraction 2⁄3 is equal to 14⁄21.
Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers
An improper fraction is one in which the numerator is larger than the

denominator—for example, 64⁄7. To change such a fraction into a mixed
number, simply treat the fraction like a division problem. The fraction 64⁄7 is
the same as 64 ÷ 7.
The following example illustrates how to change an improper fraction to a

mixed number.
Example: Change the improper fraction 64⁄7 to a mixed number.
¯
7)64 Set up the fraction as a division problem.
9
¯
7 )64
Carry out the division.
63
− _
1

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Write the quotient (9) as the whole number part of your answer.
1 Write the remainder (1) as the numerator of the fraction part of
97 your answer. Write the divisor (7) as the denominator of the
fraction part. Your answer is 91⁄7.
Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions
You’re now going to learn how to reverse the procedure you just used to
change a mixed number to an improper fraction. To do so, you’ll use
multiplication, which makes sense since multiplication is the opposite of
division.
To see how it’s done, let’s use the example from the previous section.
Example: Change 91⁄7 to an improper fraction.
7×9= Multiply the denominator of the fraction (7) by the whole number
63 (9).
63 + 1 = Add the numerator of the fraction to the product obtained in the
64 preceding step.
64 Place the sum (64) over the denominator of the fraction (7). The
7
answer is 64⁄7.
Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Like Fractions
Fractions that have the same denominator are like fractions. For example,
the fractions 2⁄9, 4⁄9, 5⁄9, and 7⁄9 are like fractions because they all have a

Course Version: 1
denominator of 9. Adding and subtracting like fractions is easy. Just follow
these three steps:
1. Add or subtract the numerators. The result is the numerator of your

answer. The denominator remains the same.
2. If the answer is an improper fraction, change it to a mixed number.
3. Reduce the fraction part of your answer to its lowest terms.
Example: Add the fractions 3⁄8 and 1⁄8.
Add the numerators. The sum is the numerator of your answer.

3 1 4
8 8 8 The denominator remains the same. The answer isn’t an
+ =
improper fraction so it can’t be changed to a mixed number.
4 4 1
8 4 2 Reduce the fraction to its lowest form.
÷ =
The answer is 1⁄2.
Example: Subtract 7⁄16 from 13⁄16.
13 7 6 Subtract the numerators. The difference is the numerator of

16 16 16
− = your answer. The denominator remains the same.
6 2 3
16 2 8 Reduce the fraction to its lowest terms.
÷ =
Example: Add the fractions 7⁄8 and 5⁄8.

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7 5 12 Add the numerators. The sum is the numerator of your answer.
8 8 8
+ = The denominator remains the same.
12 4 Since the answer is an improper fraction, change it to a mixed
8
= 18 number.
4÷ 4 1
Reduce the fraction to its lowest terms.
1 8÷ 4 = 1 2
Unlike Fractions
Fractions with different denominators are unlike fractions. For example, the
fractions 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 5⁄8, and 7⁄10 are unlike fractions because their
denominators are different. To add and subtract unlike fractions, you must
first change the fractions so that all have the same denominator. The
denominator should be the lowest common denominator (LCD), which is
the smallest number that can be divided (without a remainder) by all of the
denominators.
One way to find the lowest common denominator is to consider using the
denominator of the fraction with the largest denominator.
Example: Find the lowest common denominator for the fractions 1⁄2, 1⁄4,
and 3⁄8.
Look at the fraction with the largest denominator (8). Ask

1 1 3
2 4 8 yourself if the other denominators (2 and 4) can be evenly
divided into that denominator.

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1 1 3 Since both 2 and 4 can be evenly divided into 8, the lowest
2 4 8
common denominator is 8.
Change the other fractions into equivalent fractions with a
1 4 1 2
2 8 4 8 denominator of 8. Now all the fractions have the same
= =
denominator.
You may find that the largest denominator in the group isn’t the lowest
common denominator.
Example: Find the lowest common denominator for the fractions 3⁄4, 2⁄5,
and 1⁄10.
Look at the fraction with the largest denominator (10). Ask

3 2 1
4 5 10 yourself if the other denominators (4 and 5) can be evenly
divided into that denominator.
Although 5 can be divided evenly into 10, the denominator 4
3 2 1
4 5 10 can’t be. Therefore, we must go to a higher number to find the
lowest common denominator.
Multiply the largest denominator by 2 and ask yourself again if
2 × 10 = the other denominators (4 and 5) can be evenly divided into the
20 denominator. Since both 4 and 5 can be evenly divided into 20,
you know that the lowest common denominator is 20.

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3× 5 15
4× 5 20
=
2× 4 8
5× 4 20
Change all fractions to equivalent fractions with a denominator
=
of 20.
1× 2 2
10 × 2 20
=
If this process doesn’t work, try multiplying the largest denominator by 3,

then 4, and so on until you reach a number that can be evenly divided by
all denominators in the group.
Example: If you worked 1⁄2 hour overtime on Monday and 3⁄4 hour
overtime on Tuesday, how many hours overtime did you work in the two
days together?
To find the answer, you add the fractions 1⁄2 and 3⁄4.
Since the fractions are unlike fractions, you must find the lowest
1 3
2 4 common denominator. In this case, the lowest common
+
denominator is 4 because 2 can be divided evenly into 4.
1 2 2 Change the fraction 1⁄2 to an equivalent fraction with a

2 2 4
× =
denominator of 4.
2 3 5
4 4 4 Add the fractions as you did for like fractions.
+ =
4 4
=1 number. The fraction is already in its lowest form.

Course Version: 1
The answer is 11⁄4. You worked 11⁄4 hours overtime in the two days.
Example: Subtract 3⁄32 from 7⁄8.
7 3 Since the fractions are unlike fractions, you must find the
8 32
− lowest common denominator. In this case, it’s 32.
7 28 Change the fraction 7⁄8 to an equivalent fraction with a
8 32
=
denominator of 32.
28 3 25
32 32 32 Subtract the fractions as you did for like fractions.
− =
Mixed Numbers
As you’ll recall, a mixed number is a combination of both a whole number

and a fraction. For example, 23⁄4, 61⁄2, 229⁄17, and 651⁄8 are mixed
numbers. At times, you may be required to either add or subtract mixed
numbers. Let’s look at how you would do this.
Example: On Monday you worked 31⁄2 hours, and on Tuesday you worked
43⁄4 hours. How many hours did you work all together? To find the answer,
you must add together the mixed numbers 31⁄2 and 43⁄4.
32 Set up the problem as you would any addition

3 problem.
+ 44

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1 2
32 = 3 4 Change the fractions so they have a common

3 3 denominator.
4 4
+ 4 = + 4
2
34
3
Add the fractions.
+ 44
5
4
34
Add the whole numbers. The answer is 75⁄4. Notice
3
+ 44 that the fraction part of this mixed number is an

5 improper fraction—that is, it’s greater than 1.
74
5 1
4 Change the fraction to a mixed number.
= 14
7
1
Add this mixed number to the whole number in
+ 14
your original answer.
1
84
The final answer is 81⁄4. You worked a total of 81⁄4 hours on Monday and
Thursday.
Now let’s look at a subtraction problem involving mixed numbers.
Example: The stock of a company was valued at 81⁄4 on Monday morning.
On Friday afternoon, the same stock was valued at 65⁄8. How much did the

Course Version: 1
price of the stock decrease during that week? To find the answer, you must
subtract 65⁄8 from 81⁄4.
84 Set up the problem as you would any subtraction

5 problem.
8
− 6
1 2
84 = 8 8 Change the fractions so they have a common

5 5 denominator.
−68 = − 68
2
Subtract the fractions first. Since you can’t subtract
88
5⁄ from 2⁄ , you must borrow 1 from the whole
5 8 8
− 68 number.
10
8
Cross off the 8 and change it to a 7. Change the
7
2 whole number 1 to a fraction with a denominator of
8
8 8 (1 = 8⁄8). Add this to the fraction part of the
5
8 minuend (8⁄8 + 2⁄8 = 10⁄8).
− 6
10
7 8
2
8
8
5 Now subtract the fractions (10⁄8 – 5⁄8 = 5⁄8).
8
− 6
5
8

Course Version: 1
10
7 8
2
8
8
5 Finally, subtract the whole numbers.
8
− 6
5
8
1
The answer is 15⁄8. The price of the stock fell 15⁄8 in one week.
Multiplying Fractions
You’ll be pleased to discover that multiplying fractions is much easier and

faster than adding or subtracting them. This is because you can multiply
both like and unlike fractions without changing their denominators.
To multiply one fraction by another, follow these steps:
1. Multiply the numerators and make the product the numerator of the
answer.
2. Multiply the denominators and make the product the denominator of
the answer.
3. Simplify the answer if necessary.
Example: Multiply 3⁄4 by 2⁄3.
Multiply the numerators and make the product the numerator of

the answer.
3 2 6 Multiply the denominators and make the product the
4 3 12
× = denominator of the answer.

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6÷ 6 1
12 ÷ 6 2 Reduce the answer.
=
That was easy, wasn’t it? And the same procedure is followed no matter
what kinds of fractions are involved.
Multiplying Fractions by Whole Numbers
Every whole number can be considered a fraction by placing it over the
number 1. For example, 5 = 5⁄1, 12 = 12⁄1, and 432 = 432⁄1. Therefore, to

multiply any fraction by a whole number, simply convert the whole number
to a fraction and use the multiplication rules you just learned.
Example: You worked 3⁄8 hour overtime three days in a row. How much
overtime did you work all together?
To find the answer, multiply 3⁄8 by 3.
3 3
8 1 Convert the whole number to a fraction by placing it over 1.
×
3 3 9
8 1 8 Multiply as usual.
× =
8
= 18 number.
The answer is 11⁄8. You worked 11⁄8 hours overtime.

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CANCELLATION: A MULTIPLICATION SHORTCUT
When you multiply fractions, you can use the cancellation method—a
shortcut way to arrive at the correct answer. Remember that cancellation
works only for multiplication. Never try cancellation when you add or
subtract fractions. Here’s how it works:
Example:
What is the product of 3⁄4, 7⁄8, and 2⁄3?
Solution 1: Let’s find the answer the way you’ve already learned.
3 7 2 Multiply the numerators and make the product the

4 8 3 42
× × × = numerator of the answer.
3 7 2 42 Multiply the denominators and make the product the
4 8 3 96
× × = denominator of the answer.
42 ÷ 6 7
96 ÷ 6 16 Reduce the answer to its lowest terms.
=
Solution 2: Now let’s find the answer by cancellation.
1 First cross off any pairs of identical numbers

3 7 2
that appear in both the numerator and
4 8 31
requirecancel × × =
denominator. Replace these with 1s.
Divide any numerator and denominator by the
1 1
3 7 2 same number. In this case, we’ll divide the 2 in
4 84 31 the numerator and the 8 in the denominator by
× × =
2.

Course Version: 1
1 1 Now multiply as usual. You come up with the
3 7 2 7
same answer, but now you don’t have to
4 84 31 16
× × =
reduce it.
Important: When you use cancellation, remember to cancel in pairs.

Cancel one numerator and then one denominator. You can’t cancel
numerator to numerator or denominator to denominator.
Multiplying Mixed Numbers
If a mixed number is part of any multiplication problem, simply change it to

an improper fraction and use the procedures you’ve just learned for
multiplying fractions.
Example: Multiply 33⁄5 by 23⁄8.
3 18
Change each of the mixed numbers to improper fractions.
35 = 5
3 19
28 = 8
18 19 Set up the multiplication problem and use cancellation if

5 8
× possible.
9
18 19 171
Multiply as usual.
5 84 20
× =
171 11
20 Change the improper fraction to a mixed number.
= 8 20
Dividing Fractions

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Dividing fractions is almost as easy as multiplying fractions. Here are the
two steps for dividing fractions.
1. The first fraction stays as is and does not change.

2. Change the division sign to a multiplication sign.
3. Take the reciprocal (flip) of the second fraction.
4. Multiply the two fractions together.
Example: Divide 5⁄8 by 1⁄16.
5 1
8 16 Set up the problem.
÷
5 16 Invert the divisor and change it to a multiplication
8 1
× problem.
2
5 16 10
Use cancellation and then multiply.
81 1 1
× = = 10
The answer is 10.
Dividing Fractions by Whole Numbers
Suppose you must divide a measurement of 15⁄16 inch into three equal
sections. What will be the length of each section?
To find the answer, you divide 15⁄16 by 3.
15 3 Change the whole number to an improper fraction by placing it

16 1
÷ over 1.

Course Version: 1
15 1
16 3 Invert the divisor and change it to a multiplication problem.
×
5
15 1 Use cancellation. Divide 3 into one numerator and one
16 31 denominator.
×
5 1 5
× =
The answer is 5⁄16. Each section will be 5⁄16 in. long.
Dividing Whole Numbers by Fractions
The following practical problem will show you how to divide a fraction into a
whole number.
Example: It takes you approximately 2⁄5 hour to complete a client profile. If

you have 10 hours of work left in a week, how many profiles can you do?
To solve this problem, you determine the number of times 2⁄5 goes into 10.
10 2 Change the whole number 10 to an improper fraction by

1 5
÷ placing it over 1.
10 5
1 2 Invert the divisor and change it to a multiplication problem.
×
5
10 5
Use cancellation.
1 21
×
5 5 25
× =
25
1 Change the improper fraction in the answer to a whole number.
= 25

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The answer is 25. You can complete 25 client profiles.
Dividing Mixed Numbers
As in multiplication, you must change mixed numbers to improper fractions

in order to divide them.
Example: What is 61⁄9 ÷ 21⁄7?
1 55
Change each of the mixed numbers to improper fractions.
69 = 9
1 15
27 = 7
55 15
9 7 Set up the division problem.
÷
55 7 Invert the divisor and change it to a multiplication
9 15
× problem.
11
55 7
Cancel if possible.
9 153
×
11 7 77
× =
77 23
27 Change the improper fraction to a mixed number.
= 2 27
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
A fraction represents part of a whole that has been broken into pieces.

Course Version: 1
It is written with two pieces: the number on the top, called the
numerator, and the number on the bottom, called the denominator.
The denominator tells you how many equal parts the whole unit is
divided into and the numerator tells you how many of these equal
parts are represented by the fraction.
There are two types of fractions:
1. Proper – where numerator of a fraction is less than its
denominator, and the fraction is less than one (1).
2. Improper – where the numerator of a fraction is equal to or
greater than its denominator, and the fraction is equal to or
greater than one (1).
You reduce a fraction to lowest terms by finding an equivalent fraction
in which the numerator and denominator are as small as possible.
When there is no number, except one (1), that can be divided evenly
into both the numerator and the denominator, the fraction is said to be
in its lowest terms.
To change an improper fraction to a mixed number (whole number
and a fraction), divide the numerator by the denominator. The quotient
is the whole number and the remainder is the numerator for fraction in
the mixed number.
To change a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole
number by the fraction’s denominator. The product becomes the
numerator in the improper fraction.
Like fractions are fractions that have the same denominator.
To add or subtract like fraction, add or subtract the numerators. If the
result is an improper fraction, change the result to a mixed number.
Unlike fractions are fractions that have a different denominator.
To add or subtract unlike fractions, you must first find the lowest

Course Version: 1
common denominator (LCD) for all the fractions. The LCD is the
smallest number that can be divided (without a remainder) by all the
denominators.
You set up mixed numbers for addition or subtraction by writing them
one under the other in a vertical column, with the fraction lined up on
the right. Then draw a line under the column of numbers. You write the
answer under this line.
To add a mixed number, add the whole number and then add the
fractions. If the sum of the fractions is an improper fraction, change it
to a mixed number and add the whole number portion to the sum of
your whole numbers. Your answer should be in the form of a mixed
number containing a proper fraction.
To multiply a fraction, you create a new fraction from the results of
multiplying the numerators and multiplying the denominators. Once
you have the new fraction, when possible, reduce your fraction to its
lowest terms.
To multiply a fraction by a whole number:
1. Convert the whole number into an improper fraction
2. Multiple the numerators and denominators to create a new
fraction.
3. Convert the new fraction to a mixed number.
To multiply a mixed number by a fraction:
1. Convert the mixed number to an improper fraction.
2. Multiple the numerators and denominators to create a new
fraction.
3. Convert the new fraction to a mixed number.
To divide two fractions, follow these rules:
1. The first fraction stays as is and does not change.

Course Version: 1
5. Reduce the new fraction to its LCD.
To divide a fraction by a whole number:
1. Convert the whole number to an improper fraction by placing it
over a one (1).
5. Reduce the new fraction to its LCD.
To divide a whole number by a fraction:
1. Convert the whole number to an improper fraction by placing it
over a one (1).
5. Change the improper fraction to a mixed number.
Instead of reducing the fraction at the end of the problem, we can
cross-cancel before you begin multiplying or dividing by reducing any
numerator with any denominator.
Discover More 2
Based on your reading, answer the following.
Solve the following problems involving fractions.

Course Version: 1
1. a. 3⁄6 + 2⁄6
b. 11⁄5 + 23⁄10
c. 9⁄11 – 7⁄11
d. 311⁄20 – 14⁄5
e. 1⁄2 × 1⁄3
f. 3 × 5⁄6
g. 3⁄10 ÷ 6⁄10
h. 5⁄9 ÷ 3
i. 11⁄2 × 11⁄3
j. 21⁄2 ÷ 5⁄8
2. Your shop employs seven people. Today two people are sick. What
fraction represents the employees who are sick?
3. Nadine walked 1⁄4 mile and Janet walked 3⁄8 mile. Who walked farther
and by how much? (Hint: First change the fractions so that their
denominators are the same.)
4. On the morning of June 4, the stock of Nagasaki Corporation opened
at a price of $331⁄8 per share. At the end of the day, the price had
risen $41⁄4 per share. What was the price at the end of the day?
5. In your office, 1⁄4 of the 24 employees eat lunch daily at a restaurant.

How many employees eat at a restaurant?
6. A carpet installer needs to calculate the amount of carpet needed to
cover a floor that’s 31⁄2 yards wide and 43⁄4 yards long. What is the
area of the floor? How many square yards of carpeting are needed?

Course Version: 1
(Area = length × width.) (Hint: First change both mixed numbers to
improper fractions.)
7. The Omicron Model 99 television costs $450. During a special sale,
it’s marked 1⁄3 off. How much money will you save buying this TV on
sale?
8. A motor club has estimated that a 325-mile car trip will take 61⁄2
hours. What is the club assuming to be the average speed (miles per
hour)? (Hint: Change the mixed number 61⁄2 to an improper fraction.)

Discover More 2
5
6
1. a. Answer:
3 2 5
6 6 6
Solution: + =
b. Answer: 3 2
Solution:
5 10
3 3
5 1
1 2 10 10
1 =1 +2 = +2 = 3 10 = 3 2
2
11
c. Answer:

Course Version: 1
9 7 2
11 11 11
Solution: =
d. Answer: 1 4
11 11 31 4 16 16 15 3
Solution: 3 20 = 3 20 = 2 20 − 1 5 = − 1 20 = − 1 20 1 20 = 1 4
1
6
e. Answer:
1 1 1
2 3 6
Solution: × =
f. Answer: 2 2
1
5 3 5 5 1
Solution: 6 1 6 2
3× = × = = 22
2
or
5 3 5 15 3 1
6 1 6 6
3× = × = = 26 = 22

Course Version: 1
1
2
g. Answer:
Solution:
1 1
3 6 3 10 1
10 10 10 6 2
÷ = × =
1 2
5
27
h. Answer:
Solution:
5 5 1 5
9 9 3 27
÷3 = × =
i. Answer: 2
Solution:
1 2
1 1 3 4 2
12 × 13 = 2
× 3
= 1
=2
1 1
j. Answer: 4

Course Version: 1
Solution:
1 4
1 5 5 8 5 8 4
22 ÷ 8
= 2
× 5
= 21
× 15
= 1
=4
2
7
2.
3. Janet walked 1⁄8 mile farther.
First change the fractions to like the fractions.
3 3 1 2
8 8 4 8
= =
Subtract the smaller fraction from the larger one.
Janet Nadine
3 2 1
8 8 8
− =
4. $37 8
Add the value per share to the amount of increase.
1 1 1 2 3
33 8 = 33 8 + 4 4 = + 4 8 37 8
5. There are 6 employees who eat lunch daily at a restaurant.

Course Version: 1
Multiply 1⁄4 by 24.
1 24 24 6
4 1 4 1
× = = =6
or
6
6
1 24 6
4 1 1
× = =6
1
6. 16 8 square yards
Change both mixed numbers to improper fractions and multiply.
1 3 7 19 133 5
32 × 44 = 2
× 4
= 8
= 16 8
7. $150
Multiply 1⁄3 by $450.
1 450 450
3 1 3
× = = $150

Course Version: 1
8. 50 miles per hour
Divide the number of miles (325) by the estimated hours (61⁄2).
25
325 2 50
1 131 1
× = = 50

problems that contain decimals
The Importance of Decimals
READING ASSIGNMENT
The Importance of Decimals
Decimals are very useful in daily life. Accountants, for example, deal with
decimals all the time when adding and subtracting columns of dollars and
cents and when calculating taxes. Engineers also use decimals to calculate
distances, angles, and dimensions. Retailers and clerks use decimals
when marking or changing prices. Stockbrokers work with decimals to
determine how much stocks and bonds have gone up or down. Bankers
use decimals to calculate mortgage rates, car loans, and the interest
earned on savings accounts. So you can see, it’s important to know what
decimals are and how to use them.
Decimal Defined

Course Version: 1
A proper fraction is one way to express an amount less than a whole. For
example, 1⁄3 is less than 3⁄3—that is, 1⁄3 is less than 1. Likewise, 2⁄5 is less
than 5⁄5; 2⁄5 is less than 1. A decimal is another way of writing a number
that is less than 1. In other words, a decimal is another way of writing a
proper fraction. A decimal point (.) indicates the beginning of a decimal.
Place Values of Whole Numbers and Decimals
From your study of whole numbers, you’ll recall that each digit represents a
place value. Each place value in a whole number represents a quantity
that’s 10 times greater than the place value to its right. Decimals, too, have
place values, as you can see in Figure below. As shown, the digits to the
left of the decimal point represent a whole number; the digits to the right of
the decimal point represent a decimal, or a number less than 1.
An image of a chart showing place values from one to millions and tenths
to millionths
Place Values of Whole Numbers and Decimals
Adding and Subtracting Decimals
If you know how to add and subtract whole numbers, then you should have

Course Version: 1
no difficulty with decimals since the same rules apply. When adding or
subtracting decimals, however, you must make sure to line up the decimal
points. Here are the steps for adding or subtracting any combination of
whole numbers, decimals, and mixed decimals (whole numbers and
decimals combined).
Step 1: Write the numbers to be added or subtracted so that the decimal

points are in a line, one under the other. (The decimal point in a whole
number is at the end of the number.)
Step 2: If necessary, add zeros to the right so that all decimals have the
same number of place values.
Step 3: Add or subtract the decimals just as you would add whole
numbers, carrying and borrowing as usual.
Step 4: Place the decimal point in the answer directly below the decimal
points in the problem itself.
Study the following examples to be sure you understand how to add and
subtract numbers containing decimals.
1
0.56 0. 56
+ 0.671 + 0. 671
1. 231
0.671 0. 671
− 0.56 − 0. 560
0. 111

Course Version: 1
1 9 9 10
$20. 0 0
− 16.48
3.52
Multiplying Decimals
There may be times when you’ll multiply any of the following combinations:
Two decimals
Two mixed decimals
A whole number and a decimal
A mixed decimal and a decimal
Whatever combination of numbers you’re working with, the multiplication

process remains the same. You just have to learn how to handle the
decimal point in the answer.
Example: If you work 7.5 hrs every day, how many hours do you work in a
normal five-day week?
To find the answer, multiply 7.5 by 5.
Set up the problem and perform the multiplication. Then, to determine

where you place the decimal point, count the total number of decimal
places (digits to the right of the decimal point) in both factors. There’s one
decimal place in the multiplicand and none in the multiplier.
You start at the far right of the answer and count off the total number of
decimal places (in this case, only one). Place the decimal point where you
complete your counting.
In a five-day week, you would work 37.5 hrs.

Course Version: 1
Example: What is 2.58 × .25?
Set up the problem and perform the multiplication as you would for whole
numbers, ignoring the decimal points at first.
Count the total number of decimal places in both factors. Count off the
total number of decimal places in the answer. Place the decimal point
where you complete your counting.
The answer is .6450.
In some cases there won’t be enough places in the answer for you to
correctly place the decimal point. In such cases, you’ll add one or more
zeros in front of the answer.
Example: What is .45 × .17?
Set up the problem and perform the multiplication. Count the number of
decimal places in both factors (2 in the multiplicand plus 2 in the multiplier
= 4). The answer must have four decimal places.
Since the answer has only three places, you must add a zero before the
answer, as shown.
The final answer is .0765.
Multiplication problems involving money work the same way. We often

write money as a decimal or mixed decimal number. We represent money
by dollars and cents. The “cents” part usually has only two decimal places,
as in $0.75, $35.12, and $162.50. When you multiply an amount of money
by a decimal, you still must count the decimal places in both factors to

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determine the placement of the decimal point.
Example: A carpenter needs 85.5 feet of molding for one room. If the
molding costs $.58 per foot, how much will the molding for the room cost?
Set up the problem and multiply as you would for whole numbers.
Count the number of decimal places in both factors and count off the
places in the answer.
The molding for the room will cost $49.590, or $49.59. (Remember, a zero
at the end of a decimal doesn’t change the value of the decimal.)
Dividing Decimals
When the Dividend Is a Decimal
When the dividend of a division problem is a decimal or a mixed decimal,

you use the same procedure for dividing as you did previously. Before you
begin to divide, however, you must place the decimal point in the quotient.
The rule you use for placing the decimal point in a quotient is place the
decimal point of the quotient directly above the decimal point of the
dividend.
Example: Suppose the price of pens is five for $2.00. To calculate the cost
of one pen, you must divide $2.00 by 5.
Set up the problem. Before you begin to divide, place the decimal point in
the quotient directly above the one in the dividend.
Perform the division as you would for whole numbers.
The answer is $.40, the cost of one pen.

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Example: Divide $.25 by 5.
In this problem, you’ll need to use a zero as a place

holder.
This example shows the importance of placing the decimal point in the
quotient before you perform any division. You must fill the space between
the decimal point and the 5. So, you add a zero as a place holder.
When the Divisor Is a Decimal
In all the problems you had so far, the divisor has been a whole number.
When the divisor is a decimal (or a mixed decimal), you must change it to a
whole number before you begin to divide. Here are steps to follow when
dividing by a decimal:
Step 1: Set up the numbers just as you would for dividing whole numbers.
Step 2: Move the decimal point in the divisor so that it’s at the far right of
the divisor. (This makes the divisor a whole number.)
Step 3: Count the number of places that you moved the decimal point in
the divisor.
Step 4: Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places
to the right. Mark this spot with a caret (^).
Step 5: Place the decimal point in the quotient directly above the caret.
Step 6: Divide as you would for whole numbers.

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IMPORTANT
Always move the decimal point the same number of places in both the
divisor and the dividend.
Example: Divide 102 by 4.25.
Set up the numbers as you would for any other division problem.
Move the decimal point in the divisor so that it’s at the end of the divisor.
In this case, move the decimal two places to the right.
Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places. (Note:
The decimal point in a whole number is at the far right of that number.
When you move the decimal point to the right in a whole number, you add
zeros as place holders.) Mark this spot with a caret (^).
Place the decimal point in the quotient directly above the caret.
Then, divide as you would for whole numbers.
The answer is 24.
Rounding Off Quotients
The division problems you solve won’t always result in an even quotient.
The answer may have a remainder and the quotient will, therefore, be
approximate.
Example: Suppose you must divide 104 by 4.25.
Notice, when you complete the division, you’re left with a remainder of
200.

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If you wish, you can continue the division beyond the decimal point. The
more digits an approximate number has, the more accurate it is. However,
since some division could go on indefinitely, we set a limit on the number
of decimal places in an approximate number. Let’s say you want to carry
this out so that it’s accurate to two decimal places. Here’s how you would
do it:
Set up the problem and perform the division as you did before.
Add three zeros after the decimal point and bring down the first zero.
Continue the division until you’ve worked out the next three decimal
places.
You always carry out your division to one decimal place beyond the
desired number. In this case, you want your answer to be accurate to two
decimal places, so you carry out the division to three decimal places. Now
you’ll round off the decimal to two places.
Here are the steps you follow to round off a number:
Step 1: Find the digit you want to round to. (It may help if you circle this
digit.)
Step 2: Look at the digit immediately to the right of the circled digit.
Step 3: If the digit to the right is 5 or more, then round up by increasing the
circled digit by 1. If the digit to the right is less than 5, you round down—
you don’t change the circled digit.
Step 4: Drop all digits (including zeros) to the right of the rounded digit.
Example: Let’s round off the following answer to the nearest hundredths

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(two decimal places).
Find the digit you want to round to and circle it. In this case, you
24.470 round to the nearest hundredth. Since 7 is in the hundredths place,
you circle it.
24.470 Next, look at the digit to the right of the circled digit. The digit is 0.
Since 0 is less than 5, you round down—don’t change the circled
24.470
digit.
24.47 Finally, drop all digits to the right of the rounded number.
The answer rounded to the nearest hundredth is 24.47.
Example: Round .853 to the nearest tenth.
.8
First, circle the digit in the tenths place.
53
.8
Next, look at the digit to the right of the circled digit.
53
Since the digit to the right of the circled digit is 5, round up by
increasing the circled digit by 1.
Then, drop all digits to the right of the rounded number. The answer is
.9
.9.
Calculator Tip: If a division problem doesn’t come out evenly, your

calculator will continue to divide until the window is full. When this occurs,
simply round off your answer to the correct number of decimal places. For
example, use your calculator to solve the problem 639 ÷ 7. The answer is
91.285714. If you wish to round off your answer to two decimal places, the

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answer would be 91.29. The advantage to having the calculator carry out
the division to a large number of decimal places is that your answer is very
accurate.
When using a calculator to add or subtract decimals, follow the same

procedure as you did for whole numbers. Just remember to key in the
decimal point at the correct place. Before you go on, try adding and
subtracting a few decimals.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Like a fraction, a decimal is way of writing a number that is less than

one (1).
A decimal point (.) indicates the beginning of a decimal.
Digits to the left of the decimal point represent a whole number; the
digits to the right of the decimal point represent a decimal, or a
number less than one (1).
When adding or subtracting decimals, write the numbers to be added
or subtracted so that the decimal points are in a line, one under the
other.
To multiply decimals:
1. Multiply the numbers just like whole numbers.
2. Count the total number of decimal places (digits to the right of the
decimal point) in both factors.
3. Start at the far right of your result and count off the total number
of decimal places. Place the decimal point where you complete
your counting.

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Money is often expressed as a decimal number with the cents portion
of the amount having two decimal places.
You divide decimal numbers the same as whole numbers, except you
have a decimal point in the dividend and place a decimal point in the
quotient directly above the decimal point of the dividend.
To divide by a decimal or mixed decimal:
1. Set up the numbers just as you would for dividing whole
numbers.
2. Move the decimal point in the divisor so that it’s at the far right of
the divisor, making the divisor a whole number.
3. Count the number of places that you moved the decimal point in
the divisor.
4. Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of
places to the right. Mark this spot with a caret (^).
5. Place the decimal point in the quotient directly above the caret.
6. Divide as you would for whole numbers.
If your quotient is not an even number, you can continue to divide
beyond a decimal point.
For quotients where you can continue dividing the remainder for many
decimal places, you can round off the decimal.
Discover More 3
1. Add the following numbers:
a.

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b.
c.
d.
2. Add the following numbers:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Complete the following problems involving decimals:
3. A stockholder owns 381.881 shares. By the end of the year, he had

increased his number of shares by 14.814. What is the total number of
shares owned by the stockholder?
4. Last week a sales representative earned a salary of $412.56 and a
commission of $72.48. How much did she earn in all?
5. Joan deposited a check for $48.51 in her checking account. If the
previous balance was $381.49, how much money does Joan now
have in the account?
6. Complete the following subtraction problems:
a.
b.

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c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
7. How much change should a customer get back on a $35.17 purchase
if she pays with a $50 bill?
8. The U.S. Census found that the population per square mile in the
state rose from 128.7 to 191.3 during the last 10 years. By how much
did the population grow per square mile?
9. Complete the following multiplication problems:
a.
b.
c.
d.
10. In a country where prices are rising quickly, bread that now costs
$2.39 will cost 2.4 times as much next year. How much will the bread
cost next year? (Round your answer to the nearest cent.)
11. Jan can type 61.3 words per minute. How many words can she type
during a 15-minute test?
12. Divide, rounding the answers to the nearest hundredth (two decimal
places).

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a. 0.61 ÷ 0.57
b. 7.8 ÷ 25
c. 492 ÷ 2.3
d. 74.3 ÷ 3.8
e. 62.4 ÷ 0.47
f. 7.13 ÷ 0.99
13. A magazine has a special offer of 18 issues for $28.44. How much
does each issue cost?
14. Bently Manufacturing Company wants to rent a private club for its
annual dance. The total cost will be $5,062.50. If the committee
charges $40.50 per couple, how many couples need to attend in order
to cover the cost?
15. Use your calculator to check your answers to problems 1–14.

Discover More 3
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
2. a.
b.

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c.
d.
3.
At the end of the year he would have 396.695 shares.
4.
The sales representative earned $485.04 in all.
5.
Joan now has $430.00 in her account.
6. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

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h.
7.
The customer would receive $14.83 in change.
8.
The population grew 62.6 persons per square mile.
9. a.
b.
c.
d.
10.
The bread will cost $5.74.
11.
Jan can type 919.5 words in a 15-minute test.
12. a.
b.

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c.
d.
e.
f.
13.
Each issue costs $1.58.
14.
To cover the cost, 125 couples need to attend the dance.
1.4 Solve problems with percentages such as calculations

for base rate, discounts, and sales tax
Percentage in Business
READING ASSIGNMENT
Percentage in Business
The word percent is used so frequently in everyday life that you’re no doubt
already familiar with its meaning. You must also be able to handle
calculations dealing with percentages. Such calculations are needed to

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express profits, losses, depreciation, discounts, and many other business
operations. Percent is a shortened form of the Latin words per centum,
meaning “by the hundred.” The sign for percent is %. Thus, 2% is read
“two percent,” or 2 out of 100.
Working with Percentages
Before you begin to solve problems that involve percentages, you must be
able to change percentages to decimals and fractions, and you must be
able to change decimals and fractions to percentages. Let’s take a look at
how these operations are performed.
Changing Percentages to Decimals
To change any percentage to a decimal, follow these steps:
Step 1: Drop the percentage sign.
Step 2: Move the decimal point two places to the left. Add zeros as
placeholders if necessary.
Example: Change each percentage to a decimal.
Drop the Percent Move the Decimal

Percent Equivalent Decimal
Sign Point
45% 45 45. .45
1% 1 01. .01
31.5% 31.5 31.5 .315
150% 150 150. 1.5
Changing Decimals to Percentages

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You’ve just learned how to change a percentage to a decimal. Now, you’ll
learn how to do the reverse process. To change any decimal or mixed
decimal to a percentage, follow these steps:
Step 1: Move the decimal point two places to the right, adding zeroes as
placeholders if necessary.
Step 2: Add a percentage sign.
Note: These steps are just the reverse of the steps for changing a percent
to a decimal.
Example: Change each decimal or mixed decimal to a percentage.
Move the Decimal Add the %

Decimal
Point Sign
.85 .85 85%
.356 .356 35.6%
.039 .039 3.9%
7.3 7.30 730%
Changing Percentages to Fractions
To change any percentage to a fraction or a mixed number, follow these

steps:
Step 1: Drop the percentage sign.
Step 2: Use the number as the numerator of the fraction. The denominator
is always 100.

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Step 3: Reduce the fraction to its simplest form, if necessary.
Example: Change 48% to a fraction.
48 Drop the percentage symbol.

Use the number 48 as the numerator of the fraction, and make the
denominator 100.
Reduce the fraction. Answer: 48% equals the fraction 12⁄25.
Example: Change 175% to a mixed number.
175 Drop the percentage symbol.

Use the number 175 as the numerator and make the denominator
100.
Reduce the fraction. Answer: 175% equals the mixed number 13⁄4.
Changing Fractions to Percentages
So far, so good! Now, what if you want to change a fraction to a

percentage? Here are the steps you should follow:
Step 1: If the given number is a mixed number, change it to an improper

fraction. Otherwise, go directly to Step 2.
Step 2: Divide the numerator of the fraction by the denominator. This will
change the fraction to a decimal.
Step 3: To change the resulting decimal to a percentage, move the

decimal point two places to the right.

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Step 4: Add the percentage sign.
Example: Change 1⁄4 to a percentage.
Divide the numerator (1) by the denominator (4).

.25 Move the decimal point two places to the right.
Add a percentage sign. Answer: The fraction 1⁄4 equals

25%
25%.
Example: Change 3⁄8 to a percentage.
Divide the numerator by the denominator.

.375 Move the decimal point two places to the right.
Add a percentage sign. Answer: The fraction 3⁄8 equals

37.5%
37.5%.
Example: Change the mixed number 41⁄2 to a percentage.
Change 41⁄2 to an improper fraction.

Then, divide the numerator (9) by the denominator (2).
Move the decimal point two places to the right. You’ll need to use a
4.50
zero as a placeholder.
Add a percentage sign. Answer: The mixed number 41⁄2 equals

450%
450%.
The Vocabulary of Percentages
Most percentage problems involve three numbers—the rate, the base, and

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the percentage. The connection between these numbers can be expressed
in an equation, or formula, as
R×B=P
The R in this equation stands for the rate, the B for the base, and the P for
the percentage. Let’s take a closer look at each of these terms.
Rate. In percentage problems, the rate is expressed either by the word

percent or by the symbol %. Therefore, the rate is usually very easy to
identify in a problem. For example, suppose you’re told that 6% sales tax is
charged on a purchase. The rate is 6%.
Base. The term base refers to the whole amount to which the rate is
applied. The base most often follows the word “of.” For example, if a
problem asks you to find 25% of 60, the number 60 is the base.
Percentage. The percentage is the part of the base, or part of the whole,
that you’re often asked to calculate. It’s the number that results from
multiplying the base by the rate.
In almost all percentage problems, you’ll be given two of the three numbers
(rate, base, or percentage) and asked to find the unknown third number.
For example, if you’re given the rate and the base, you must find the
percentage. If you’re given the percentage and the base, you must find the
rate.
Depending on what number you need to find, you’ll use a certain

arrangement of the formula R × B = P. The three arrangements of the
formula you’ll need to solve percentage problems.

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PERCENT FORMULAS
Use the
To Find:
Formula:
Percentage (P) P = R × B
Rate (R) R=P÷B
Base (B) B=P÷R
Solving Percentage Problems
Let’s take a look at three different examples that illustrate percentage

problems. In each example, you’re required to calculate a different element
of the percentage formula: first the percentage, second the rate, and finally
the base.
Finding the Percentage
Example: Mr. Gomez earns a 9% commission on every item he sells at

Wademan’s Appliance Store. During one week he sold $3,560 worth of
appliances. What was his commission for the week?
Solution: You’re given the base ($3,560) and the rate (9%). Find the
percentage.
P=R×B Select the correct formula.

P = .09 × Substitute the known values. (Change the rate to a
$3,560 decimal first.)
Perform the calculation. Answer: The commission is
$320.40.

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Finding the Rate
Example: Samuel Berk operates a small business. Last month, Sam had
business income of $4,500, and he spent $250 on advertising. What’s his
rate of spending on advertising?
Solution: To answer this question, you must determine what percent of his
income Sam spends on advertising. You’re given the base ($4,500) and
the percentage ($250) in this problem, so find the rate.
R=P÷
Select the correct formula.
B
R=
$250 ÷ Substitute the known values in the formula.
$4,500
Perform the calculation and round to the nearest thousandth.
Change the resulting decimal into a percentage. Move the
.056 =
decimal point two places to the right. Answer: Sam’s rate of
5.6%
advertising spending is 5.6%.
Finding the Base
Example: Clarence bought a coat on sale for $98. This sale price was 70%
of the original price. What was the original price?
Solution: Look at the information you’re given. You know that the rate (R) is
70%. You also know that $98 is the percentage (P) because it’s part of the
original price. Find the base (B), which is the total original price.

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B=P÷
Select the formula.
R
B = $98 Substitute the values into the formula. (Be sure to change the rate
÷ .70 to a decimal. 70% equals .70 as a decimal.)
Perform the calculation. Answer: The original price of the coat
was $140.
Discounts
You’ve probably seen many advertisements of special sales. Usually, the

sale offers certain articles at a reduced price. For example:
Men’s jackets reduced 25%
The reduction in price is called a discount, or a markdown. The original

price at which goods are sold, without any reduction, is the marked price.
The price at which the goods are sold is the selling price. When there’s no
discount, the selling price and the marked price are the same.
Retail discounts like those just mentioned are often expressed in percent.
For example, how can you find the selling price of a chair marked $75
subject to a discount of 20%?
This problem is really a simple matter of finding the percentage and then
subtracting it from the original price. Use the formula P = R × B to find the
percentage.
P = .20 × 75 = $15.00
To determine the selling price, subtract the result from the original price.

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Discount Series
Often several discounts are quoted by a wholesaler. When there’s more

than one discount, the discounts are called a discount series. The first
discount is a percent of the list price. The second discount is a percent of
the remainder after the first discount has been subtracted from the list
price, and so on. To find the selling price, multiply the list price by the first
percent and subtract the discount from the list price. Compute the second
discount using the first remainder as a base, and subtract it from the first
remainder. Repeat this process, using each remainder as the base for
computing the next discount. The last remainder is the selling price.
Example: Find the selling price of an item listed at $300 subject to

discounts of 40%, 10%, and 5%.
Solution:
List price $300.00

Less first discount (40% of $300) – 120.00
Remainder after first discount 180.00
Less second discount (10% of
– 18.00
180)
Remainder after second discount 162.00
Less third discount (5% of 162) – 8.10
Selling price (answer) $153.90
Example: On a bill of goods amounting to $720, discounts of 30%, 10%,

and 5% are allowed. What is the selling price?

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Solution:
List price $720.00

Less second discount (10% of 504) – 50.40
Less third discount (5% of $453.60) – 22.68
Selling price (answer) $430.92
Reducing a Series to a Single Discount
When a discount series is allowed, most people reduce it to a single

discount so they can get the final selling price in one operation. If there are
a great number of bills to be figured, you can see how this shorter method
will save a lot of labor. Fortunately, it’s a very simple matter to express a
discount series as a single discount:
Subtract each rate of discount from 100%.

Multiply the remainders together.
Subtract this product from 100%. The remainder will be the single
discount.
Let’s recalculate the last two example problems using this method. In our
first example, we wanted to find the selling price of an item listed at $300,
which is subject to discounts of 40%, 10%, and 5%. To find the selling
price by reducing the discount series to a single discount, first subtract
each of the discount rates from 100%. This leaves 60%, 90%, and 95%,
respectively. Then, convert these percentages to decimal form and follow

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this procedure:
0.60 × 0.90 × 0.95 = 0.513
100% = 1.00
1.00 – 0.513 = 0.487
0.487 × 300 = 146.10
300 – 146.10 = 153.90
Thus, the discount allowed is $146.10, and the selling price is $153.90, the
same amount calculated using the first method.
In the second example, we wanted to find the selling price of a bill of goods
amounting to $720, on which discounts of 30%, 10%, and 5% were
allowed. Subtracting each of the given discount rates from 100% leaves
70%, 90%, and 95%. After converting these percentages to decimal form,
proceed this way:
0.70 × 0.90 × 0.95 = 0.5985
100% = 1.00
1.00 – 0.5985 = 0.4015
0.4015 × 720 = 289.08
720 – 289.08 = 430.92
We’ve determined that the discount is $289.08, leaving a selling price of

$430.92, which agrees with the first solution.

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Markups and Selling Prices
When goods are sold, they’re priced to cover the wholesale cost of an item
—the cost of doing business and making a profit. To figure the selling
price, or marked price, the retailer adds a markup to the wholesale cost of
the item. In most cases, the markup is expressed as a percentage.
Example: A retailer buys bolts wholesale from the manufacturer for $1.20
apiece. The markup is 10%. What will be the selling price of each bolt?
Solution: First, figure the dollar amount of the markup using the base
($1.20) and the rate (10%) by choosing the correct formula.
P=R×B Select the formula.

P = .10 × 1.20 Substitute the values into the formula.
Perform the calculation.
$1.20 + .12 = Now add the markup amount ($.12) to the wholesale cost
$1.32 of the goods.
The bolts are sold for $1.32 apiece.
Sales Taxes
Sales taxes are figured in a similar manner to markups—by adding a

percentage of the total sale to the total sale price. Thousandths are usually
rounded to the nearest penny. However, it’s important to note that each
state has its own system of taxation. For example, some states tax only
goods sold. Other states have different taxes for different products.
Fortunately, modern cash registers automatically calculate the tax only on
taxable goods and/or services as well as the grand total of taxable items,

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nontaxable items, and the tax amount. However, knowing how to figure
taxes is a valuable skill.
Example 1. You must order some new office equipment with a budget of
$10,000.00, taxes included. The total price of the equipment comes to
$9,500.00. Your state has a 6% sales tax. Can you make this purchase
and stay within your budget?
Find the price of the taxes.

Add the price of the equipment and the price of the taxes to find the total
cost.
You’re over budget! You’ll have to renegotiate either your budget or the
cost of the equipment.
Example 2. You’re ready to check out at the grocery store and their
credit/debit card readers are down. Your checkbook is at home. You can
use only the $20.00 cash in your pocket. Your state charges no sales tax
on food, but 5% sales tax on nonfood merchandise. Before you get in line,
you want to make sure you have enough cash for everything in your
grocery cart. In your cart, you have
Chicken $6.95
Rice $1.39
Milk $2.50
Detergent $7.99

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Figure taxes on the nonfood
item.
Add all of the charges together.
Yes, you have enough cash to get everything in your cart.
Percent of Increase and Decrease
Certain values change from year to year, even from day to day. Total sales
go up or down, prices rise and fall, the values of machines and equipment
depreciate, and the values of investments increase.
Suppose someone told you that the price of an item increased by one
dollar. What does this information tell you? Not much, unless you know
what the item is and how much it originally cost. For example, if the item
was a candy bar that originally sold for 50 cents, then a $1 price increase
would be very significant. On the other hand, if the item was a vacuum
cleaner that originally sold for $99, then the $1 price increase would be
insignificant.
This is where percents can be very useful. If the person told you the
percent of the price increase, the information would be more meaningful.
So, if the person was talking about the 50-cent candy bar, the one-dollar
price rise—to $1.50—would have been a 200% increase. If the person was
referring to a one-dollar price rise on the $99 vacuum cleaner—to $100—
the increase would have been about 1%. See how much difference this
information makes?
To find the percent of increase on decrease, follow these steps:

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Step 1: The problem will give you two amounts (prices, values, etc.).
Subtract the smaller given amount from the larger given amount.
Step 2: Divide the difference by the starting amount given (the original
price or value before the increase or decrease happens).
Step 3: Change the decimal in the quotient to a percent.
Example: Last year the cost of Ahmad’s car insurance was $630. This
year he had two accidents, so the insurance company raised his yearly bill
to $1,008. What was the percent of increase in Ahmad’s car insurance?
Solution: Follow the steps above to find the percent of increase.
$1,008 –
$630 = Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
$378
Divide the difference by the starting amount ($630).
Change the quotient to a percent by moving the decimal point
.60 =
two places to the right. Answer: The cost of Ahmad’s insurance
60%
increased by 60%.
Example: Coaches’ Corner Sporting Goods had a sale on athletic shoes.

Their top-of-the-line basketball shoe usually sells for $90. During the sale,
the same model sold for $72. What percent was the shoe discounted for
the sale?
Solution: Follow the steps above to find the percent of decrease.

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$90 –
$72 = Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
$18
Divide the difference by the starting amount ($90).
.20 = Change the quotient to a percent by moving the decimal point two
20% places to the right. Answer: The percent of the discount was 20%.
Cash Discounts
Businesses frequently allow a discount for prompt payment. Such

discounts are called cash discounts. An invoice for goods upon which such
a discount applies will have a notation on it something like this:
Terms: 3/10, n/30
This is read “three percent, ten days; net, thirty days.” In other words, the
net amount is due within 30 days, but a discount of 3% is allowed if the bill
is paid within 10 days.
Here’s another example:
Terms: 3/10, 1/30, n/60
This means that you may deduct 3% if you pay within 10 days. If you pay
after 10 days but before 30 days, you may deduct 1%. If you make
payment after 30 days, you must pay the net amount before 60 days have
expired.
Naturally, the amount of a cash discount can’t be shown on an invoice

because the seller doesn’t know when you’ll pay the bill. For this reason,
you must compute whatever cash discount is due you on the invoice cost

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when you pay the bill.
In such problems, you’re given the base (the net amount of the bill) and the
rate (the discount) and you must calculate the percentage. Use the formula
P = R × B. Then simply subtract this percentage from the net amount of the
invoice.
Shipping Charges
Another fee that affects the net cost of goods to the buyer is the cost of
shipping the merchandise. Who pays this charge is a very important
question. You’ve probably seen or heard of the abbreviation F.O.B., which
stands for “free on board.” It means that the shipper will pay transportation
charges to the place named. For example, if a Philadelphia concern sells
goods “F.O.B. Philadelphia,” they will deliver the goods to the freight yard
in Philadelphia. The buyer must pay the charges from that point. If this
same firm were to sell goods “F.O.B. destination,” it would pay all the
freight charges to the destination selected by the buyer.
Example: How much would you have to pay for an item that sells for $250,
F.O.B. factory? The terms are 2/10, freight, $28. (Assume that you pay the
invoice in less than 10 days.)
Since you’re paying in less than 10 days, you can deduct 2% from the
invoice. Calculate 2% of $250.
Deduct the 2% ($5) from the amount of the invoice.
Add the shipping charges to the discounted amount. You can’t deduct 2%
from the shipping charges; therefore, you must add them last.
The total amount you must pay is $273.

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Calculator Applications: Percentage
Using a calculator to solve percentage problems is just like using it to

calculate decimals. For example, suppose you must find 32% of 96. To do
this by hand, you would multiply as follows:
.32 × 96
You already know how to perform this calculation by hand and on the
calculator.
Some calculators have a % key that can be used when solving problems
involving percentages. However, it may be useful to become accustomed
to turning your percentages into decimals and inputting them into the
calculator that way.
Percentage Versus Percentile
It’s important to know the difference between percentage and percentile.

Percentile is most often used to show where something falls in a
comparison ranking. Suppose, after an evaluation, subjects are ranked by
how well they performed during the evaluation, from lowest to highest
score. If the scores are reported as percentages, this tells us how well
each subject did on the evaluation. However, percentile shows how well a
given subject did compared to the others who were evaluated.
Example: Along with her classmates at a very good school, Sara took a
licensing exam to evaluate the knowledge she had gained in her field. She
scored in the 75th percentile for her school, meaning 75% of the test takers
did as well or worse than Sara. This also means that 25% did better than
Sara.

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The hiring manager wasn’t sure that Sara knew enough to fill the position
for which she was licensed. Fortunately for Sara, her percentage of correct
answers was also on the scoring report. Sara had answered 95% of the
test questions correctly. The hiring manger was now confident that Sara
had the requisite knowledge.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Percent is a shortened form of the Latin words per centum, meaning

“by the hundred.”
The symbol used to designate a percentage is %.
Percentages must be changed into decimals prior to performing math
problems with them.
To change a percentage to a decimal:
1. Drop the percentage sign.
2. Move the decimal point two places to the left.
3. Add zeros as placeholders if necessary.
To change a decimal to a percentage:
1. Move the decimal point two places to the right.
2. Add zeros as placeholders if necessary.
3. Add a percentage sign.
To change any percentage to a fraction or a mixed number:
1. Drop the percentage sign.
2. Use the number as the numerator of the fraction. (The
denominator is always 100.)

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3. Reduce the fraction to its simplest form, if necessary.
To change a fraction to a percentage:
1. If the number is a mixed number, change it to an improper
fraction.
2. Divide the numerator of the fraction by the denominator.
3. Move the decimal point two places to the right.
4. Add the percentage sign.
Most percentage problems involve three numbers—the rate (R), the
base (B), and the percentage (P).
The rate is expressed either by the word percent or by the symbol %.
The base refers to the whole amount to which the rate is applied,
typically expressed as a number after the word “of.”
The percentage is the calculated portion of the base.
To calculate the percentage (P), multiply the rate (R) by the base (B):
R x B = P.
To calculate the rate (R), divide the percentage (P) by the base (B): R
= P ÷ B.
To calculate the base (B), divide the percentage (P) by the rate (R): B
= P ÷ R.
A reduction in price is called a discount or a markdown, and is often
expressed as a percentage.
A discount series is more than one discount, where the first discount
is a percent of the list price. The second discount is a percent of the
remainder after the first discount has been subtracted from the list
price, and so on.
To convert a discount series to a single discount:
1. Subtract each rate of discount from 100%.
2. Multiply the remainders together.

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3. Subtract this product from 100%. The remainder is the single
discount.
The selling price of an item is the wholesale price plus a markup
percentage.
To calculate sales tax, you add a percentage of the total sale to the
total sale price.
States vary in the amount of sales tax they charge and the items they
charge sales tax on.
A discount for prompt payment is called a cash discount and is
typically noted on an invoice similar to “Terms: 3/10, n/30,” which
states the net amount is due within 30 days, but a discount of 3% is
allowed if the bill is paid within 10 days.
Free on board (F.O.B.) means that the shipper pays transportation
charges to the place named.
To use a calculator to calculate percentages, you can either turn the
percentage into a decimal or use the calculator’s percent key.
Percentile is used to show where something falls in a comparison
ranking.
Discover More 4
1. Change each fraction to a percent.

a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Change each percent to a decimal.
a. 43%

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b. 2.5%
c. 13.6%
d. 521%
3. Change each decimal to a percent.
a. .73
b. .023%
c. .176%
d. 2.415
4. Change each percent to a fraction or a mixed number. Reduce if
possible.
a. 3%
b. 51%
c. 289%
d. 325%
5. Find the following percentages:
a. 15% of 930
b. 6% of 120
c. 4.2% of 50
d. 200% of 145
6. Find the following rates. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
a. ?% of 75 = 5
b. ?% of 28 = 20
c. ?% of 100 = 40
d. ?% of 200 = 50
7. Find the following bases:
a. 8% of ? = 20
b. 75% of ? = 30
c. 20% of ? = 45

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d. 150% of ? = 36
8. The sales tax rate in a certain state is 8%. How much would you pay
in total for a taxable item that costs $25.25?
9. Alicia answered 20 out of 25 problems correctly on a test. What
percent did she get correct?
10. Calculate the discount on each of the following:
Marked
Discount
Price
$100 12% a. _______
$75 20% b. _______
$60 25% c. _______
$72.80 15% d. _______
$150 8% e. _______
11. What is the selling price of an article that lists at $1500 subject to
discounts of 40%, 25%, and 10%?
12. If you’re currently making $10.50 per hour and you’re offered a new
job that pays $11.75 per hour, what will be your percent of increase in
pay?
13. Find the price you would have to pay for the following item: radio
$500, F.O.B. factory; less 30%, 10%, 5%; terms: 2/10; freight $62.
(Assume that you pay the invoice as soon as you receive it.)
14. You’ve bought 20 calculators listed at $125 each less 15%. The date
of the invoice was June 28, and you paid the bill on July 6. What
amount did you pay if the terms were 3/10, n/60?
15. A coat was marked down from $325 to $275. What was the percent of
discount?

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16. Use your calculator to check your answers to problems 1–15.

Discover More 4
1. a. 6%
b.
= 37.5%
c. 357%
d. 100%
2. a. .43
b. .025
c. .136
d. 5.21
3. a. 73%
b. 2.3%
c. 17.6%
d. 241.5%
4. a.
b.
c.
d.
5. a.

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b.
c.
d.
6. a. ? = 5 ÷ 75
b. ?% = 20 ÷ 28
c. ?% = 40 ÷ 100
d. ?% = 50 ÷ 200
7. a. ? = 20 ÷ .08
b. ? = 30 ÷ .75
c. ? = 45 ÷ 20

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d. ? = 36 ÷ 1.5
8. First find the amount of sales tax and then add it to the cost of the
item.
You would pay $27.27 for the item.
9. The problem is one of finding the rate. Use the formula
R = P ÷ B.
R = 20 ÷ 25
Alicia got 80% of the problems correct.
10. a.
b.

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c.
d.
e.
11.
List price
$1500.00
Less first discount (40% of $1500)
– 600.00
Remainder after first discount
900.00
Less second discount (25% of 900)
– 225.00
Remainder after second discount
675.00
Less third discount (10% of
– 67.50
675.00)
$ 607.50
Selling price (answer)
12. Subtract the smaller given amount from the larger given amount.
Divide the difference by the starting amount and change the quotient
to a percent.
13. First find the selling price of the radio.

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List price $ 500.00
Less second discount (10% of –
350) 35.00
Less third discount (5% of 315.00) – 15.75
Selling price (answer) $ 299.25
Then calculate the discount for paying within 10 days and subtract this
from the selling price.
Finally, add the freight charges. Notice that it’s F.O.B. factory, which
would mean that you would have to pay the shipping from the factory
to you.
14. First calculate the cost of 20 calculators at $125 each.
Then calculate the price with the 15% discount.

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Cost $2500.00
Less discount (15% of –
2500) 375.00
Price after discount $2125.00
Since you’re paying within 10 days, you can take an additional 3%

discount.
$2125.00
Discounted price
–
Less discount for early payment (3% of $2125)
63.75
Final price
$2061.25
15. Subtract the smaller given amount from the larger given amount.
Divide the difference by the starting amount and change the quotient
to a percent.
= 15.38%
1.5 Use the proper procedures for calculating deductions

from a paycheck (federal, state, and local taxes,
hospitalization, union dues, and pension costs) to find net
pay
Earning Money

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READING ASSIGNMENT
Earning Money
As you know, an employee is any person who earns money, or wages, to

do work for another person or company. The employer is the person or
company who pays the employee. The employee’s pay may be based on
hourly wages, piecework wages, salary, commission, or some combination
of these methods. The employee may also be paid overtime for working
more than his or her usual amount of hours per day or week. The amount
of money earned in a pay period is called gross pay.
Hourly Wages
To calculate the amount earned by an employee who works for hourly

wages, simply multiply the number of hours worked by the hourly rate.
Example: John works the following hours in one week:
Monday 6 hours
Tuesday 8 hours
Wednesday 8 hours
Thursday 10 hours
Friday 10 hours
Total 42 hours
Find John’s gross pay if his pay rate is $8.50 per hour.
Solution: To find John’s gross pay, multiply the total hours worked by the
hourly rate.

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$
Hourly Rate
8.50
Total Hours
×
Multiply
42
1700
Place the decimal in the
+ 34000
product.
357.00
Answer: John makes $357.00.
Overtime
Many companies pay a higher hourly wage for working overtime—that is,
more than 40 hours a week. A common overtime rate is time and a half.
This means that employees will be paid 1.5 times their hourly rate for
overtime hours.
Example: Let’s say John works for a company that pays time and a half for
any hours over 40 in any particular week. Determine his gross pay.
Solution: First, you would determine John’s overtime rate. Then, you would
multiply this rate by the number of overtime hours. Finally, add these
overtime wages to his regular wages to find John’s gross pay.
Multiply John’s hourly rate by 1.5 to determine his overtime rate.
Place a decimal in the product. John’s overtime rate is $12.75.

42 − 40 Subtract 40 from the number of hours John worked to determine
=2 his overtime hours.

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Multiply his overtime rate by his overtime hours.
Place a decimal in the product. John makes $25.50 for his

overtime hours.
Multiply 40 by John’s hourly rate to find his regular wages.
Place a decimal in the product. John makes $340.00 for his

regular hours.
Finally, add John’s regular wages to his overtime wages.
Answer: John earns $365.50.
Sometimes a company pays overtime based on the number of hours

worked per day instead of the number of hours worked per week.
Example: Let’s say John, from the previous examples, gets paid time and
a half for any hours over an eight-hour workday. Find his gross pay.
Solution: Since John is paid overtime based on an 8-hour workday, he’ll

earn time and a half for the 2 overtime hours on Thursday and the 2
overtime hours on Friday. Therefore, John will earn overtime pay for 4
hours and his regular rate for the other 38 hours.
Multiply John’s overtime rate by his overtime hours. John makes $51.00 in
overtime.
Multiply John’s regular rate by his regular hours. John makes $323.00 for
his regular pay.
Finally, add John’s overtime wages to his regular wages.

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Answer: John’s gross pay is $374.00.
In addition to time and a half, some companies pay double (or even triple)
time for working on weekends and holidays.
Piecework Wages
Instead of paying workers for the amount of time they put in, some
companies pay workers for the amount of work they complete. The rate
paid for work done by the piece is called piecework rate. Piecework rates
are most commonly used in manufacturing and agriculture.
Example: Suppose that Raquel’s company manufactures widgets and

pays employees $2.25 per widget produced. Using the following chart,
which lists the number of widgets Raquel made each day, find her gross
pay.
Monday 20
Tuesday 28
Wednesday 29
Thursday 43
Friday 41
Total 161
Solution: Simply multiply the piecework rate by the total number of widgets
Raquel produced.
Multiply the rate by the number produced.
Place a decimal in the

product.

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Answer: Raquel’s gross pay is $362.25.
Sometimes a company combines the piecework rate with a minimum pay.

With minimum pay, employees always count on a certain amount of money
for the pay period no matter how much work they produce.
Salary
Some employees are paid a salary, or fixed amount. Salary may be stated
weekly, biweekly, semimonthly, monthly, or annually. You can compare
salaries that aren’t based on the same pay period by converting each to its
annual equivalent.
For example, Leroy is offered an annual salary of $20,000. Let’s figure out
how much that is for each of the following:
Weekly: 52 weeks per year

$20,000 ÷ 52 = $384.62 (rounded)
Biweekly: 26 pay periods per year

$20,000 ÷ 26 = $769.23 (rounded)
Semimonthly: 24 pay periods per year

$20,000 ÷ 24 = $833.33 (rounded)
Monthly: 12 months per year

$20,000 ÷ 12 = $1,666.67 (rounded)
To find these amounts, we simply divided the same $20,000 per year into a
different number of pay periods per year. In each case, if you multiply the
amount per pay period by the number of pay periods per year, the total

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amount Leroy earns, except for the effects of rounding, is the same. All that
changes is how often he gets paid and how much he gets paid each time.
Commissions
People who work in sales are often paid on a commission basis. A

commission is similar to piecework except it’s based on sales amounts
instead of the number of items produced. Commission is usually based on
the dollar amount of sales.
Example: If Paul earns 4% commission on total sales and his sales this
week total $8,750, find his gross pay.
Solution: To find Paul’s earnings, simply change the percentage to a

decimal and multiply by total sales.
4% = Change 4% to a decimal by moving the decimal point two places to

.04 the left. Multiply this decimal by total sales.
Place a decimal point in the product.
Answer: Paul’s earnings are $350.00.
In this example Paul earned what’s called straight commission. In other

words, everything he earned was based on commission. Sometimes
companies pay a base salary plus commission. In this case, gross pay
would be found by adding earnings from commission to the base salary.
Base Salary Plus Commission
A salesperson who works on salary plus commission is guaranteed a

minimum base salary, plus a commission either on all sales over a

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specified amount or on total sales. Let’s look at a couple of example
situations that will illustrate the method used to calculate this type of
income.
Example: Suppose that John Blum receives a base salary of $200 per
week and a 4% commission on all sales. Let’s figure his total earnings for a
week in which he sold $1,500 worth of merchandise.
Solution:
Commission = 4% of $1,500 = 0.04 × $1,500 = $60
Total earnings = $200 + $60 = $260
Or, suppose that Jill Wysok is paid a base salary of $235 per week, and
also receives a 3% commission on all sales over
$600. If her sales for the week totaled $950, we would figure her salary in
this manner:
Amount over $600 = $950 – $600 = $350
Commission = 3% of $350 = 0.03 × $350 = $10.50
Total earnings = $235.00 + $10.50 = $245.50
Net Pay
You’ve probably heard of someone who found a summer job working for 30
hours a week at $7.25 per hour. At the end of the first week she eagerly
awaited her $217.50 pay. Imagine her dismay when she received a
paycheck for $165.21. She never learned about deductions. Deductions

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are the amounts taken out of a salary for taxes, medical insurance, union
dues, charity contributions, retirement funds, and so on. The salaries we
previously discussed were gross salaries—that is, total salaries before
deductions are subtracted. The money you actually receive after
deductions are taken is the net salary, or take-home pay.
Taxes
Taxes may be collected by federal, state, or local (city, borough, township,

parish) governments. There are three types of federal taxes—FICA,
Medicare tax, and income tax.
FICA. The Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) tax is also known
as the Social Security tax, since it’s your contribution to your own
government life insurance plan, disability insurance plan, and retirement
fund. The FICA tax is based on a changing (usually increasing) rate and a
changing (usually increasing) wage. The FICA tax is only taken out of the
first $117,000 of gross wages in 2014. This amount is adjusted every year.
Medicare. The Medicare tax is withheld for the purpose of hospital

insurance for those over 65. Employees’ portion of Medicare is matched by
their employer, and there’s currently no ceiling on the earned income wage
base, as there is with FICA.
Income tax. The federal income tax helps the federal government to
operate. As you probably know, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the
agency that collects the tax. The amount of income tax you pay depends
primarily on your total earnings and the number of exemptions you claim.
An exemption is a tax break for each person you support. When you’re
hired, your employer asks you to list your exemptions. If you’re single, for

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example, and you support only yourself, you’re allowed one exemption
(yourself). A married couple would have two exemptions; if they had two
children, they would have four exemptions. The more exemptions you
have, the less tax is taken from your pay. Your employer must furnish you
with a W-2 form showing your total annual earnings from the preceding
year and the total of the taxes deducted.
If more tax was withheld than you owe, you’ll receive a refund. If less tax
was withheld, you’ll owe the balance.
There are many categories of deductions that may apply to you and
change your taxable income. Complete instructions come with the tax form
you receive. Study them carefully. Since tax laws change often and the
directions are extremely complex, you may want to consult a professional
tax preparer. The comparatively small cost of such a consultation may save
you money, and the preparer will answer any questions you may have.
State and local income taxes. Depending upon where you live, state and
local income taxes may be deducted from your pay. These taxes are
usually at a fixed rate, such as 1% or 3%.
Other Deductions
In addition to taxes, you should be aware of other possible deductions that

will affect your take-home pay.
Insurance. If you belong to a group health insurance plan through your

employer, the premiums are deducted from your pay. Since medical costs
are continually rising, health insurance is practically a necessity.
Union dues. If you belong to a union, you may have your dues deducted

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from your pay.
Pension plan. Your company may have a retirement plan to which you
contribute. There are three types of qualified plans: pension, profit sharing,
and stock bonus plans. Pension plan benefits are generally measured by
and based on factors such as years of service and employee
compensation. A 401(k) plan allows participants to make contributions to a
retirement plan, usually without being taxed on the earnings contributed to
the plan. These contributions are also usually matched at a certain
percentage by the employer.
Calculating Net Pay
As you’ve learned, your net pay is your gross pay minus all deductions. To
illustrate how net pay is figured, let’s use the example of Ginny Grindel,
whose weekly gross pay is $185.90. She has the following deductions:
FICA tax $11.53

1.45% Medicare tax $2.70
Federal withholding (income)
$17.84
tax
Charities fund $1.00
2% state tax $3.72
1% city tax 1.86
Total deductions $38.65
Gross pay $185.90
Total deductions – 38.65
Net pay $147.25

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Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
An employee is any person who earns money, or wages, to do work

for another person or company.
An employer is the person or company who pays the employee.
An employee’s pay may be based on hourly wages, piecework wages,
salary, commission, overtime for working more than his or her usual
number of hours per day, or some combination of these methods.
Gross pay is the amount of money an employee earns in a pay period.
To calculate an employee’s gross pay who works for hourly wages,
multiply the number of hours worked by their hourly rate.
To calculate an employee’s overtime wages:
1. Multiply their hourly rate by the overtime differential to determine
the employee’s overtime rate.
2. Subtract their normal number of hours from their total hours
worked to determine the employee’s overtime hours.
3. Multiply their overtime rate by the overtime hours to calculate the
employee’s overtime wages.
A piecework rate is the rate paid for work done by the piece.
To calculate an employee’s piecework wages, multiply their piecework
rate by the number of pieces produced.
A salary is a fixed wage paid to an employee regardless of hours
worked and can be stated in a weekly, biweekly, semimonthly,
monthly, or annual amount.
To calculate an employee’s salary, divide their annual salary amount
by the number of pay periods per year.

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A commission is a wage based on the amount of goods or services an
employee sells.
A salary plus commission is a guaranteed minimum base salary, plus
a commission either on all sales over a specified amount or on total
sales.
Deductions are the amounts taken out of an employee’s gross wages
for taxes, medical insurance, union dues, charity contributions,
retirement funds, and so on.
Net pay is the amount of money an employee takes home after
deductions are removed from their gross wages.
The Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) tax (also known as
the Social Security tax) is an employee’s contribution to the federal
government’s life insurance plan, disability insurance plan, and
retirement fund. It is based on a changing (usually increasing) rate
and a changing (usually increasing) wage.
The Medicare tax is withheld for hospital insurance for those over 65.
Employees’ portion of Medicare is matched by their employer, and
there’s currently no ceiling on the earned income wage base.
Income tax helps the government to operate. The federal government
collects income tax, as do many states. The amount of income tax you
pay depends primarily on your total earnings and the number of
exemptions you claim.
An exemption is a tax break for each person you support.
W-2 form is provided to each employee by the employer to document
their total annual earnings from the preceding year and the total of the
taxes deducted.
A pension plan is a retirement plan where benefits are generally
measured by and based on factors such as years of service and

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employee compensation.
A 401(k) plan is a retirement plan that allows participants to make
contributions to the plan. The amount of money employees contribute
from their paychecks to the plan is usually not taxed.
To calculate an employee’s net pay:
1. Calculate the employee’s gross pay.
2. Calculate the amount of each deduction based on the employee’s
gross pay.
3. Total all deductions.
4. Subtract the deductions total from the gross pay to calculate the
net pay amount.
Discover More 5
1. Mary works for a company that pays time and a half for hours over 40
in a week and double time for holidays. This week she worked 8 hours
on Monday (which was a holiday), 10 hours on Tuesday, 10 hours on
Wednesday, 9 hours on Thursday, and 8 hours on Friday. If Mary
earns $8 per hour, what is the total of Mary’s earnings for the week?
2. Bridgette and her friends Jill and Barb are talking about how much
money they earn. Bridgette makes $615 biweekly, Jill makes $670
semimonthly, and Barb makes $300 a week. Who earns the most?
3. Mike is a salesperson in a retail carpet store. He is paid $500 base
salary per month plus 5% commission on sales over $10,000. His
sales this month were $23,750. His total deductions were $152.75.
What is Mike’s net pay?

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Discover More 5
1.
32 (reg. hrs) × 8 = 256

5 (overtime) × (8 × 1.5) = 60
8 (holiday) × (8 × 2) =128
2. Bridgette: $615 × 26 (pay periods) = $15,990

Jill: $670 × 24 (pay periods) = $16,080
Barb: $300 × 52 (pay periods) = $15,600
Jill earns the most.
3.
1.6 Calculate simple and compound interest

Interest
READING ASSIGNMENT
Definition
In business, one of the most common meanings of the word interest is the
cost of money. When you deposit your money in a financial institution, your

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money earns interest. The financial institution is actually paying you to use
the money you’ve deposited to make loans to individuals and businesses.
Then those individuals and businesses pay interest to the financial
institution for the use of the money they’ve borrowed. Interest is always
calculated in the same way, whether it’s interest on money deposited or
interest on money borrowed.
When evaluating the various uses of money, it’s important to know both the
present value and future value of it. The present value is the amount of
money you have now. The future value is the amount of money it will
become at a future date.
Example 1: If today you put money in an interest-bearing bank account,

which you don’t plan on touching for two years, the present value is the
amount you put into the bank. The future value is the present value plus
the interest received by the end of the two years. When you receive a bank
statement telling you how much money you have in your account, that’s the
present value as of the statement date.
Example 2: If you loan the money with interest, the present value is the
amount you loan. The future value is the total of the money loaned plus the
interest you’ll have received over the life of the loan.
Keep these ideas in mind as you learn more about interest.
Simple Interest
The easiest type of interest to calculate is simple interest. Simple interest is

found by multiplying a base amount by an interest rate or percent and
factoring in the consideration of time. In an interest calculation, the amount

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of interest is the percentage. Recall that the percentage isn’t a percent
(that’s always the rate). By amount we mean the dollar amount of interest.
The base is the amount of money deposited or borrowed, which is called
the principal. Therefore, the formula for finding interest can be stated as
follows:
Interest = Principal × Rate × Time or Interest = P × R ×

T
The rate for interest is always stated per year. Of course, you don’t always
deposit or borrow money for exactly a year or a multiple of a year. You
might deposit money for 10 months or borrow money for 18 months. When
time is expressed in the number of months, you simply write it as a fraction
with the number of months in the numerator and 12 (the number of months
in a year) in the denominator: 10⁄12 and 18⁄12. In this way, time is still written
in a portion of a year.
In other cases, especially with loans, time may be expressed in days—for

example, 120 days. You still write time as a portion of a year in a fraction,
but there are two ways to calculate time expressed as days. The most
obvious way is called exact interest. When the interest cost is calculated
using exact interest, the number of days is the numerator of the fraction,
and 365 (the number of days in a year) is the denominator: 120⁄365.
The other method of calculating interest is called banker’s interest or

ordinary interest. With this method, the number of days is still the
numerator of the fraction, but 360 (rather than the exact 365 days) is the
denominator: 120⁄360.

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Example: You deposit $525 in a savings account that pays 5.5% interest.
How much interest will you earn in two years?
Solution: Substitute the values into the interest formula and solve.
Interest = P × R × T Use the interest formula.

Substitute the given
Interest = 525 × .055 × 2
values.
Interest = 57.75 Multiply to solve.
Answer: You’ll earn $57.75. The present value is $525. The future value is
$582.75.
Example: You borrow $1200 for 120 days at 6%. Calculate the amount of
ordinary interest you’ll pay to the bank.
Solution: Substitute the values into the interest formula and solve.
Remember to express the time as a fraction, using 360 in the denominator.

Interest = 1200 × .06 × Substitute the given
120⁄ values.
360
Interest = 24 Multiply to solve.
Answer: You’ll pay $24.
Compound Interest
Simple interest is calculated on the principal only. In compound interest,

the interest is added to the principal and future interest is calculated on

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both the principal and the interest. In other words, you earn interest on
your interest. Interest can be compounded semiannually, quarterly,
monthly, daily, even continuously.
To calculate compound interest, you must first consider how often the
interest is compounded. For example, if interest is compounded
semiannually, then your interest is calculated twice a year—every 6
months. Therefore, there are two compounding periods in the year.
Example: How much money will you have at the end of one year if interest
is compounded semiannually at 8% on a $500 deposit?
Solution: First, you will find the interest earned during the first
compounding period. Then, you’ll add this to the original principal. Next,
find the interest on this new principal for the second compounding period.
Finally, add this interest to the new principal to obtain the final balance.

Substitute the values. Since
Interest = 500 × .08 × 6⁄12 interest is compounded
semiannually, the time is 6 months.
Interest = 20 Multiply to solve.
Add the interest to the principal to
get the new principal. Use this
New principal = 500 + 20 = 520
amount to calculate the interest for
the second compounding period.
Interest = 520 × .08 × 6⁄12 Substitute the values.
Interest = 20.80 Multiply to solve.

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Balance = 520 + 20.80 = 540.80 Add the interest to the principal.
Answer: The final balance will be $540.80, which is the future value of the
$500 deposit.
If the interest were compounded quarterly, there would be 4 periods in a

year. You calculate the interest the same way, except that you have to
repeat the calculations 4 times for each year. For monthly compounding,
you have to repeat the calculations 12 times for each year. Although this
process isn’t difficult, it is tedious and time-consuming. Fortunately, there
are tables available that make calculating compound interest much easier.
Loan Amortization
Loan amortization is the process of paying down a loan until it’s completely
redeemed. A loan taken out for three years is said to amortize in three
years. A loan amortization schedule is a chart or table showing the amount
of principal remaining and the amount of interest for each payment. Think
of it as the opposite of a table showing a rate of compound interest. In a
loan amortization schedule, the amount of principal and the amount of
interest steadily shrink until they reach zero.
For a compound interest loan, the amount of interest is based on the

amount of principal still outstanding and the fraction of time the payment
period represents. Each time a payment is made, the interest for that time
period is paid first. The rest of each payment pays down the principal. This
is the unpaid principal balance rule for repayment.
Another method of repayment follows the Rule of 78. The Rule of 78 “front
loads” the interest payments so that the finance company gets its interest

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right away. The name derives from a rather complicated formula used in
figuring interest on each payment. Although the payment amount is the
same either way, at first, a much larger portion of the payment goes to the
interest and a much smaller portion goes to the principal until the interest is
paid off. At that point, the total payment goes to the principal. If the
borrower makes each payment on time without paying the loan off early,
the total amount of the loan plus interest is the same amount derived using
the unpaid principal balance rule. However, if the loan is paid off early, the
borrower ends up paying more interest, because at the beginning, the
unpaid principal each month is greater due to less of the payment going
towards the principal. Thus, when lenders recalculate to see how much
interest to give back, they’re calculating on a larger unpaid principal each
month at the beginning. Lenders like this method because it helps offset
the cost of defaulted loans.
Loan amortization schedules require knowing the principal, the rate, the
time, and the payment amount. Finding the installment payment amount for
a compound interest loan requires a fairly complex formula, which in
today’s business world is calculated by entering the principal, the rate, the
time, and the number of payments into a loan payment calculator program.
Once that’s done, the program uses this information to generate a loan
amortization schedule. If you don’t have such a program, there are
numerous websites on the Internet that will calculate both your payment
amount and amortization schedule.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points

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Interest is the cost of money.
Interest can be applied to money you lend or money you borrow.
The present value of money is the amount of money you have now.
The future value of money is the amount your present value of money
will become at a future date.
Simple interest is calculated on the principal only.
Calculate simple interest by multiplying a base amount of money by an
interest rate or percent and factor in time: Interest = Principal × Rate ×
Time
Compound interest adds the interest to the principal and future
interest is calculated on both the principal and the interest.
To calculate compound interest:
1. Determine the number of compounding periods.
2. Determine the amount of interest earned during the first
compounding period on the original principal.
3. Add the first compounding period interest amount to the original
principal.
4. Calculate the interest on the new principle for the next
compounding period.
5. Add this amount to the new principle.
6. Repeat calculating interest and adding it to the principle for all
compounding periods to obtain the final balance.
Interest rates are stated in annual amounts.
When time is expressed in an amount other than yearly, you write the
number as a fraction. For example, months are written with the
number of months in the numerator and 12 (the number of months in
a year) in the denominator, days are written with the number of days
as the numerator and 365 (the number of days in a year) in the

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denominator.
Banker’s interest (also referred to as ordinary interest) is calculated
with the number of days as the numerator and 360 in the
denominator.
Loan amortization is the process of paying down a loan until it’s
completely paid off.
A loan amortization schedule is a chart or table showing the amount of
principal remaining and the amount of interest for each payment.
The unpaid principal balance rule states that for a compound interest
loan, the amount of interest is based on the amount of principal still
outstanding and the fraction of time the payment period represents.
Each time a payment is made, the interest for that time period is paid
first. The rest of each payment pays down the principal.
The Rule of 78 “front loads” the interest payments so that the finance
company gets its interest right away. Each time a payment is made a
much larger portion of the payment goes to the interest and a much
smaller portion goes to the principal until the interest is paid off. Once
the interest is paid off, the total payment goes to the principal.
Discover More 6
1. You borrow $1500 at 12% for 3 years. What is the amount of interest?
2. You borrow $3600 for 250 days at 8%. How much will you have to
repay if the rate is calculated using exact interest? Using ordinary
interest?
3. You deposit $300 in a savings account that pays 6% interest
compounded semiannually. How much will you have at the end of one
year?

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Discover More 6
1. I = P × R × T
= 1500 × .12 × 3
= $540
2. Exact
I = P × R × T⁄365
= 3600 × .08 × 250⁄365

= $197.26
Ordinary
I = P × R × T⁄360
= 3600 × .08 × 250⁄360

= $200 (rounded)
3. I = P × R × T
= 300 × .06 × 1⁄2
= $9.00
I=P×R×T
= 309 × .06 × 1⁄2
= 9.27

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1.7 Convert measurements in the metric system and in
foreign currencies using the appropriate conversion factor
The Metric System
READING ASSIGNMENT
You’ve probably noticed that some metric units are now being used
frequently in the United States. The most obvious example of this is the
common two-liter bottle of soda. It’s been on the market for so long that we
now just take it for granted. Do you remember how you used to buy soda
before companies introduced two-liter bottles? If not, it just shows how
accustomed you’ve become to this metric unit. As the United States trades
more and more with foreign countries, standard units of measurement are
becoming more and more important.
Because the metric system is the standard system of measurement around

the world, it may soon be a reality in the United States—especially in the
business world. You should, therefore, be familiar with some of the terms
used in the system and how they relate to the common English system with
which you’re already acquainted.
Metric Units
The three metric units that you’re most likely to encounter are shown
below:

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Unit Quantity Measured
meter
length
(m)
gram (g) mass (weight)
liter (L) liquid capacity
These units are called base units because other units of length, weight,
and capacity are derived from them. To indicate units that are larger or
smaller than the base units, the metric system uses prefixes. For example,
the prefix milli always means 1,000 times smaller. Therefore, a millimeter is
a unit that’s 1,000 times smaller than a meter. On the other hand, the
prefix kilo means 1,000 times larger. Therefore, a kilometer is 1,000 times
larger than a meter. In other words, a kilometer equals 1,000 meters.
The table below shows the common metric prefixes from largest to
smallest along with their relationship to the base unit. The first prefix listed
is kilo, which designates a unit that’s 1,000 times larger than the base unit.
Therefore, one kilogram equals 1,000 grams. The third prefix in the table is
deka, which creates a unit that’s 10 times larger than the base unit.
Therefore, one dekagram equals 10 grams.
COMMON METRIC PREFIXES

Relationship to Base
Prefix
Unit
kilo 1,000 times larger
hecto 100 times larger
deka 10 times larger

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Base Unit
deci 10 times smaller
centi 100 times smaller
milli 1,000 times smaller
In the table above, all the prefixes above the base unit create a unit that’s
larger than the base unit. The prefixes listed below the base unit create a
unit that’s smaller than the base unit. For example, the prefix centi creates
a unit that’s 100 times smaller than the base unit. Therefore, one
centimeter equals .01 meter.
Using Conversion Factors
At work you may occasionally have to convert units from the English
system of measurement to the metric system, or from the metric system to
the English system. Such conversions are often necessary to complete
business transactions. To make these conversions, you must use a
conversion factor. The units in each system are shown in the table below.
UNITS OF LENGTH
Metric System English System
1 m (meter) = 100 cm
1 ft (foot) = 12 in. (inches)
(centimeters)
1 m = 1000 mm (millimeters) 1 ft = 1⁄3 yd (yard)
1 m = 0.001 km (kilometer) 1 ft = 1⁄5,280 mile
1 cm = 10 mm 1 yd = 3 ft
1 cm = 0.01 m 1 yd = 36 in.

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1 cm = 0.00001 km 1 yd = 1⁄1,760 mile
1 mm = 0.1 cm 1 in. = 1⁄12 ft
1 in. = 1⁄36 yd
1 mm = 0.001 m
1 mm = 0.000001 km 1 mile = 5,280 ft

1 km = 1000 m 1 mile = 1,760 yd
1 km = 100,000 cm
1 km = 1,000,000 mm
UNITS OF SQUARE MEASURE
1 m2 = 10,000 cm2 1 sq in. = 1⁄144 sq ft
1 m2 = 1,000,000 mm2
1 are = 100 m2 1 sq ft = 144 sq in.
1 sq ft = 1⁄9 sq yd
1 ha (hectare) = 100 ares 1 sq yd = 9 sq ft
1 ha (hectare) = 10,000 m2 1 sq yd = 1,296 sq in.
1 km2 = 100 ha 1 sq rod = 301⁄4 sq yd
1 km2 = 10,000 ares 1 sq mile = 640 acres
1 km2 = 1,000,000 m2 1 acre = 160 sq rods
1 cm2 = 100 mm2 1 acre = 43,560 sq ft
1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2
UNITS OF CUBIC MEASURE

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1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3 1 cu yd = 27 cu ft
1 m3 = 1,000,000,000 mm3 1 cu yd = 46,656 cu in.
1 cm3 = 1000 mm3 1 cu ft = 1,728 cu in.
1 cm3 = 0.000001 m3 1 cu ft = 1⁄27 cu yd = 0.037 cu yd
1 mm 3 = 0.001 cm3 1 cu in. = 1⁄1,728 cu ft = 0.000579 cu ft
1 cu in. = 1⁄46,656 cu yd = 0.0000214 cu

1 mm 3 = 0.000000001 m3
yd
These tables show the most frequently used English and metric
measurements.
A conversion factor is a number by which an amount in one unit is

multiplied to obtain the same amount in a different unit. For example, if you
want to know how many inches there are in 4 feet, you must multiply 4 (the
number of feet) by 12 (the number of inches in one foot). Since 4 × 12 =
48, you know that there are 48 inches in 4 feet. In this example, 12 is the
conversion factor for changing feet to inches.
Table below shows conversion factors for some of the measurements you
may encounter. The table is relatively easy to use. If you wish to convert a
metric unit to its English equivalent, use the left side of the table (“Metric to
English”); if you wish to convert an English unit to its metric equivalent, use
the right side of the table (“English to Metric”). To illustrate how it’s done,
let’s look at some examples.
COMMON METRIC PREFIXES

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Metric to English English to Metric
Multiply Multiply
To Convert To Convert
By By
Length
meters to feet 3.28 feet to meters 0.3
millimeters to inches 0.039 inches to millimeters 25.4
kilometers to miles 0.6214 miles to kilometers 1.6093
Area
square meters to square square feet to square
10.76 0.0929
feet meters
Volume
cubic meters to cubic feet 35.3147 cubic feet to cubic meters 0.0283
Liquid Capacity
liters to US quarts 1.057 US quarts to liters 0.946
liters to Canadian quarts 0.88 Canadian quarts to liters 1.13649
Speed or Velocity
meters per second to feet feet per second to meters
3.281 0.3048
per second per second
kilometers per hour to miles miles per hour to
0.6214 1.6093
per hour kilometers per hour
Example: Suppose you have a measurement of 4 m that you must convert

to feet.

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Since you’re converting from metric to English units, use the left
Meters
side of the table. In the column headed “To Convert,” find the
to feet
desired conversion. “Meters to feet” is the first item listed.
Look at the number next to this entry in the column headed
3.28
“Multiply By.”
4×
3.28 =
Multiply the number of feet (4) by the conversion factor (3.28).
13.12
ft.
The answer is 13.12 ft. There are 13.12 ft. in 4 m.
Example: The distance from your office to its nearest subsidiary is 28.5
miles. What is this distance in kilometers?
Since you’re converting from English to metric units, use

Miles to the right side of the table. In the column headed “To
kilometers Convert,” find the desired conversion. “Miles to
kilometers” is the third item listed.
Look at the number next to this entry in the column
1.6093
headed “Multiply By.”
28.5 × 1.6093 =
Multiply the number of miles (28.5) by the conversion
45.86505, which
factor (1.6093).
rounds to 45.87
The answer is 45.87 (rounded). There are 45.87 km (kilometers) in 28.5

miles.
Example: You’re expecting a delivery of a new piece of equipment in your

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department. The area where you plan to put it is 10 ft. long. The
information you received on the machine tells you that the length of the
machine is 2.5 m. Will the new machine fit in the 10-ft. space?
To solve this problem, you must either (1) convert the length of the
machine to feet or (2) convert the measurement of the space to meters.
Let’s change the length of the machine to feet.
Since you’re converting from metric to English, use

the left side of the table. In the column headed “To
Metric to English
Convert,” find the desired conversion. “Meters to
feet” is the first item listed.
3.28
Multiply the length of the machine (2.5) by the
2.5 × 3.28 = 8.2
conversion factor (3.28).
The length of the machine is 8.2 ft. Therefore, you know that it will fit in the
10-ft. space you have available.
Now let’s solve this same problem again, but this time convert the size of
the space (10 ft.) to meters.
Since you’re converting from English to metric, use

the right side of the table. In the column headed “To
English to metric
convert,” find the desired conversion. “Feet to
meters” is the first item listed.
0.3

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Multiply the number of feet (10) by the conversion
10 × 0.3 = 3
factor (0.3).
The answer is 3. The size of the space is 3 m. Therefore, you know that
the machine, which is only 2.5 m, will fit in the space you have available.
The best news about conversion tables is this: You don’t have to memorize
them. Just keep a table handy so that when you must make such
conversions, you’ll know just where to look.
Following are a few other tables to help with common conversions.
CONVERSION OF UNITS OF LENGTH

By
By Conversion To
Multiply Multiply Conversion To Obtain
Factor Obtain
Factor
meters 39.37 inches inches 2.54 centimeters
meters 3.2808 feet inches 0.0254 meters
meters 1.0936 yards inches 25.4 millimeters
mils 0.0254 millimeters
centimeters 0.3937 inches feet 0.3048 meters
millimeters 0.03937 inches feet 30.48 centimeters
millimeters 39.37 mils
kilometers 0.6214 miles yards 0.9144 meters
yards 91.44 centimeters
miles 1.6093 kilometers

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CONVERSION OF UNITS OF AREA
By By
Multiply Conversion To Obtain Multiply Conversion To Obtain
Factor Factor
square
square square square
1,550.0 inches (sq 6.4516
meters (m2) inches centimeters
in.)
square square feet square square
10.76 0.0929
meters (sq ft.) feet meters
square
1.196 yards (sq 0.8361
meters yards meters
yd.)
square
square
centimeters 0.155 acres 0.4047 hectares
inches
(cm2)
square
hectares 2.471 acres acres 4,047.0
meters
square
kilometers 0.3861 2.590
miles miles kilometers
(km2)
CONVERSION OF UNITS OF MASS
By
To By Conversion
Multiply Conversion Multiply To Obtain
Obtain Factor
Factor

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grams 0.0353 ounces pounds 0.4536 kilograms
grams 15.4321 grains pounds 453.6 grams
kilograms 2.2046 pounds ounces 28.35 grams
tons
kilograms 0.0011 grains 0.0648 grams
(short)
tons tons
megagrams 1.1023 0.9072 megagrams
(short) (short)
CONVERSION OF UNITS OF LIQUID

Metric to U.S. Customary (Liquid) U.S. Customary to Metric
By Conversion To By Conversion To
Multiply Multiply
Factor Obtain Factor Obtain
cubic
264.0 gallons quarts 0.946 liters
meters
cubic
liters 1.057 quarts gallons 0.003785
meters
Let’s take a look at some typical conversion problems.
Example: How many meters (m) are contained in 4.8 kilometers (km)?
Solution: Looking at the metric units of length in Units of Length table

above, you’ll see that
1 km = 1,000 m (conversion factor)
4.8 km = 4.8 × 1000 = 4,800 meters
Example: Convert 48 inches (in.) to yards (yd.).

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Solution: From Units of Length table above, you can see that
1 yd. = 36 in. (conversion factor).
48 in. = 48 ÷ 36 = 11⁄3 yards
Example: Add 3 pints (pt.), 4 pt., 6 pt., and 8 pt. Convert the result to
quarts (qt.).
Solution:
3 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 21 pt.
1 qt. = 2 pt. (conversion factor)
21 pt. = 21⁄2 qt. = 101⁄2 qt., or 10 qt. + 1 pt.
Example: A crate 3 ft. wide by 4 ft. long is filled with grain to a depth of 2 ft.
What volume of grain does it contain?
Solution:
Volume = 3 ft. × 4 ft. × 2 ft. = 24 cubic ft.
Foreign Currency Exchange
Companies and individuals dealing internationally often need to convert

their country’s currency to another country’s currency. To do this, you need
to know the exchange rate. The exchange rate is the amount of one
currency needed to get one unit of another currency. The exchange rate
changes as the world market and world situations change. One country’s
currency compared to another country’s currency may change as often as

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several times a day, or not change at all for many years.
The financial section of the newspaper, financial websites, and financial

news broadcasts quote the interbank rate, which is the official exchange
rate for $1 million or more. Banks and large corporations exchange at this
rate. People who deal in currency exchange use this rate as they study
money market fluctuations to make money buying and selling currency.
For individuals and companies using smaller amounts, a fee or commission

is added by whomever is doing the currency exchange for you, so the
exchange will cost more for smaller amounts. Fortunately, fees and
commissions vary, and by knowing the current interbank rate and shopping
around, it’s possible to get a rate close to the interbank rate.
The currency you’re selling is the currency you started with. The currency
you’re buying is the currency you want. By using the exchange rate, you
can calculate approximately how much the currency you’re selling is worth
in the currency you’re buying. This is also known as converting currency.
When converting currency in a retail situation while traveling or for other

small exchange purposes, it’s usually easiest to use the currency you’re
most familiar with as the sell currency and the currency that’s foreign to
you as the buy currency. In this way, you need only remember one
exchange rate—from your currency to the foreign currency.
To keep amounts of foreign currency in familiar terms, use the following

formulas:
your currency amount × the exchange rate (r) = foreign currency

amount

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Example: The exchange rate for U.S. dollars to euros is .69, so the dollar
amount × .69 = the euro amount.
You’ll remember that the opposite of multiplication is division, so if you

know the foreign currency amount, the formula is
foreign currency amount ÷ exchange rate = your currency amount
Example: The exchange rate for U.S. dollars to euros is .69, so the euro
amount ÷ .69 = the dollar amount.
For the following examples, we’ll use the dollar-to-euro exchange rate of
.69. (Note: Fees or commissions won’t be entered into these calculations.)
Example 1: You’re going to Europe and you have to change 500 U.S.
dollars into euros. How many euros will you get?
500 dollars × .69 = 345 euros
Answer: You’ll receive 345 euros.
Example 2: You’re in Europe and want to buy a coat that costs 150 euros.
You know that a good price for the coat is 200 U.S. dollars or less. Is the
European price a good price for the coat?
150 euros ÷ .69 = 217.39 dollars
Answer: No, the price is more than 200 dollars.
In the office, currency exchange calculation is usually done using an online

currency exchange calculator or currency converter to make use of the
most current rate. Many currency converters as well as currency exchange

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rate charts can be accessed for free on the Internet.
In a currency converter, you’ll be directed to type in the amount of sell

currency in one box or field. Then you must choose the country of the sell
currency from a list, and finally choose the country of the buy currency.
Then click the “calculate” or “go” button. The program inputs the current
exchange rate and displays your answer.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
A base unit is a measurement from which other units of measurement

are derived.
Meter (m) is a metric system base unit measurement of length.
Gram (g) is a metric system base unit measurement of mass (weight).
Liter (L) is a metric system base unit measurement of liquid capacity.
Deci is a metric system measurement prefix which means ten (10)
times smaller than the base unit.
Centi is a metric system measurement prefix which means one
hundred (100) times smaller than the base unit.
Milli is a metric system measurement prefix which means one
thousand (1,000) times smaller than the base unit.
Deka is a metric system measurement prefix which means ten (10)
times larger than the base unit.
Hecto is a metric system measurement prefix which means one
hundred (100) times larger than the base unit.
Kilo is a metric system measurement prefix which means one
thousand (1,000) times larger than the base unit.

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A conversion factor is a number by which an amount in one unit is
multiplied to obtain the same amount in a different unit.
To convert metric measurements to English measurements or vice-
versa, use a conversion table which lists the various conversion
factors.
The exchange rate is the amount of one currency needed to get one
unit of another currency.
The interbank rate is the official exchange rate for $1 million or more.
To convert currency: your currency amount × the exchange rate (r) =
foreign currency amount.
In the office, currency exchange calculation is usually done using an
online currency exchange calculator or currency converter to make
use of the most current rate.
Discover More 7
1. Use the conversion table to convert the following English units into the
given metric units. Calculate all problems by hand. Round your
answers to two decimal places.
a. 10 in. to millimeters
b. 60 ft. to meters
c. 4.5 in. to millimeters
d. 12 U.S. quarts to liters
e. 25 feet per second to meters per second
f. 100 miles to kilometers
2. Use the conversion table to convert the following metric units into the
given English units. Round your answers to two decimal places.

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a. 12 mm to inches
b. 75 km to miles
c. 150 m to feet
d. 63 square meters to square feet
e. 45 meters per second to feet per second
f. 9 L (liters) to U.S. quarts
3. You’re planning a business trip to England to visit two cities. The
information you have says that the distance between these two cities
is 112 km. How far is this in miles?
4. The area of your office is 175 square feet, but the carpeting you’re
purchasing for it is measured in square meters. Find how many
square meters of carpeting you need for your office.
5. For extra practice, use your calculator to check your answers to these
problems.
6. Suppose you’re planning to vacation in Europe and you want to
exchange some money for the trip. The dollar-to-euro exchange rate
is 1.23. If you have 650 U.S. dollars, how many euros will you get?
7. Your friend from Canada is visiting the United States. He wants to
exchange 250 Canadian dollars for U.S. dollars. The Canadian
dollars-to-U.S. dollars exchange rate is 1.036. How many U.S. dollars
will your friend get?

Discover More 7
1. a. 10 × 25.4 = 254 mm
b. 60 × 0.3 = 18 m
c. 4.5 × 25.4 = 114.3 mm
d. 12 × 0.946 = 11.35 L

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e. 25 × 0.3048 = 7.62 meters per second
f. 100 × 1.6093 = 160.93 km
2. a. 12 × 0.039 = .47 in.
b. 75 × 0.6214 = 46.61 miles
c. 150 × 3.28 = 492 ft.
d. 63 × 10.76 = 677.88 square feet
e. 45 × 3.281 = 147.65 feet per second
f. 9 × 1.057 = 9.51 quarts
3. 112 × 0.6214 = 69.6 miles
4. 175 × 0.0929 = 16.26 square meters
5. Check the answers you get on your calculator against those you
calculated by hand and against the answers given here.
6. 799.5 euros
7. 259 U.S. dollars
Lesson 1 Review
Self-Check
1. Which of these numbers is a whole number?
a. 0
b. ¾
c. 0.5
d. 3½
2. Corey sent out 34 e-mails on Monday, 23 on Tuesday, 125 on
Wednesday, and 47 on Thursday. Which of these represents the total

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number of e-mails Corey sent on all four days?
a. 229
b. 119
c. 1,165
d. 1,129
3. Kelsey shipped out 459 boxes in January and 372 boxes in February.
She used the expression 459 – 372 to find how many more boxes she
used in January than February. Which of these expressions should Kelsey
choose to check her work?
a. 87 + 372
b. 187 + 372
c. 372 - 87
d. 459 - 187
4. Which of these is the product of 23 × 15?
a. 335
b. 138
c. 128
d. 345
5. Charlie has to finish assembling 240 different parts of a car in 3 hours.
What is the average number of parts he should assemble per hour?
a. 80
b. 8
c. 70
d. 7
6. What is 2,347 rounded to the nearest thousand?
a. 2,000
b. 3,000
c. 2,300

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d. 3,300
7. Joelle sold candles in her store. This chart shows the number of candles
she sold in one week during store hours.
Day Number of Candles
Wednesday 4
Thursday 12
Friday 4
Saturday 6
Sunday 9
What is the median number of candles Joelle sold in one week?
a. 6
b. 8
c. 4
d. 7
8. Look at this equation. ⅓ = ?⁄24 Which number is missing to make the
equation true?
a. 1
b. 21
c. 22
d. 8
9. Samuel worked ¼ of a day on Tuesday and ⅜ of a day on Wednesday.
Which of these represents the fraction of a day he spent working on both
days?
a. ⅓
b. ½
c. ⅝
d. ⅛

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10. Which of these is equal to ⅔ × ¾ × ⅗?
a. 3⁄10
b. ⅔
c. 1½
d. 3⅓
11. Which of these is equal to 0.396 + 0.72?
a. 1.016
b. 0.468
c. 1.116
d. 0.368
12. Karen purchased fabric for a project she is working on. She bought 3
yards of fabric. Each yard cost $6.68. How much money did Karen
purchase in all on fabric?
a. $20.04
b. $19.84
c. $18.84
d. $18.04
13. Which of these is equal to 450 ÷ 2.25?
a. 0.2
b. 200
c. 0.02
d. 20
14. Kenny saved 40% of his work. Which of these is 40% written as a
decimal?
a. 0.04
b. 0.4
c. 0.004
d. 0.0004

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15. Jamal purchased parts for his car. The parts cost $285, but he used a
coupon and the new price was $228. What were the parts discounted after
Jamal used his coupon?
a. 20%
b. 80%
c. 57%
d. 2%
16. Kelly sells vitamins. She made this chart to calculate her total earnings
for the month of April.
Base Salary $2,500
Percent of Sales
4%
Commission
What's Kelly's total earnings if she sold $6,000 worth of vitamins for April?
a. $8,500
b. $2,740
c. $2,600
d. $4,900
17. Carly's gross pay every two weeks is $950.10 and she has a total of
$161.50 in deductions. What is her net pay?
a. $1,111.60
b. $788.60
c. $950.10
d. $161.50
18. Which of these expressions represents how much money you will have
at the end of one year if interest is compounded semiannually at 6% on a
$3,000 deposit?
a. 0.06 × 3,000 × 4⁄12

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b. 0.06 × 3,000 × 6⁄12
c. 0.6 × 3,000 × 6⁄12
d. 0.6 × 3,000 × 4⁄12
19. Which of these is equal to 4 feet?
a. 1.2192 centimeters
b. 121.92 centimeters
c. 7.62 centimeters
d. 0.0762 centimeters
20. The exchange rate for U.S. dollars to Canadian dollars is 0.77. What is
the value of $200 U.S. dollars?
a. 200.77 Canadian dollars
b. 199.23 Canadian dollars
c. 6 Canadian dollars
d. 154 Canadian dollars
Self-Check Answer Key
1. 0
Explanation: A whole number is any member of the following group: 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13…
Reference: Section 1.1
2. 229
Explanation: Align all digits in the ones, tens, and hundreds columns.
Add the digits in the ones column and carry the 1 to the tens column.
Add the digits in the tens column and carry the 2 to the hundreds
column.

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3. 87 + 372
Explanation: Because subtraction is the opposite of addition, you can
use addition to check your work in subtraction.
4. 345
Explanation: Set up the problem by aligning the ones places of both
factors. Start your multiplication with the ones digit of the multiplier.
Move on to the next digit in the multiplier, then the last digit. Add the
partial products to find the product.
5. 80
Explanation: Set up the division problem and then begin to divide.
Unlike addition, subtraction, and multiplication, you start the division
process from the left. Therefore, you divide 3 into 24. The result is 8.
Write the 8 directly above the 4 in the quotient.
6. 2,000
Explanation: In this problem, you're trying to figure out if 2,347 is
closer to 2,000 or 3,000. Look at the digit immediately to the right of 2.
The digit is 3, which is less than 5, so 2,347 will round to 2,000.
7. 6
Explanation: The median is the center number in a group of numbers

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running from lowest to highest.
8. 8
Explanation: Divide the higher denominator by the lower one (24 ÷ 3 =
8). Multiply the quotient (8) by the given numerator (1) to get 8 as the
missing number.
9. ⅝
Explanation: Since the fractions are unlike fractions, you must find the
lowest common denominator. Change the fraction ¼ to 2⁄8, then add.
10. 3⁄10
Explanation: Multiply the numerators and make the product the
numerator of the answer. Multiply the denominators and make the
product the denominator of the answer, then reduce to lowest terms.
11. 1.116
Explanation: Write the numbers to be added so that the decimal points
are in a line. Add the numbers and carry as usual. Place the decimal
point in the answer directly below the decimal points in the problem
itself.
12. $20.04

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Explanation: Set up the problem and multiply as you would for whole
numbers. Count the number of decimal places in both factors and
count off the places in the answer.
13. 200
Explanation: Set up the numbers as you would for any other division
problem. Move the decimal point in the divisor so that it’s at the end of
the divisor.
14. 0.4
Explanation: Drop the percentage sign. Move the decimal two places
to the left. Add zeros as placeholders as necessary.
15. 20%
Explanation: Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
Divide the difference by the starting amount. Change the quotient to a
percent by moving the decimal point two places to the right.
16. $2,740
Explanation: Kelly's commission is 0.04 × 6,000 = 240. Her total
earnings are 240 + 2,500 = 2,740.
17. $788.60

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Explanation: Your net pay is your gross pay minus all deductions.
18. 0.06 × 3,000 × 6⁄12

Explanation: Use the interest formula, P × R × T. Substitute the
values. Since interest is compounded semiannually, the time is 6
months. Multiply to solve.
19. 121.92 centimeters

Explanation: “Feet to centimeters” is the first item listed on the right
side of the "Conversion of Units of Length" table. Multiply 4 feet ×
30.48 = 121.92 centimeters.
20. 154 Canadian dollars

Explanation: The exchange rate for U.S. dollars to Canadian dollars is
0.77, so 200 × 0.77 = 154.
Flash Cards
1. Term: Whole Number
Definition: Any member of the following group: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12, 13...
2. Term: Adding
Definition: The process of combining numbers

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3. Term: Subtraction
Definition: Taking one number away from another number to make a
smaller total
4. Term: Multiplication
Definition: A shorthand of repeated additions
5. Term: Division
Definition: The process of finding how many times one number is
contained within another
6. Term: Fraction
Definition: Represents part of a whole that has been broken into pieces
7. Term: Proper Fraction

Definition: A fraction that is less than 1 (the numerator is less than the
denominator)
8. Term: Improper Fraction

Definition: A fraction that is equal to or greater than 1 (the numerator is
equal to or greater than the numerator)
9. Term: Decimal
Definition: Any real number expressed in base 10; another way of writing
a number that is less than 1
10. Term: Decimal Point (.)

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Definition: Indicates the beginning of a decimal
11. Term: Rate

Definition: In percentage problems, the rate is expressed either by the
word percent or by the symbol %
12. Term: Base

Definition: This term refers to the whole amount to which the rate is
applied
13. Term: Percentage

Definition: The part of the base, or part of the whole, that you’re often
asked to calculate. It’s the number that results from multiplying the base by
the rate.
14. Term: Net Salary

Definition: The money you receive in your paycheck after deductions
15. Term: Deductions

Definition: The amount of money taken out of a salary for taxes, medical
insurance, union dues, charity contributions, retirement funds, and so on
16. Term: Gross Salary

Definition: The total salaries before deductions are subtracted
17. Term: Simple Interest

Definition: This interest is found by multiplying a base amount by an
interest rate or percent and factoring in the consideration of time

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18. Term: Compound Interest
Definition: The interest that is added to the principal and future interest is
calculated on both the principal and the interest
19. Term: Base Units

Definition: Units of length, weight, and capacity are derived from these
units
20. Term: Conversion Factor

Definition: A number by which an amount in one unit is multiplied to obtain
the same amount in a different unit
Medical Office Procedures : Basic Grammar

for Allied Health
Lesson 2 Overview
Business correspondence differs from personal writing in that it’s generally

more formal than a letter or email you might write to a friend or family
member. It’s very important that business correspondence be written
accurately and be professional in tone and appearance, using correct
grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence and paragraph structure
every time.

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This lesson deals with basic
writing skills and using words
properly. We’ll look at the
process of writing, as well as
the parts of speech and how to
use them.
2.1 Identify the parts of

speech
Basic Grammar in Allied Health
READING ASSIGNMENT
Before you can write a clear and grammatically correct sentence, you must
have a command of the kinds of words you’ll use for speaking and writing.
In this section of your study unit, you’re going to examine seven different
types of words, or parts of speech. They are nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions.
Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, quality, idea, or action.
In fact, the word noun comes from the Latin word for name. To understand
what a noun is, study the following examples:
Person: Tom, Linda, president, priest, doctor

Place: Chicago, Iran, Europe, home
Thing: street, tree, cat, house, job
Quality: hardness, viscosity, joyousness
Idea: evolution, gravity, average, beauty
Action: running, talking, thinking

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In sentences, you can often identify what’s being named by the way the
words are ordered. For example, the standard, simple sentence order
begins with a subject—the person, place, thing, and so forth that is doing
something or being described by the word that follows, which is known as
a verb.
Finally, many simple sentences end with an object, something that is acted
upon by the subject. Most of the time, the subject and object are nouns,
which you can identify by their location in the sentence. In addition, you
can recognize nouns by the signal words that often precede them. Words
like a, an, the, this, these, that, those, my, your, his, her, its, and our are
very often followed by nouns.
Study the following sentences. All the nouns are italicized.
Examples: The children, scared by the storm, quickly ran to their bedroom
and crawled under the covers.
Sandra and Paul like traveling to Chicago, where they find enjoyment in
attending baseball games at Wrigley Field.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that stands in place of a noun. For example, the

sentence “Tom stood alone in the street” could be written “He stood alone
in the street.” In this sentence, the pronoun he takes the place of the noun
Tom.
Pronouns can be classified as personal, demonstrative, reflexive, intensive,

relative, interrogative, and indefinite.

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Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or thing. They’re grouped

according to the person doing the speaking. When using personal
pronouns, the speaker (or writer) should keep the following tips in mind:
Use first-person pronouns to refer to oneself.
Use second-person pronouns to refer to the person spoken to.
Use third-person pronouns to refer to a person or object being spoken

about.
The italicized words in the following sentence are personal pronouns.
Examples: I heard that you had planned to visit them.
We tried to convince him that our proposal was better than theirs.
Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
we, us,
First Person (to refer to oneself) I, me, my, mine our,
ours
Second Person (to refer to the you, your,
you, your, yours
person spoken to) yours
Third Person (to refer to a person he, she, him, her, they, them,
or object spoken about) his, hers, it, its their, theirs
Personal Pronoun Case

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The term case refers to the form of a noun or pronoun that shows its
relationship to other words in the sentence. In English, the three cases are
referred to as subjective or nominative (for subjects of a sentence),
objective (for nouns and pronouns that receive the action of a verbs), and
possessive. The pronoun case you should use depends on the pronoun’s
use in a sentence. Basically, a pronoun can serve one of three roles:
1. It can perform an action—that is, it can be the subject of a sentence.

(Use the subjective case.)
2. It can be the object of a verb or, as you’ll learn a little bit later on, an
object of a preposition. (Use the objective case.)
3. It can show possession. (Use the possessive case.)
Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case
Singular your, yours; his, her,

you; he, she, it you; him, her, it
Pronouns hers, its
Plural Pronouns we; they us; them our, ours; their, theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point out something being referred to. This, that,
these, and those are demonstrative pronouns when used by themselves in
place of a noun.
Examples: This is a pencil, but that is a pen.

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These are my socks; those are yours.
Reflexive Pronouns
Sometimes the suffix –self or –selves is added to a personal pronoun to

indicate that the action of the sentence is directed back to the performer of
the action. Such pronouns are called reflexive pronouns.
Examples: If you make a real effort to learn these concepts, you may
surprise yourself.
He beat himself at his own game.
In both of these examples, the action is directed back to the subject.
Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns take the same form as reflexive pronouns, but they’re
used differently. Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize the doer of the
action.
Examples: As we were talking about her, Linda herself walked through the
door.
If you want a job done right, you should do it yourself.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns connect two related parts of a sentence when one part
can’t stand on its own in a sentence. In general, relative pronouns can be
used to identify or add more information about one of the nouns in the
sentence. The words who, whom, which, and that are relative pronouns.

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Note that there is a slight difference between who and whom. Who is a
subject pronoun, and is used in cases where the relative pronoun is the
subject of the main verb of the sentence.
Whom is an object pronoun, and is used in cases where the relative

pronoun is the object, or receiver, of the action of the verb.
Examples: The woman who answered the phone was very pleasant.
The Roswell Building, which was constructed last year, has structural
flaws.
The shingles that fell from the roof were loosened by the wind.
We have 12 staff members, half of whom are technicians. (Whom modifies

the object of the verb “have.”)
Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns are who, whom, which, and what. You may
notice that these are the same as the relative pronouns. The difference is
in how they’re used. Interrogative pronouns are used at the beginning of
sentences to introduce a question.
Examples: Who submitted the winning proposal?
Whom do you think we should elect?
Which building has structural flaws?
What caused the shingles to fall?
Indefinite Pronouns

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Indefinite pronouns name classes or groups of persons or things. They
include such words as all, another, any, anybody, anyone, both, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, more, much, neither,
nobody, none, no one, several, some, somebody, someone, and such.
Examples: All of our sales representatives are highly qualified.
Some of the supervisors were trained through distance education courses.
None of the recent graduates are unemployed.
Verbs
A sentence must express a complete thought. Therefore, the nouns or

pronouns in any sentence must be either the source of some action or the
object of some action. That action is expressed by some form of a verb. A
verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being. In verbs like
cook, sing, run, and talk, the action is obvious. Other verbs, such as live,
hear, smell, want, think, and consider, express actions that are perceived
or sensed. Some verbs, like is, am, are, was, seem, become, grow, and
remain, simply suggest a state of being. Is, am, are, was, and other forms
of the verb to be are also known as linking verbs, because they link the
subject with another noun or pronoun that provides additional information
about the subject.
Examples: Carla is a dancer.
Elizabeth II is the queen of England.
An image of an verb can express action (A), a perceived

action (B), or a state of being (C).

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A verb can express action (A), a perceived action (B), or a
state of being (C)
Examples: The dog raced down the stairs. (The action verb is raced.)
He wondered when his friend would arrive. (Wondered is a verb in which

the action is sensed.)
She is president of the Rotary Club. (The verb is suggests a state of being.)
Many times, sentences contain more than one verb.
Examples: I think while I run.
She tested the equipment and found it to be faulty.
Some verb forms indicate when an action occurs. Grammatically, these

forms are referred to as verb tenses. In the first example above, think and
run are present tense verb forms, indicating that the action is taking place
in the present. In the second example, tested and found are past tense
forms, indicating that the actions occurred in the past. In some cases,
verbs like is, are, were, has, had, will, and have are added to indicate the

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time of the action. These are called helping verbs. Look at the following
examples.
Examples: Jim is running the race. (Action in the present)
Jim has run his race. (Action in the past)
Jim had run his race. (Action in the past)
Jim will run his race. (Action in the future)
Other helping verbs include do, does, did, can, could, shall, would, may,
might, must, is, am, are, and other forms of the verb “to be.”
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes, or modifies, a noun. It usually

precedes the noun it modifies and answers the question which one, what
kind, or how many.
Examples: The last child in line (Last answers the question which one.)
The tall tree (Tall answers the question what kind.)
Four boys (Four answers the question how many.)
Descriptive words can give your writing clarity. They present to your
audience a clearer picture of what you’re trying to say. For example,
consider how adjectives enhance the following sentences.
An image of an demonstration in the sentence “The

howling, ravenous wolves gathered under the clouddraped
full moon,” adjectives can add clarity to your writing, which

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in turn helps your reader to understand your meaning.
As demonstrated in the sentence “The howling, ravenous

wolves gathered under the cloud-draped full moon,”
adjectives can add clarity to your writing, which in turn
helps your reader to understand your meaning.
Without adjectives: The wolves gathered under the moon.
With adjectives: The howling, ravenous wolves gathered under the cloud-
draped full moon.
Without adjectives: The house was dwarfed by the office building next to it.
With adjectives: The small, white, ranch-style house was dwarfed by the
enormous high-rise office building next to it.
A special category of adjectives is referred to as articles, which are very

small words that describe a noun or a noun modified by another adjective.
There are two types of articles: definite (the), which indicates a specific
thing, and indefinite (a or an), which is more general or unspecific. The an
form of the indefinite article is used before nouns that begin with vowels.

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Examples: After the hot day, the cold drink tasted especially nice.
(Using the demonstrates that one particular day was hot and one particular
cold drink tasted nice.)
After a hot day, a cold drink tastes especially nice.
(Using a indicates a general statement, suggesting that any cold drink

would taste nice after any hot day.)
Adverbs
Like adjectives, adverbs modify other words. Adverbs, however, modify

verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They answer the question how,
when, where, or how much.
Examples: He writes effectively. (Effectively is an adverb that modifies the

verb writes. It tells how he writes.)
She submitted the report yesterday. (Yesterday is an adverb that modifies

the verb submitted. It tells when she submitted the report.)
Our office has been moved upstairs. (Upstairs is an adverb that modifies
the verb has been moved. It tells where the office has been moved.)
The fencer’s hand moves very rapidly. (Very is an adverb that modifies the
adverb rapidly. It tells how or how much.)
The extremely clever student solved the problem first. (Extremely is an

adverb that modifies the adjective clever. It tells how or how much.)
Many words that end in –ly are adverbs.

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Prepositions
A preposition clarifies or expresses a relationship between a word in a

sentence (either a noun or a verb) and a noun or pronoun. The noun or
pronoun that follows the preposition is referred as the object of the
preposition. The combination of a preposition and a noun—along with any
modifiers, such as adjectives and adverbs—or a pronoun is referred to as a
prepositional phrase. Prepositions usually indicate a temporal (when) or
spatial (where) relationship. Consider the following examples.
Examples of temporal relationship: We will work until noon. (Noon is the

object of the preposition until.)
After lunch, she will begin plans for the upcoming meeting. (Lunch is the
object of the preposition after.)
Examples of spatial relationship: He ran across the street. (Street is the

object of the preposition across.)
The Apple Deli stands beside the Bean Bakery. (Bean Bakery is the object
of the preposition beside.)
The English language has many prepositions. Some of the more common
ones are listed for you in the "Prepositions" table.
Prepositions

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about behind concerning of under
above beneath down off underneath
across below for on until
after between from since upon
against beyond in through with
along but into to within
amid by like toward without
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word used to connect two parts of a sentence. It can

connect words, phrases, or even complete sentences. There are several
different kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. Let’s
take a moment to look at each kind.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions link parts of a sentence that are equal in

importance—subjects, verbs, prepositional phrases, or even complete
thoughts.
Examples: Nancy and Rick graduated in the same year.
(The conjunction and joins the subjects, Nancy and Rick.)

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We planned the agenda and headed for the meeting. (The conjunction and
joins the verbs, planned and headed.)
You can get there through Pennsylvania or through Connecticut. (The

conjunction or joins two prepositional phrases, through Pennsylvania and
through Connecticut.)
We want to include a bibliography in the report, but that might make it too
long. (The conjunction but joins two independent ideas that are related.)
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions, such as either . . . or, not only . . . but also, both .
. . and, and whether . . . or, are used in pairs to show relationships of equal
importance between parts of a sentence.
Examples: Both the teacher and the student agreed on the study plan.
(The both . . . and correlative conjunction demonstrates a relationship
between the two subjects of the sentence, teacher and student.)
Either you decide now, or I’ll decide for you. (The either . . . or correlative
conjunction demonstrates a cause and effect relationship between two
ideas.)
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are used to connect and show the relationship

between two thoughts that might otherwise have been expressed as
separate sentences. Subordinating conjunctions serve two purposes. First,
they provide a transition between two thoughts, indicating relationship
based on time, place, or cause and effect. Second, they minimize the

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importance of—or subordinate—one thought in order to demonstrate the
greater importance of the other connected thought. The less important
thought is introduced by the subordinating conjunction. Common
subordinating conjunctions include words such as because, although,
since, unless, until, and while, as well as phrases as long as, as soon as,
even if, even though, and in order to.
Two thoughts: The proposal was accepted. We’ll have to work through
the holiday.
With a subordinating conjunction: Because the proposal was accepted,

we’ll have to work through the holiday.
Two thoughts: Installing the software requires experience. Its use does
not.
With a subordinating conjunction: Installing the software requires

experience, although its use does not.
Two thoughts: Jennifer goes outside. The sun starts to shine.
With a subordinating conjunction: Jennifer goes outside as soon as the

sun starts to shine.
Conjunctive Adverbs
As you learned earlier, adverbs are words that modify verbs and
conjunctions connect words, phrases or complete sentences. Conjunctive
adverbs are a special class of adverbs that connect two groups of words
that could stand on their own as individual sentences. They are generally
used to demonstrate relationships such as comparison or contrast,

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sequence, or cause and effect. As you’ll learn later in this study unit, there
are rules governing the use of punctuation in sentences that include
conjunctive adverbs. For now, study the examples below.
Two sentences: The new model is more fuel efficient. It costs significantly
more.
With a conjunctive adverb: The new model is more fuel efficient;

however, it costs significantly more.
Two sentences: The market sample was not representative of the region.
It failed to produce increased sales.
With a conjunctive adverb: The market sample was not representative of

the region; therefore, it failed to produce increased sales.
Conjunctions lists a variety of different conjunctions you should try to

incorporate into your professional writing.
Conjunctions
Coordinating Subordinating Conjunctive Correlative
and after also either...or
but although consequently neither...nor
not
or as finally only...but
also
nor because furthermore both...and
for before hence whether...or
so how however so...as

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if incidentally
once indeed
since instead
than likewise
that meanwhile
though nevertheless
till next
until nonetheless
when otherwise
where still
whether then
while therefore
thus
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, quality, idea, or

action.
A subject in a sentence is the person, place, thing, or other noun that
is doing something or being described by the word that follows.
A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.
An object in a sentence is something that is being acted upon by the
subject.
An adjective is a word that describes, or modifies, a noun.
An article is a very small adjective that describe a noun or a noun

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modified by another adjective.
A definite article (the) indicates a specific thing.
An indefinite article (a or an) is more general or unspecific.
An adverb describes verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
The standard, simple sentence order begins with a subject, followed
by a verb, and ending with an object.
A pronoun is a word that stands in place of a noun.
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or thing.
Case refers to the form of a noun or pronoun that shows its
relationship to other words in the sentence.
Subjective or nominative case pronouns are used for subjects of a
sentence.
Objective case pronouns are used for nouns and pronouns that
receive the action of a verb.
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession or demonstrate
ownership.
Demonstrative pronouns point out something being referred to.
Reflexive pronouns have the suffix –self or –selves added to a
personal pronoun to indicate that the action of the sentence is directed
back to the performer of the action.
Intensive pronouns have the suffix –self or –selves added to a
personal pronoun and are used to emphasize the doer of the action.
Relative pronouns connect two related parts of a sentence when one
part can’t stand on its own in a sentence.
Interrogative pronouns are used at the beginning of sentences to
introduce a question.
Indefinite pronouns name classes or groups of persons or things.
A preposition clarifies or expresses a relationship between a word in a

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sentence (either a noun or a verb) and a noun or pronoun.
The object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun that follows the
preposition.
A prepositional phrase is the combination of a preposition and a noun
or pronoun, along with any modifiers such as adjectives and adverbs.
A conjunction is a word used to connect two words, phrases, or
complete sentences.
Coordinating conjunctions link parts of a sentence that are equal in
importance—subjects, verbs, prepositional phrases, or even complete
thoughts.
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to show relationships of
equal importance between parts of a sentence.
Subordinating conjunctions are used to connect and show the
relationship between two thoughts that might otherwise have been
expressed as separate sentences.
Conjunctive adverbs are a special class of adverbs that connect two
groups of words that could stand on their own as individual sentences.
Discover More: Grammar
Based on your reading, answer the following:
1. Identify all of the nouns in the following the sentence: “The picnic
ended when an army of ants invaded our blanket.”
2. Identify all of the nouns in the following sentence: “Texting while
walking down the street can be hazardous to other pedestrians.
3. A writer should use _______ pronouns to refer to the person being
addressed.

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4. In the sentence, “While I was writing a memo to him, Bob himself sent
me an email,” the word himself is an example of what kind of pronoun?
5. Identify all of the verbs in the following sentence: “Technical and
business writing is something anyone can learn.”
6. In the sentence, “Ned works efficiently, but his poor attitude makes
him a risky employee,” the word efficiently is a(n) _______ and the
words poor and risky are _______.
7. Which kind of conjunction is used in the sentence, “I haven’t decided
whether to go out to dinner or not”?
8. A _______ usually indicates a temporal (when) or spatial (where)
relationship between one word in the sentence and a noun or
pronoun.
9. _______ conjunctions minimize the importance of one thought in a
sentence in order to demonstrate the greater importance of the other,
connected thought.
10. Which conjunctive adverbs correctly completes the sentence, “We
wanted to keep walking through the city; _______, it started to rain, so
we had to return to our hotel.”

Discover More: Grammar
1. picnic, blanket, army, ants

2. texting, walking, street, pedestrian
3. second-person
4. intensive
5. is, can, learn
6. adverb, adjectives
7. correlative

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8. preposition
9. Subordinating
10. however
2.2 Recognize subjects, predicates, compound subjects,

compound predicates, objects and clauses
Building Sentences
READING ASSIGNMENT
The sentence is the basis of all writing. If you can’t put together complete
and correct sentences, you aren’t writing. You can’t make sense without
sentences. Do you doubt it? Let’s see.
Suppose that when you were a child, your mother called you to her and
said, “Your allowance for this week.” You wouldn’t have known what she
meant. Probably, you would have asked something like, “What about my
allowance? Do I get that extra dollar?” Then your mother might have said,
“I’m sorry. Your allowance for this week remains the same.” Then you
would know! Your mother told you something—not what you wanted to
hear, but something that answered your question.
Suppose that your mother had said only, “Remains the same.” You would
have asked, “What remains the same?” And then she would have told you,
“Your allowance for this week remains the same.”
Your allowance for this week and remains the same are each only part of a
sentence. When used together, they form a complete sentence. In the

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following section, you’ll take a look at the different parts that make a
complete sentence. You’ll also examine some basic rules which, if followed
consistently, can help ensure that the various parts of speech you learned
about in the previous section are used correctly when you build a
sentence.
Sentence Structure
Whenever you express a complete thought in which you name something

and tell something about it, you’re composing a sentence. Now, let’s define
the sentence again.
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and

contains a subject and a predicate. The subject is what the sentence is
about. The predicate tells something about the subject.
When your mother said, “Your allowance for this week,” she was naming
something (allowance), but she wasn’t telling you anything about it. There
was no predicate. When your mother said, “Remains the same,” she was
telling you about something, but she didn’t say what that something was.
However, when your mother said, “Your allowance for this week remains
the same,” she spoke a complete sentence: Your allowance for this week
(subject)/remains the same (predicate).
So now let’s refine our definition of a sentence a little further. A sentence is

a group of words with a subject and predicate. A sentence expresses a
complete thought. As you’ll learn in the next section of this study unit, a
sentence is set off with a capital letter at the beginning, and ends with a
period, question mark, or exclamation point.

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Sentences can be short.
Example: They camped.
Or sentences can be long.
Example: The adventurers on the month-long camping expedition in the

tundra of the Yukon Territory looked forward to enjoying the familiar
conveniences of running water and electricity when they returned to their
homes in the Chicago suburbs.
Whether a sentence is short or long, each sentence needs at least two

parts of speech. It needs a person, place, thing, or idea—a naming part—
that’s called the subject. And it needs something for that subject to do—a
telling part—that’s called the predicate. To form a grammatical sentence,
the subject and predicate must express a complete, understandable
thought.
Never write a sentence without a subject or a predicate. Such a group of

words is called a sentence fragment. Fragments don’t make sense.
There’s one exception to this idea. When you write conversation (or
dialogue), you don’t always write in complete sentences, because people
don’t always talk in complete sentences. For example, in answer to the
question, “Are you going out tonight?” you answer, “Yes.” What you’re
really saying is, “Yes, I am going out tonight.” A reader would understand
the rest of the sentence even though it wasn’t written out.
Before you can learn more about sentence fragments, you need to find out
more about subjects and predicates.

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Subjects and Predicates
The noun or pronoun that names the person, place, thing, or idea is called
the simple subject. This noun or pronoun, plus any words that describe or
expand it, is called the complete subject. You can usually find the simple
subject by asking, “What or whom is the sentence about?”
Example: My closest friend plans to retire to England.
What or whom is this sentence about? Friend is the simple subject. Since
my closest modifies the noun friend, the complete subject is my closest
friend.
The simple predicate of a sentence is always a verb or verb phrase, called

the predicate verb. (A verb phrase is the main verb plus any helping verbs.)
The complete predicate of a sentence contains the verb or verb phrase and
all its modifiers. This is the part of the sentence that tells what’s going on
with the subject. You can usually find the predicate by asking, “What’s
being said about the subject?” or “What did the subject do?” or “What
happened?”
We ask, “What’s being said about my closest friend?” The answer is, “He
plans to retire to England.” So we know that plans to retire to England is
the complete predicate. What’s the simple predicate or predicate verb?
Only verbs can be simple predicates, and in this group of words there’s
only one—plans.
A good way to test your choice of simple subject and simple predicate is to
put the words together in a simple sentence that gives you the kernel of the
main idea:

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Friend plans.
That makes sense. The rest of the words in the sentence describe the
friend and what that friend plans. Let’s look at another example:
My brother Roger baked a cake last night.
Whom or what is the sentence about? My brother Roger is the complete

subject; Roger is the simple subject. What did the subject do? Baked a
cake last night is the complete predicate, and baked is the predicate verb.
Sometimes it’s easier to locate the verb first and then to look for the
subject.
Example: During the rock concert, an amplifier exploded on stage.
What happened? Exploded on stage during the rock concert is the

complete predicate, exploded is the simple predicate. Who or what
exploded? An amplifier is the complete subject, and amplifier is the simple
subject.
Compound Subjects and Predicates
The word compound means more than one. In writing, you can compound
any element—a subject, object, verb, or sentence. For example, a
sentence can have more than one noun or pronoun as its subject. A
subject having more than one noun or pronoun is called a compound
subject.
Take a look at the following examples.
An image of the snow and ice

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made travel difficult.” the
sentence has two nouns,
creating a compound subject.
“The snow and ice made travel

difficult.” The sentence has two
nouns, creating a compound
subject.
Simple subject: The snow made travel difficult.
Compound subject: The snow and ice made travel difficult.
The first sentence has one noun as its subject—snow. The second
sentence has two nouns as its subject—snow and ice.
She and I went to the rock concert.
Donald and he are going swimming
Soccer and football can be dangerous sports.
Richard, Hyacinth, Elizabeth, and Emmett went skating.
A compound subject may consist of more than two nouns or pronouns. A

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sentence may also have more than one verb to tell something about the
subject. A predicate having more than one verb is called a compound
predicate. Study the following examples.
Simple predicate: The workday begins promptly.
Compound predicate: The workday begins and ends promptly.
The second sentence has two verbs as its predicate: begins and ends.
Each makes a statement about the subject, workday.
Additionally, a sentence may have both a compound subject and a

compound predicate.
Sue and Joe talked and laughed in the hall.
In this example, the compound subject consists of Sue and Joe, while
talked and laughed form the compound predicate.
Identifying the simple or compound subject and predicate verb in a

sentence is important for two reasons. First, you must have a subject and a
predicate to have a complete sentence. Second, you must know what the
subject of each verb is so you can make the subject and verb agree—a
topic that will be examined a little later.
More about Subjects and Predicates
Once you learn to spot the subject and predicate in a sentence quickly and
habitually, you’ve gone a long way toward writing correct and complete
sentences. You know now that
1. The subject is what the sentence is about.

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2. The predicate tells something about the subject.
In a sentence like the following one, it’s very simple to pick out the subject
and predicate:
I am going.
(subject: I ) (predicate: am going.)
An image of modifiers, such as

"whom I am going to marry,"
are part of the complete
subject.
Modifiers, such as "whom I am

going to marry," are part of the
complete subject.
But not all sentences are as simple. Take one like this:
Evelyn, whom I am going to marry, will leave from the National Airport for
New York tomorrow.
This looks a little harder, doesn’t it? But it’s really not.

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In the first sentence, whom are you talking about? Evelyn, whom I am
going to marry. This is your subject—your whole subject. The simple
subject is Evelyn. Whom I am going to marry is a modifier. A modifier is
any word or group of words added to another word to make the meaning
clear or to express the idea more fully, more effectively, and more
precisely. Evelyn, whom I am going to marry, is the complete subject. Note
that in this case, although Evelyn is the simple subject, the modifier used
here is a relative pronoun whom, not who. That’s because in this case the
relative pronoun is the object of “I am going to marry.”
What about the predicate? That’s easy, too. As you know, every predicate
must have a verb for its base, called the predicate verb. What follows are
the modifiers, which do the same for the predicate verb as they do for the
subject. They give a fuller, more detailed, more accurate idea of the verb.
Together with the predicate verb, they tell something about the subject.
Now, what is the predicate verb in the first example sentence? Will leave is
the predicate verb, with will used as a helping verb to the main verb leave.
The rest of the predicate—from the National Airport for New York
tomorrow—modifies will leave.
from the National Airport (From where?)
for New York (To where?)
tomorrow (When?)
Now let’s look at a second example sentence:
After a few moments, Charles rose from his seat, ran to the telephone, and

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started dialing frantically as if he were reporting a fire.
Subject: Charles (That’s all—no modifier. Everything else but Charles is

the predicate.
Predicate verb: rose, ran, started (There are three here.) This is called a
compound predicate. It contains more than one verb.
Modifier: After a few moments (The modifier tells when Charles rose, ran,
and started. Since the phrase modifies the verbs, it’s part of the predicate,
even though it comes before the subject.)
Note that in some cases, the subject is implied but not stated—as in the
command, “Move that car.” The subject, you, is implied. Since the subject
isn’t stated, the entire sentence is a predicate. This group of words is a
complete sentence, however.
Remember, too, that the subject isn’t always the first word in the sentence.
Sometimes the subject comes in the middle of the sentence or close to the
end. But you can’t miss it if you just keep asking yourself, what or whom is
the sentence talking about?
Additionally, linking verbs and verbs that express a state of being may be
followed by nouns, pronouns, or adjectives that complete the meaning of
the predicate. These are known as predicate complements. In general,
when the complement is a noun or pronoun, it is referred to as a predicate
nominative and answers “What?” or “Who?” after a linking verb.
Examples: Bianca is a diligent worker. (Diligent worker answers the

question “What?”)

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The winner is you. (The pronoun you answers the question “Who?”)
When the complement is an adjective, it is referred to as a predicate

adjective. Even though the adjective doesn’t precede the subject, it still
serves to describe the subject.
Examples: Irina and Julianne were upset. (Upset is an adjective that

answers the question “What?”)
Alfonso seems sad. (The adjective sad also answers the question “What?”
by completing the meaning of the verb seems.)
Let’s summarize what we know about sentences.
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought

and contains a subject and predicate.
The subject is what the sentence is about, and the predicate tells
something about the subject.
A group of words without a subject and a predicate is a sentence

fragment.
Simple subjects and predicate verbs each can have modifiers that are
part of the complete subject or complete predicate.
Objects
Direct Objects
An image of "the archer hits the

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target." The noun target is the
direct object of the verb hits
"The archer hits the target." The

noun target is the direct object
of the verb hits.
Let’s examine the following sentence:
The archer hits the target.
Here, we have a complete sentence. It has a subject and a predicate. The

complete predicate contains various elements. In the complete predicate,
we can easily recognize the verb hits. Another element found in this
complete predicate is the direct object, which is a noun or pronoun that is
directly affected by the action of a verb or reflects the result of the action.
To identify the direct object of a verb, ask yourself a question. Compose

the question using just the verb and the word what or whom. For example,
in our sentence, the verb is hits. Ask, “Hits what?” The answer is the target,
which is the complete direct object of the verb hits. Now, let’s analyze the
complete predicates of some other sentences.
Example: The treasurer compiled a long statistical report.

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The treasurer is the complete subject. The remainder of the sentence,
compiled a long statistical report, is the complete predicate. We see that
the verb is compiled; so we ask, “Compiled what?” Our answer, a long
statistical report, is the complete direct object. The simple object is report,
and the words a, long, and statistical are its modifiers.
Example: Carol opened the door.
Carol is the complete subject. The remainder of the sentence, opened the
door, must be the complete predicate. Opened is the verb. Ask, “Opened
what?” The answer, the door, is the complete direct object of the verb.
Example: Yesterday I attended an inspiring concert.
The complete subject is I. Yesterday answers the question “When?” and is,
therefore, an adverb, modifying the verb attended. The complete predicate
is attended an inspiring concert yesterday. The verb is attended. Ask,
“Attended what?” The answer, an inspiring concert, is the complete direct
object.
Indirect Objects
An indirect object is the person or thing to or for whom the action of the
verb is done.
Example: Richard bought Elizabeth a new car.
What did Richard buy? A new car. Car is the direct object. For whom did
Richard buy the car? For Elizabeth. Elizabeth is the indirect object.
Example: The salesperson sold me a truck.

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What did the salesperson sell? A truck. Truck is the direct object. To whom
did the salesperson sell the truck? To me. Me is the indirect object.
In both of those examples, the indirect object stands just after the verb and
before the direct object. That’s the usual structure of a sentence that has
both an indirect and a direct object.
Example: Anna bought herself a new briefcase.
Bought what? Briefcase, which is the direct object because it tells us what
Anna bought. For whom did Anna buy the briefcase? For herself. The
indirect object is herself. Pronouns ending in self (singular) and selves
(plural) can be used as indirect objects.
Clauses
When you have paid your dues.
Is that a sentence? Let’s apply the tests. Does it have a subject? Yes. You
is the subject. Does it have a predicate? Yes. Have paid your dues is the
predicate. Does it express a complete thought? No. There’s a question in
your mind, isn’t there? What will happen when you have paid your dues?
Something is missing here. When you have paid your dues is incomplete. It
needs something else—something like this: When you have paid your
dues, you will get your membership card. Now it’s complete. Now it
answers the question, what will happen?
What, then, is When you have paid your dues? It’s a dependent, or
subordinate, clause. It can’t stand alone. It depends on something else in
the sentence for support. It needs something else to complete its meaning:
you will get your membership card. You will get your membership cardis

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an independent, or main, clause. It can stand alone. It needs no support.
Its meaning is clear and complete. The dependent clause modifies the
predicate verb so it’s part of the complete predicate.
You’ll have no difficulty with the independent clause. It’s the dependent
clause that fools people. So let’s take another look at it.
A dependent clause depends on an independent clause for support. A

dependent clause has
A subject
A predicate
An introduction by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun
As you learned in the previous section, words like when, where, although,
because, since, and while are subordinating conjunctions. They join the
dependent clause with the independent clause.
You also learned about the relative pronouns who, which, that, whose, and
whom. When these words are used, they introduce dependent clauses,
which are called relative (or adjectival) clauses.
When you see any of these words, subordinating conjunctions or relative

pronouns, stop and look for a dependent clause. Be sure that you don’t use
this dependent clause alone as a sentence.
A sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more

dependent clause is called a complex sentence. Here’s an example of a

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complex sentence:
While he was reading his paper (dependent clause), someone picked his
pocket (independent clause).
A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses but no

dependent clauses is called a compound sentence. In a compound
sentence, the independent clauses are generally connected by
coordinating conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor. Sometimes the
conjunctions are omitted and special punctuation marks, known as
semicolons, are used instead.
Examples: I like green tea, but Marjorie prefers rooibos tea. (Two
independent clauses are joined by but.)
I like green tea; Marjorie prefers rooibos tea. (Two independent clauses
are joined by a semicolon.)
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
The subject is what the sentence is about.

The predicate has a verb for its base and tells something about the
subject.
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought
and contains a subject and a predicate.
A simple subject is the noun or pronoun that names the person, place,
thing, or idea.
The complete subject is the noun or pronoun plus any words that

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describe or expand it.
A compound subject is a sentence subject with more than one noun or
pronoun.
A compound predicate is a sentence predicate with more than one
verb.
A modifier is any word or group of words added to another word to
make the meaning clear or to express the idea more fully, more
effectively, and more precisely.
A direct object is a noun or pronoun that is directly affected by the
action of a verb or reflects the result of the action.
An indirect object is the person or thing to or for whom the action of
the verb is done.
An independent clause has meaning on its own. It doesn’t depend on
something else in the sentence.
A dependent or subordinate clause depends on something else in the
sentence to complete its meaning. Dependent clauses can’t stand
alone.
A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses.
Discover More: Subjects, Verbs, and Predicates
1. Identify the complete subject in the following sentence: “Rose’s lost

briefcase contained the only copy of the proposal.”
2. Identify the predicate verb in the following sentence: “Job pressures
make it difficult to maintain personal friendships.”

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3. A predicate that has more than one verb is known as a _______
predicate.
4. A(n) _______ is the person or thing to or for whom the action of the
verb is done.

Discover More: Subjects, Verbs, and Predicates
1. Rose’s lost briefcase

2. make
3. compound
4. indirect object
2.3 Explain subject-verb agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement
READING ASSIGNMENT
Subject-verb agreement is an important part of sentence structure. When

the subject is a pronoun, a mistake can be especially noticeable. The
following comic verse illustrates the mess that can occur when agreement
is ignored:
Am her gone? Have her went?
Did her left I all alone?
Us can never went to she!

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Her can never came to we!
Almost all the problems in this jingle are due to violations of a basic
principle: A verb and its subject must agree in person and number. Take a
look at the following three rules in regard to the terms person and number,
which you learned a bit about earlier when looking at personal pronouns:
1. First person indicates the person who is speaking or writing. (I is a

singular first-person pronoun; we is a plural first-person pronoun.)
2. Second person indicates the person spoken or written to. (You is a

both a singular and a plural second-person pronoun.)
3. Third person refers to the person or thing spoken or written about (he,
she, it, singular third-person pronouns; they is a plural third-person
pronoun.)
Number indicates whether it’s one or more than one person or thing.
Singular number means one person or thing. Plural number means more
than one.
The sentences that follow illustrate how pronouns and verbs change to
agree in person and number.
First person, singular: I am an American.
Second person, singular: You are an American.
Third person, singular: John is an American.
Third person, plural: John and Judy are Americans.

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You can see the same principle of agreement when other verbs are used.
First person, singular: I eat organic food.
Second person, singular: You eat organic food.
Third person, singular: John eats organic food.
Third person, plural: John and Judy eat organic food.
Agreement must also be considered when using certain helping verbs.
First person, singular: I don’t like sad movies.
Second person, singular: You don’t like sad movies.
Third person, singular: John doesn’t like sad movies.
Third person, plural: John and Judy don’t like sad movies.
Subject-Verb Agreement: Number
As you may have noticed from the previous examples, if the subject is
singular, the verb must also be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb
must be plural. Fortunately, listening to and regularly using the English
language will serve you well in determining the correct verb form to use. In
addition, your computer’s grammar check feature can help eliminate many
(but not all) errors in verbs. Still, a review of verb and subject agreement
may be helpful.
First, most verbs form their plurals opposite to the way nouns do. For
example, the noun table (without an s) is singular; the noun tables (with an
s) is plural. However, the verb need (without an s) is plural; the verb needs

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(with an s) is singular.
Examples: The table needs to be repaired. (The singular noun table takes
the singular verb needs.)
The tables need to be repaired. (The plural noun tables takes the plural
verb need.)
Now let’s look at some common subject-verb agreement problems you

may encounter.
The subject is separated from the verb by one or more intervening

words. For example, what is the correct verb for the following sentence?
Example: The use of computers by businesses (increase, increases) daily.
To determine the correct verb, ask yourself who or what is doing the
increasing. Is it the businesses, the computers, or the use? The correct
answer is use, which is a singular subject. Therefore, the sentence should
read:
The use of computers by businesses increases daily.
Example: The type of books chosen for the reports (affect, affects) the
outcome.
To determine the correct verb, ask yourself who or what is doing the
affecting. Is it the type, the books, or the report? The correct answer is
type, which is a singular subject. Therefore, the sentence should read:
The type of books chosen for the reports affects the outcome.

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Example: One of my cousins was married last week.
It wasn’t cousins who were married, just one cousin. One is the subject.
(Cousins is the object of the preposition of.) We need the singular verb
was.
Example: Our neighbors, together with their cousin, are buying a house.
Are buying agrees with the plural subject neighbors. Although the cousin is
also in on the purchase, cousin acts as the object of the preposition with,
not as the subject.
Example: Their cousin, along with their neighbors, is buying a house.
Is buying agrees with the singular subject cousin.
The subject looks plural in form but is singular in meaning. Some

examples are economics, electronics, gymnastics, mathematics, news,
physics, and robotics. Because these words end in the letter s, they seem
to be plural. In fact, however, they represent a single concept.
Examples: Electronics is a field that has grown by leaps and bounds.
The economics of shipping heavy equipment is an important factor in

sales.
Mathematics is the subject that gives me the most difficulty.
The subject is a unit of measurement. Although a measurement

generally appears plural in form, it expresses a single amount of
something. Words used in this way take singular verbs.

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Examples: Eight hours is no longer the maximum workday in our
company.
Twelve inches is the standard length of a ruler.
The sentence contains an indefinite pronoun. Such pronouns may be

either singular or plural, depending on how they’re used in a sentence.
When you use words such as all, more, most, none, or some, determine
what noun they’re referring to. If the noun is a word that represents
individual things you can count, use the plural form of the verb.
Examples: All of the machines are under repair. (Since you can count the
individual machines, use a plural verb.)
Some of the circuits were replaced. (Since you can count the circuits, use
a plural verb.)
If an indefinite pronoun refers to a noun that represents something you

can’t count, use a singular verb.
Examples: All of the machinery is under repair.
Some of the circuitry was replaced.
A group of words in a sentence is introduced by the pronoun who or

that. In such cases, you should make the verb agree with the word to
which the pronoun refers.
Examples: Mr. Donner is a partner who makes his presence known. (The
word who refers to the word partner, which is singular. Therefore, the verb
that follows who should also be singular.)

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James and Carla are the partners who make their presence known. (The
word who refers to the word partners, which is plural. Therefore, the verb
that follows who should also be plural.)
Compound Subjects
An image of "either Kelly or

Jack is going to help you."
Using either/or indicates one,
but not both; therefore, the verb
must be in the singular form.
"Either Kelly or Jack is going to

help you." Using either/or
indicates one, but not both;
therefore, the verb must be in
the singular form.
Getting a subject and a verb to agree isn’t difficult for sentences with a
single subject. Sentences with compound subjects may be more difficult.
Many people have trouble with subjects made up of two or more nouns or

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pronouns. These nouns or pronouns are joined by connectives. And, or,
either/or and not only/but also are connectives that can cause problems.
For instance, which verb—is or are—is correct in this sentence?
Neither Margaret nor her manager is/are going.
The singular verb is should be used because neither is singular (think

neither one).
Number agreement problems may also arise in the following cases:
The subject is a collective noun.
The Operations Committee is/are discussing the new software. (Is

committee singular or plural?)
The sentence is inverted.
From this old elm fall/falls many leaves. (Should the verb agree with
elm or with leaves?)
The subject is separated from the verb.
One of my five colleagues has/have arrived. (The phrase of my five

colleagues separates the subject one from its verb.)
After you’ve studied the paragraphs that follow, you’ll understand that the
correct choices in the sentences are is, fall, and has.
Subjects Joined by And

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When the parts of a compound subject are joined by and, they take a plural
verb if they refer to different people, ideas, or things.
Examples: John and Henry are close friends.
You and I were present.
When such subject parts denote a single concept, person, or thing, they
require a singular verb. In the sentence “Our secretary and our treasurer
are on vacation,” we’re speaking of two different persons. A plural verb is
required. If we say, “Our secretary and treasurer is an able executive”
(meaning only one person), a singular verb is used.
Plural: Bread and butter have gone up in price. (We’re talking about two
different items.)
Singular: Bread and butter tastes good. (We’re talking about bread and
butter as one dish of food. Other examples could be spaghetti and
meatballs, and ham and eggs.)
Note that an article (such as a, an, or the) or a possessive adjective (such

as my, our, or your) may precede the first part of a compound subject. In
this case, the modifier should be repeated before the second part, unless
the meaning is already clear. “My secretary and bookkeeper” would mean
only one person. “My secretary and my bookkeeper” makes it clearer that
the sentence refers to two people.
Also, watch out for nouns that are introduced by each, every, no, or many a
when you’re deciding subject and verb agreement. When these modifiers
come before nouns, even if several such nouns are joined by and, the
nouns are singular.

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Examples: Every man, every woman, and every child was on the alert.
Many a play and many a novel has been set in Paris.
In both of those examples, the individual items that make up the subjects
of the sentences are considered separate, singular components, even
though they’re joined by and.
Subjects Joined by Or and Other Similar Words
Often, the parts of a compound subject are joined by such words as or,
either/or, neither/nor, or not only/but also. Such words separate or offer
choices between the subject parts. In sentences containing such words,
apply one of the following rules:
If both parts of the subject are singular, use a singular verb.
Neither oil nor gas was available.
John or Helen is going.
If both parts of the subject are plural, use a plural verb.
Either books or flowers are acceptable.
If one part of the subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb
should agree with the one nearer the verb.
Not only John but also his assistants were late. (Assistants, which is

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plural, is nearer to the verb than John.)
Not only the assistants but also John was late. (Now it’s the singular
noun John that’s nearer to the verb.)
Collective Nouns as Subjects
Many people are unsure about which verb form, singular or plural, to use
with collective nouns. For example, they might have difficulty with the
following sentence:
“The jury has/have returned a verdict.”
Has is correct because the jury as one unit returns the verdict. Let’s review
the characteristics of collective nouns. A collective noun is the name of a
collection or group of persons, places, or things. Army, class, club,
committee, family, flock, jury, navy, and tribe are examples of collective
nouns.
Collective Nouns

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assembly crowd minority
audience department nation
board faculty race
chorus family society
class firm staff
club flock strain
committee gathering team
community group tribe
company herd turnout
congregation jury union
council management variety
A collective noun may take either a singular or a plural verb. Whether it’s
singular or plural depends on how the word is used. If the members of the
group are considered as one unit, then the verb is singular. If they’re
thought of as separate individuals, the verb is plural.
For example, it’s correct to say “The committee has completed (singular) its
investigation,” because the members of the committee have acted as a
whole. However, we would say “The committee are divided (plural) in their
opinions,” because the members of the committee are acting individually.

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Any pronouns referring to collective nouns must agree in number with the
verb. Don’t say, for example, “The club is going to have their meeting
soon.” Club and is are singular. Instead of the plural pronoun their, we use
the singular pronoun its: “The club is going to have its meeting soon.”
Here are some guidelines to help you make sure that the subject of a
sentence agrees in person and number with its verb:
An image of "the many bruises

around the cut make it look
serious." To more easily see if a
verb should be singular or
plural, look at the sentence
without the prepositional
phrase, "around the cut."
"The many bruises around the

cut make it look serious." To
more easily see if a verb should
be singular or plural, look at the
sentence without the
prepositional phrase,"around
the cut."

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Identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. Don’t include
other words, such as articles or adjectives, with the simple subject.
Also, don’t include other words, such as adverbs, with the simple
predicate. Make it simple!
A subject is usually at the beginning of a sentence, but it may also be

in the middle or at the end.
The subject of a verb is never in a prepositional phrase.
Never mistake the words here or there for the subject. When you see
a here or there, turn the sentence around in your mind so that the
subject becomes clear to you.
Here is your coat. (Think, Your coat is here. Coat is the subject.)
There are 10 letters to answer. (Think, 10 letters are there to answer.

Letters is the subject.)
Sometimes the subject is missing from a sentence, although it’s

understood to exist. This occurs most often with commands:
Shut the door. (Shut is the simple predicate. Who or what is told to
shut the door? The answer is you, even though you isn’t explicitly
stated in the sentence.)
A sentence may have more than one subject and more than one
verb.

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Two subjects: John and Carl played golf.
Two verbs: Carl played golf and took a sauna.
Two subjects and two verbs: John and Carl played golf and took a
sauna.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
A verb and its subject must agree in person and number.

First person indicates the person who is speaking or writing.
Second person indicates the person spoken or written to.
Third person refers to the person or thing spoken or written about.
Number indicates whether it’s one or more than one person or thing.
Singular number means one person or thing.
Plural number means more than one.
Some subjects can look plural in form, but be singular in meaning.
If an indefinite pronoun is a word that represents individual things you
can count, use the plural form of the verb.
If an indefinite pronoun refers to a noun that represents something
you can’t count, use a singular verb.
When the parts of a compound subject are joined by and, they take a
plural verb if they refer to different people, ideas, or things.
When the parts of a compound subject are joined by and, they take on
a single verb if they denote a single concept, person, or thing.
When parts of a compound subject separate or offer choices between

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the subject parts, if both parts of the subject are singular, use a
singular verb.
the subject parts, if both parts of the subject are plural, use a plural
verb.
the subject parts, if one part of the subject is singular and the other is
plural, use the verb that agrees with the subject nearer the verb.
A collective noun is the name of a collection or group of persons,
places, or things.
When the members of a collective noun are considered one unit, use
a singular verb.
When the members of a collective noun are thought of as separate
individuals, use a plural verb.
Any pronouns referring to collective nouns must agree in number with
the verb.
Discover More: Subject-Verb Agreement
Choose one verb in parenthesis that correctly matches the subject.
1. She and her friends (is, are) at fault.

2. One of the boxes (is, are) open.
3. Carl (run, runs) to the park every day.
4. My family (has, have) never been able to agree.

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Discover More: Subject-Verb Agreement
1. are
2. is
3. runs
4. has
2.4 Use pronouns correctly

Choosing Pronouns Correctly
READING ASSIGNMENT
Earlier you learned that only nouns and pronouns can be subjects of a
sentence. When writing long or complex sentences, pronouns can be very
useful if used correctly. However, if used incorrectly, pronouns can make
the sentence unclear or grammatically incorrect. Let’s take a look at some
guidelines that can help you make a decision.
Clear Antecedents
As you already know, a pronoun is a word that stands in place of a noun.

The noun itself is called the antecedent of the pronoun. Consider this
sentence.
Example: The supervisor of the department was recognized for the extra
effort he contributed to the campaign.
In this sentence, the pronoun he takes the place of the noun supervisor.
Therefore, supervisor is the antecedent of he.

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When you use a pronoun in your writing, make sure that it has only one
possible antecedent. In other words, make sure you make it clear what the
antecedent is.
Unclear antecedent: Charlene kept in close touch with the department

manager while she was on vacation. (In this sentence, the pronoun she
could refer to either Charlene or the department manager.)
Clear antecedent: While Charlene was on vacation, she kept in close

touch with the department manager. (In this sentence, the pronoun she
clearly refers to Charlene.)
Unclear antecedent: George called Harold three times while he was in

the meeting. (Does the pronoun he refer to George or Harold? Unless you
know who was in the meeting, you would have no way of answering that
question.)
Clear antecedent: While Harold was in the meeting, George called him
three times.
Unclear antecedent: Engineers can be left behind if they don’t keep up

with the latest research, for it is a rapidly growing field. (This sentence
contains two pronouns: they and it. The pronoun they clearly refers to the
noun engineers, but what does the pronoun it refer to? Does it refer to the
field of engineering or the field of research? From the context, you can
guess what the writer meant, but you can’t be certain.)
Clear antecedent: Engineers can be left behind if they don’t keep up with
the latest research, for engineering is a rapidly growing field. (To correct
the problem, you can substitute a noun for the pronoun.)

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Pronoun Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender. For example, if the
pronoun refers to a female, use the pronoun she, her, or hers. If the
pronoun refers to a male, use the pronoun he, him, or his.
Examples: Linda is at her best under stress. (The pronoun her refers to the
female Linda.)
Franco promoted his plan for a sales campaign. (The pronoun his refers to
the male Franco.)
A pronoun must also agree with its antecedent in number. If the antecedent
is singular, the pronoun must also be singular; if the antecedent is plural,
the pronoun must be plural.
Examples: Women often do their best under stress. (The plural pronoun
their refers to the plural noun women.)
Although the book was sitting in clear view, James did not see it. (The
singular pronoun it refers to the singular noun book.)
Charlotte brings her lunch to work almost every day. (The singular pronoun
her refers to the singular noun Charlotte.)
Now consider the following example:
Incorrect agreement: Although the typical computer is easy to operate,

sometimes they present problems. (The antecedent of the plural pronoun
they is the singular noun computer. Therefore, the pronoun and noun don’t
agree.)

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Correct agreement: Although typical computers are easy to operate,
sometimes they present problems.
Although the typical computer is easy to operate, sometimes it can present

problems.
For the most part, the sentences in these examples are rather
straightforward. That is, you can readily determine whether to use a
singular or a plural pronoun. However, when a pronoun has two or more
antecedents joined by a conjunction like or, neither . . . nor, or and, the
choice may not be as clear.
Singular antecedents joined by and. When two singular antecedents are

joined by the conjunction and, they require a plural pronoun.
Example: Maxwell and Brandt have their first job interviews on Friday.
The phrase Maxwell and Brandt means the same as Maxwell plus Brandt.
Together, the antecedents are plural and require the plural pronoun their.
Singular antecedents joined by or. When two singular antecedents are

joined by the conjunction or, neither . . . nor, or either . . . or, they require a
singular pronoun.
Example: Becky or Linda will have her interview on Friday.
In essence, this sentence is saying that either Becky will have her interview
on Friday, or Linda will have her interview on Friday—but not both.
Therefore, a singular pronoun is used.
Plural antecedents joined by or. When two plural antecedents are joined

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by the conjunction or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, they require a plural
pronoun.
Example: The Joneses or the Browns take their vacation during July.
Even though the antecedents are joined by the conjunction or, they’re both
plural—hence, the use of the plural pronoun their.
Singular and plural antecedents joined by or. A special problem occurs

when two antecedents, one singular and one plural, are joined by the
conjunction or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor. In such cases, the pronoun
should agree with the antecedent closer to the pronoun.
Examples: Neither the owner nor the operators could clear their names
from the charge.
Neither the operators nor the owner could clear her (or his) name from the
charge.
In the first sentence, the plural antecedent operators is closer to the

pronoun; therefore, a plural pronoun is used. In the second sentence, the
singular antecedent owner is closer to the pronoun; therefore, a singular
pronoun is used.
Using pronouns with collective nouns. As discussed earlier, a collective

noun is a word that’s singular in form but may be plural in meaning. A
collective noun may require either a singular or a plural pronoun,
depending on the intent of the sentence.
Plural pronoun: The family expressed their opinions on the matter. (The
collective noun family requires a plural pronoun their, because each family

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member expressed an individual opinion.)
Singular pronoun: Each family had its own cabin on the lake. (The
collective noun family requires a singular pronoun its, because the family
as a group had one cabin.)
Plural pronoun: The staff worked on their projects in separate offices.

(The collective noun staff requires a plural pronoun their, because each
staff member had a separate project to work on.)
Singular pronoun: The staff met to discuss its new project. (The collective
noun staff requires a singular pronoun its, because the staff as a group has
one project.)
Pronoun Problems
As you’ve learned, pronouns are noun substitutes. Unlike the nouns they
replace, however, personal pronouns, in most instances, change spelling
and meaning, depending on whether they’re being used in the nominative,
objective, or possessive case. Such shifts can cause some confusion in
determining which form of the pronoun to use in a sentence.
Nominative or Objective Case
When a pronoun serves as the subject or predicate complement, it’s in the

nominative case.
Subject: He and she shared the award.
Predicate complement: The winners of the prize were Mark and she.
(Recall that a predicate complement answers the question “What?” or

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“Who?” after a linking verb like to be or any of its forms: be, am, is, are,
was, were, being, has been, have been, had been.)
If the pronoun is an object—direct object, indirect object, object of a

preposition—it’s in the objective case.
Direct object: Bill found Tony and brought him home.
(The direct object is the receiver of the action of the verb. It answers the
questions “Who?” or “What?” after the verb.)
Indirect object: Mary gave me a leather-bound book.
(The indirect object indicates to or for whom something is done.)
Object of a preposition: Jennifer brought her friend home with her.
(The object of a preposition answers the question “Who?” or “What?” after

a preposition. Some common prepositions are in, on, at, by, to, for, from,
and with.)
Once you’ve mastered those basic differences between the nominative and
objective cases of pronouns and their uses, you won’t have much trouble
making appropriate pronoun choices. There are some situations, however,
that may still cause you problems. For instance, when a pronoun is part of
a compound joined by and, it’s sometimes easy to be misled as to the
correct pronoun form.
Example: Everyone laughed as Mary told the story about how her brother
and she almost missed their bus back from New York City.
In this sentence, her brother and she are both subjects of the verb missed.

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Taking away the words her brother and will help you see more clearly
which pronoun case is needed.
Example: Just between you and me, I think Phil is a terrible bore.
So many people at the present time say between you and I that between
you and me may not sound correct to you. But it is. The word between is a
preposition, and the pronouns you and me are its objects. Of course, you
don’t have a problem with you since it’s the same in both nominative and
objective cases.
Appositive Pronouns
An appositive is a noun or pronoun that renames another noun or pronoun.

Appositive pronouns have the same case as the noun or pronoun they’re
renaming.
Example: The winners of the contest, Martha and I, won a trip to

Switzerland.
In this sentence the words Martha and I rename the winners of the contest.
Since the appositives are renaming the subject of the sentence, they’ll be
in the nominative case.
Example: The reporter interviewed the two witnesses to the accident,

Harry and her.
Harry and her are the witnesses, but witnesses is the direct object of the
verb interviewed. Hence, the objective case (Harry and her) is necessary.
When we or us is used as part of a noun phrase, the choice will depend on

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the use of the noun in the sentence.
Example: We girls had the time of our lives on the town last night. (Girls is
the subject of the sentence, so the nominative case, we, is needed.)
Parts of sentences are often omitted after the words than or as. To
determine the proper pronoun choice, try to fill in the words that have been
omitted and then decide how the word is being used in its clause.
Example: Jerry is a much better player than he. (The word that has been
omitted is is. Can you see now that the pronoun is the subject of a clause
and thus must be he, nominative case?)
Example: We respected no one as much as her. (Here the wordswe

respected have been omitted before the pronoun. In its own clause, the
pronoun is the object of the verb respected—implied but not stated—and
therefore the proper choice is the objective form, her.)
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
An antecedent is a substantive word, phrase, or clause whose

denotation is referred to by a pronoun.
A pronoun should have only one possible antecedent.
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender.
When two singular antecedents are joined by the conjunction and,
they require a plural pronoun.
When two singular antecedents are joined by the conjunction or,
neither . . . nor, or either . . . or, they require a singular pronoun.

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When two plural antecedents are joined by the conjunction or, either .
. . or, or neither . . . nor, they require a plural pronoun.
When two antecedents, one singular and one plural, are joined by the
conjunction or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, the pronoun should
agree with the antecedent closer to the pronoun.
When the members of a collective noun are considered one unit, use
a singular pronoun.
When the members of a collective noun are thought of as separate
individuals, use a plural pronoun.
When a pronoun serves as the subject or predicate complement, it’s in
the nominative case (pronouns that are used for subjects of a
sentence.)
If the pronoun is an object—direct object, indirect object, object of a
preposition—it’s in the objective case (pronouns that are used for
nouns and pronouns that receive the action of a verb.)
An appositive is a noun or pronoun that renames another noun or
pronoun.
Appositive pronouns have the same case as the noun or pronoun
they’re renaming.
Discover More: Pronouns
Choose the best pronoun.
1. Send the results of the test to George and (I, me).

2. Drafting and planning (is, are) two tasks of an architect.

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3. Either you or I (are, am, is) going to write the report.

Discover More: Pronouns
1. me
2. are
3. am
2.5 Use modifiers correctly

Using Modifiers Correctly
READING ASSIGNMENT
Word arrangement is important for clear, concise expression. Clarity

depends on the logical relationship of sentence parts. Related words or
groups of words should usually be near each other to avoid vagueness or
misstatement. However, some words are trickier than others.
We add words to heighten the meaning of one term or to restrict or soften

the meaning of another. We convey mental images that are vivid and
effective. Words that extend, restrict, or sharpen the meanings of other
words are known collectively as modifiers, and primarily consist of our old
friends, adjectives and adverbs. Let’s take a look at some of the guidelines
to bear in mind when using modifiers.
Proper Placement
The words even, scarcely, only, almost, and merely should usually be

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placed next to the words they modify. Notice the change caused by moving
the word only in the following sentences:
Only I ordered roses for Helen.
I ordered only roses for Helen.
I ordered roses for Helen only.
In the first sentence, only is used as an adjective to modify the pronoun I.

The statement means that no one else—only I—ordered roses for Helen.
In the next sentence, only is an adjective modifying the noun roses. This
sentence means that I didn’t order anything except roses. In the last
sentence, only again is an adjective. This time it modifies the noun Helen.
The statement means that I didn’t buy roses for anyone except Helen.
Now compare the following pairs of sentences. Note how the change in
position of the italicized words changes the emphasis.
We had scarcely driven a mile before we were stopped. (Emphasis on act

of driving)
We had driven scarcely a mile before we were stopped. (Emphasis on

distance driven)
The wrestler only made one mistake. (Emphasis on making)
The wrestler made only one mistake. (Emphasis on the number of

mistakes)
I have almost run 10 miles since I began to run each day. (Emphasis on
running)

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I have run almost 10 miles since I began to run each day. (Emphasis on
number of miles)
She merely came to attend her family reunion. (Emphasis on coming)
She came merely to attend her family reunion. (Emphasis on attending)
Remember, the position of the modifying word is important. You want to

convey your meaning clearly.
Using Adjectives and Adverbs
An adjective, as you remember, is a word that tells us something about a

noun or pronoun. An adverb often modifies a verb. It can tell us how, when,
or where something was done. Unless they indicate action, the verbs look,
sound, smell, taste, feel, appear, grow, prove, ring, and stand must be
followed by adjectives. When they show action, they may be modified by
adverbs.
Sometimes knowing when to choose between an adjective and an adverb

as a modifier can be a little confusing. Let’s look at some common errors.
Bad or Badly
We often hear someone say “I feel badly about your misfortune,” or, “I felt
badly all last week.” The substitution of badly for bad is a frequent mistake.
If we apply what we’ve just discussed about the use of adjectives and
adverbs, we establish the following rule:
Use the adjective bad unless there’s an action verb. Use the adverb badly
only when the verb clearly denotes action.

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No Action Use bad (adjective)
I feel very bad about it.
Green looks bad on me.
The news sounds bad.
This bacon tastes bad.
Action Use badly (adverb)
Lawrence dances badly.
The author writes badly.
Lee behaved badly.
He performed badly.
Good or Well
The opposite of bad—good—presents a similar problem. Good is never an

adverb. As an adjective, it must modify a noun, pronoun, or a part of
speech used as a noun. In the sentence “This is good jam,” good modifies
the noun jam. In “This jam tastes good,” we have the linking verb tastes.
Therefore, good in this case is a predicate adjective modifying jam. “Good
singing is always a pleasure to hear.” In that sentence, good modifies the
present participle singing.
How about “I feel good”? Is that correct? Yes, if the speaker means that he
or she feels noble, pious, or well-behaved. But if the speaker means to
indicate good health, the correct expression is “I feel well.”

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Since well may be either an adjective or an adverb, we can avoid using it
incorrectly by remembering the following facts:
Well is an adjective when it’s used to refer to one’s physical state, as

in “I feel well.”
In the sense of good, advantageous, satisfactory, suitable, or proper,
the adjective well is used only in the predicate, as in “All is well.”
As an adverb, well modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, as

shown in the following sentences:
The pen prints well. (Modifies the verb prints)
I am well aware of the situation. (Modifies the adjective aware)
The ship was well away from shore. (Modifies the adverb away)
Comparative versus Superlative
Another common mistake in adjective use is to use the highest degree of

comparison, known as the superlative form of a modifier, to compare only
two things.
Incorrect: She is the tallest of the twins.
When talking about only two people, we should use the comparative form.
Correct: She is the taller of the twins.
Similarly, it’s incorrect to use double comparisons. Don’t use more with the
comparative form of an adjective that ends in - er, or most with the
superlative form that ends in -est.

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Incorrect: Joe grows more lazier every day.
Correct: Joe grows lazier every day.
Incorrect: The most simplest way is usually best.
Correct: The simplest way is usually best.
Choosing the Correct Word
To convey your meaning clearly, it’s important to distinguish between

words with similar but different meanings.
Less and Fewer
Less refers to amounts, degree, or value. It should be used to refer to

abstract nouns or things that can’t be counted.
Examples: The work took less time than I had thought.
We used less gas this year.
Fewer refers to number or to things that can be counted.
Examples: I sold fewer tickets this year.
I made fewer mistakes this time.
Supermarket signs that announce “10 items or less” are wrong! The signs
should read “10 items or fewer” or “10 or fewer items.”
Farther and Further; Farthest and Furthest

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An image of "we can
"We can't go any farther on this

street." Use farther to mean
distance and further to mean in
addition.
Although some people use farther and further interchangeably, there’s a

distinction between the two words. Farther refers to distance, and further
means in addition.
The lake is farther down the road.
I assume there will be no further trouble.
Later and Latter
Later refers to time.
I will be home later.
Latter means the second of two; it’s the opposite of former.

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The latter part of the sermon was more interesting than the former.
The Double Negative
Correct word usage also requires that you don’t use two words with the
same meaning in the same sentence. In English, for example, you need
only one word to make a statement negative.
I do not want chili tonight. (Not is a negative word.)
When you add another negative, you’re using a double negative.
I do not want no chili tonight.
Words such as the following are considered negatives: no, not, none,
never, no one, nothing, hardly, scarcely, and barely.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Modifiers are words that extend, restrict, or soften the meaning of

another word.
Modifiers are typically adjectives and adverbs.
The words even, scarcely, only, almost, and merely should usually be
placed next to the words they modify.
When a verb, such as look, sound, smell, taste, feel, appear, grow,
prove, ring, or stand, is used as a noun and not used to indicate
action, the verb is modified by adjectives.
When a verb, such as look, sound, smell, taste, feel, appear, grow,
prove, ring, or stand, indicates action, it is modified by adverbs.

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Good is always an adjective modifying a noun.
Well can be either an adjective modifying a noun or an adverb
modifying a verb.
The superlative form of a modifier is the highest degree of comparison
between more than two things.
The comparative form of a modifier is used to compare only two
things.
Do not use the word most with either the comparative or superlative
form of a modifier.
The meaning of less versus fewer:
1. Less refers to amounts, degree, or value and is used to refer to
abstract nouns or things that can’t be counted.
2. Fewer refers to number or to things that can be counted.
The meaning of farther versus further:
1. Farther refers to distance.
2. Further means in addition.
The meaning of later versus latter:
1. Later refers to time.
2. Latter means the second of two things.
Do not use two words with the same meaning in the same sentence.
Discover More: Modifiers
1. In the following sentence, where should the modifier scarcely be

placed in order to make the sentence clearer: “Kevin had scarcely
walked one block when he remembered he had left his lunch at

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home.”
2. Choose the appropriate word in parentheses to complete the following
sentence correctly:
“The woman told her husband she didn’t feel very (good/well).”

Discover More: Modifiers
1. After "walked"
2. well
2.6 Identify how to write using parallel construction

Parallel Construction
READING ASSIGNMENT
When you coordinate two or more elements in a sentence, you must state
them in the same grammatical form. This is called parallel construction. In
other words, nouns must be matched with nouns, verbs with verbs,
phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.
Parallel: The predicate complement is composed of two adjectives.
A doctor must be smart and kind.
Non-parallel: Although there are three verbs, the tense changes with the
last verb.
Bobby washed the car, cut the grass, and is going to the movies.

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An image of as in constructing
an attractive house,
constructing a pleasing
sentence means keeping the
components similar, the vision
constant, and the style
consistent.
As in constructing an attractive
house, constructing a pleasing
sentence means keeping the
components similar, the vision
constant, and the style
consistent.
You have to be especially careful to use parallel construction in sentences

which parts are connected by coordinate conjunctions such as and and or.
Non-parallel: John likes skiing and to swim.
Parallel: John likes skiing and swimming. Or,
John likes to ski and to swim.

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Sentences that lack parallel structure can be particularly jarring in
sentences that involve lists, because readers anticipate a continuation of
the same structure. Take a look at the following sentence:
I believe that women should have the same rights as men: the right to
compete on equal terms for jobs for which they’re qualified, the right to
equal pay for equal work, and I think they should have equal opportunity for
promotion.
Instead of the italicized words, you were probably expecting one more item
that began with “the right to . . . .” And how did you react to the break in
your expectation? You probably felt somewhat disturbed by it. That’s why
parallel structure is important. It helps to deliver a message in a satisfying
way. Additionally, because parallel structure is a kind of repetition, it’s also
a way of delivering a message emphatically.
Split Constructions
Separating or splitting closely related parts of a sentence isn’t always

incorrect, but it can result in awkwardness and unclear sentences.
Whenever possible, keep logically related items together.
Split Infinitives
A split infinitive results when a modifier separates the to from the rest of
the infinitive. Although there’s nothing ungrammatical about splitting the
infinitive, you must make sure that the sentence doesn’t become awkward.
Awkward: I tried not to carelessly rush through the job.
Better: I tried not to rush through the job carelessly.

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Awkward: Try to, if you can, exercise daily.
Better: If you can, try to exercise daily.
Separating Parts of a Verb Phrase
Avoid separating a helping verb from the main verb.
Awkward: She has, to my great delight, done very well.
Better: To my great delight, she has done very well.
Awkward: The senator has, believe it or not, been droning on for two
hours.
Better: Believe it or not, the senator has been droning on for two hours.
Separating Subject and Verb, Preposition, and Object
Whenever you change the basic pattern of a sentence, it jars the reader
because it changes the emphasis of the sentence. Sometimes the change
in emphasis is good; other times it’s not. Make sure the result remains a
clear, effective sentence.
Ineffective: The detective found, after an hour’s search, the missing clue.
More effective: After an hour’s search, the detective found the missing
clue.
Ineffective: Alex crept into, although he was frightened, the dark hole
beneath the porch.
Effective: Although he was frightened, Alex crept into the dark hole

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beneath the porch.
Shifts in Construction
Be careful to avoid the shifts in sentence construction that can distract and
jar a reader.
Maintain Consistent Tense
If the first part of a sentence is in the present tense, the second part should
be, too, unless there’s some valid reason for shifting tenses. As you’ll learn
later, the same principle holds for paragraphs, too.
Inconsistent: The boat was going down (past tense). Just as I was (past
tense) sure I was going (past tense) to drown, a stranger jumps off
(present tense) a passing boat and grabs (present tense) me.
Consistent: The boat was going down. Just as I was sure I was going to
drown, a stranger jumped off a passing boat and grabbed me.
Maintain Consistent Point of View
The term point of view refers to whether the sentence, paragraph, or paper
is written in first person (I, me), second person (you), or third person (he,
she, it, and they). It’s disturbing to a reader when a writer shifts from one
person to another.
Inconsistent: In our auto mechanic class, we (first person) learned to take

apart a car with the necessary tools. You (second person) were graded on
your speed and your skill in doing so.
Consistent: In our auto mechanics class, we learned to take apart a car

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with the necessary tools. We were graded on our speed and skill in doing
so.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Parallel construction is when you use the same grammatical form for
two or more similar elements in a sentence.
When possible, keep logically related parts of a sentence together
instead of separating or splitting them.
An infinitive is the simple or basic form of the verb used after auxiliary
verbs (such as “I didn't come.”) or preceded by a function word (such
as “I want to eat.”)
Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
A split infinitive results when a modifier separates the to from the rest
of the infinitive.
In an infinitive, avoid separating a helping verb from the main verb.
Avoid changing the basic pattern of a sentence.
Avoid the shifts in sentence construction by maintaining consistent
tense and point of view.
Discover More: Parallel Structure
1. What verb tense correctly completes the following sentence: “Just as

the police were closing in, two shots _______ fired from the rooftop

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across the street.”
2. What word correctly maintains the point of view in the following
sentence: “_______ should purchase a lift ticket unless you plan to
spend most of your time walking up a steep hill.”

Discover More: Parallel Structure
1. were
2. You
2.7 Apply the basic rules of punctuation

Punctuation
READING ASSIGNMENT
The purpose of punctuation is to help the reader understand the writer’s

message. Although you may not consciously think about punctuation when
reading a letter, an article, or a book, your mind automatically stops at
periods and pauses for commas and dashes.
When you’re talking to someone face to face, you can pause at appropriate
times to give certain parts of your sentences emphasis by the tone of your
voice and your expression. In writing, punctuation is the way that you give
your message expression. Therefore, you must know how to use
punctuation correctly so that you express your message clearly. With a
sound knowledge of punctuation and its proper use, you’ll be able to
convey your thoughts, ideas, and feelings clearly, accurately, and logically.

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The following general hints on the use of proper punctuation will help you
improve your punctuation skills:
When reading, notice all punctuation and try to think about why the
punctuation marks are used.
When writing, organize in your mind what you want to say and then
use only the punctuation marks needed to express yourself clearly.
Don’t use punctuation marks without a definite reason for doing so.
Pay particular attention to the use of the comma, since the comma is
the most used—and abused—of all punctuation marks.
Now, let’s take a look at some of the basic rules of punctuation that can
help you to sharpen your writing skills.
End Marks
As the term implies, end marks are used to end sentences. They help
readers understand the flow of ideas, indicating where one thought ends
and another begins. End marks also set the “tone” of a sentence, in much
the same way that a rising pitch at the end of a spoken sentence can
indicate a question, or a sharply raised voice can indicate a command.
Period
An image of period indicates a

full stop at the end of a
sentence.

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A period indicates a full stop at
the end of a sentence.
A period, in written material, indicates a full stop—the end of a completed

thought. A period is used to end declarative sentences, which form a
complete statement, as in the following examples.
Examples: Fernanda is being interviewed for a job.
The manager requests your assistance in the preparation of the report.
A period is also used at the end of an imperative sentence, a type of

sentence that indicates a command or a request. In many cases, the
subject (you) is understood, and is therefore left out of an imperative
sentence.
Examples: Tell me where it is.
Be in the office on time.
You can also use a period at the end of an indirect question. Though
suggesting that a response is requested, indirect questions are expressed

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as declarative sentences. They lack the formal indications of a direct
question, such as interrogative pronouns.
Examples: I wonder if Dee will call me today.
The lawyer would like to know how you’ll pay for the visit.
In general, you must use a period to designate dollars and cents. A period
isn’t required, however, when a whole or even dollar amount is expressed
in numbers.
Examples: $42.65
$1.55
$10
$500
Use a period also when expressing numbers in decimals.
Examples: 3.5
12.65 percent
6.25 feet
Periods are used after most abbreviations.
Examples: M.D.
Inc.
However, certain abbreviations that refer to agencies and organizations,

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and are made up of several letters (known as acronyms) don’t require
periods.
Examples: FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation)
FEPC (Fair Employment Practices Committee)
AAA (American Automobile Association)
YWCA (Young Women’s Christian Association)
In general, periods aren’t required after Roman numerals, except when

they’re used to refer to sections of an outline or report.
Examples: George VI
King Henry VIII
Richard III
I. Prenatal Care
II. The Birth
III. Postpartum
Question Mark
The name for this punctuation mark is self-explanatory. Question marks are
used at the end of sentences that ask a direct question.
Examples: When may we expect payment on your account?
Would you like to schedule your appointment for Monday or Tuesday?

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Where is your schedule?
Incorrect: Will you come to the party on Saturday.
Correct: Will you come to the party on Saturday?
A couple of special situations need to be considered when deciding where

to place a question mark. For instance, you can use a question mark,
enclosed in parentheses, within a sentence to indicate doubt about the
correctness of a word or fact that precedes the question mark.
Example: Mrs. Brown said that she has been studying for her exam since
September 1966 (?).
A question mark precedes a closing quotation mark when you’re directly

quoting a question asked by someone else.
Examples: The teacher asked Maria, “What did you learn from that
assignment?”
“Do you want to go to the movies?” Carlos asked.
Exclamation Point
This mark shows emotion on the part of the writer and lends emphasis or
focuses attention. Use an exclamation mark at the end of a declarative
sentence to convey strong feeling, such as frustration or surprise, or when
an imperative sentence is particularly urgent.
Examples: You must follow the woman’s instructions to the letter!
Your payment is 90 days past due!

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Bring me that report now!
Also, like a question mark, an exclamation point precedes a closing

quotation mark when you’re directly quoting a declarative or imperative
sentence attributed to someone else.
Examples: “He never even bothered to call to cancel!” Allison exclaimed.
The boss came in shouting, “I need that report right now!”
Note that exclamation points are rarely used in business writing. It’s also
wise to resist overusing them in any kind of writing, as too many
exclamation points can give the impression of shouting.
The Comma
An image of a comma indicates

a pause to separate thoughts in
a sentence.
A comma indicates a pause to

separate thoughts in a

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sentence.
A comma breaks a sentence into separate thoughts and grammatical units.

These allow the reader to pause mentally at the appropriate places in your
writing, making your written communication clear and interesting to read.
Commas are probably used more than any other punctuation mark.
They’re also the most misunderstood of all the punctuation marks. Review
the following rules carefully to make sure you’re using commas correctly.
Series
Use a comma between words in a series (preferably including one before

the and that’s with the last word in the series).
Example: The report was clear, concise, and well written.
The final comma can be omitted if no confusion would result. However,

always putting in the comma before the and before the final item in the
series will assure that you won’t accidentally confuse your reader.
Incorrect: The grass, the smell of budding flowers and chirping birds
signified that spring had arrived.
Without a comma after flowers, the reader may think that the word smell
refers to both flowers and birds. Instead, chirping birds is a separate sign of
spring, not associated with the sense of smell.
Correct: The grass, the smell of budding flowers, and chirping birds
signified that spring had arrived.
Coordinate Adjectives

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Commas are used to separate coordinate adjectives before a noun. How
do you know if adjectives are coordinate (of equal importance)? A good
guideline is to see if you can say and between them. If you can, the words
are coordinate and should be separated with a comma. For instance,
consider the following sentence:
This has been a clear, sunny day.
The day has been both clear and sunny. Right? Therefore, the comma is
correct. But now look at this sentence:
Isn’t she a beautiful little girl?
Would it be appropriate to say the girl is beautiful and little? No. In this
sentence, little girl functions as a single unit with the word beautiful
describing it. Therefore, no comma is necessary.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, yet, or,
neither, and nor) when they join two independent clauses. (As you may
recall, an independent clause has a subject and verb and could stand as a
separate sentence.)
Examples: She will be in the office at 3:00 P.M., or she will call.
The manager will be in meetings all afternoon, but he will return to the
office at 5:00 P.M.
Julia said she would be at the dentist’s all morning, and she would be in
the office later this afternoon.

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Don’t use a comma, though, after the coordinate conjunction.
Incorrect: The room was decorated with green, pink, and, gold.
Correct: The room was decorated with green, pink, and gold.
Incorrect: Miranda will be in her office today but, she won’t be accepting
phone calls.
Correct: Miranda will be in her office today, but she won’t be accepting
phone calls.
Quotations
Use a comma to introduce a short, direct quotation in the form of a

complete sentence. Also use a comma at the end of a quotation if it’s
followed by explanatory, unquoted remarks. (Note that the comma goes
before the opening quotation mark.)
Examples: The teacher replied, “Diplomacy is an essential part of a

secretary’s job.”
“Diplomacy is an essential part of a secretary’s job,” replied the teacher.
A comma is not required, however, when setting apart indirect quotations

introduced by the word that.
Explanatory Phrases
Use a comma before and after such words as for example, to be sure, in
fact, however, nevertheless, and therefore, when they’re used to comment
or explain in a sentence that is already complete.

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Examples: We don’t, for example, accept clients without a previously
scheduled appointment.
He was, in fact, assigned to that particular job.
She will be arriving, therefore, at seven o’clock Thursday evening.
Commas aren’t used if such words are used to join two independent
clauses. In those cases, as you’ll learn a little bit later, semicolons are
used.
Addresses
Use commas to separate items in addresses.
Examples: They lived in Chicago, Illinois for many years.
His address is 20 Park Avenue, Lincoln, Maine.
Dates
Use commas to separate items in dates when the day of the week or
month is included, but not if you write only the month and year.
Examples: In April 1996 he completed his education in business

administration.
On April 24, 1996, Alonzo suffered a fracture of the right tibia.
Early on the morning of Monday, April 24, Mariella set off for Atlanta.
Clarification

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Use commas around any part of a sentence that’s taken from its natural
position and put elsewhere in the sentence. For example, you can write:
The new equipment, when used properly, will save the secretary a lot of
time.
instead of
The new equipment will save the secretary a lot of time when used
properly.
It’s important to use a comma between the parts of a name or phrase when
they’re written in reverse order. This usage is often found in indexes at the
back of books.
Examples: Buchanan, James B.
Psychology, History of
Chemistry, Organic
Commas are also used to separate two words or figures in cases that
might otherwise cause some confusion to a reader:
Unclear: To Henry Mary Gannon was a heroine.
Clear: To Henry, Mary Gannon was a heroine.
Unclear: In 1996 43 patients were treated for influenza.
Clear: In 1996, 43 patients were treated for influenza.
Unclear: Just as David was ready to eat his cat jumped on the table.

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Clear: Just as David was ready to eat, his cat jumped on the table.
Use a comma to indicate the omission of a word.
Example: Mr. Brown returns Tuesday; Ms. Gannon, Wednesday. (The

missing word is “returns” and is implied by the comma.)
Similarly, commas are used between the title and the name of an
organization when of or of the has been omitted.
Examples: Chief, Department of Criminology
President, University of Chicago
Superintendent, Board of Trade
Commas are used after a phrase or clause that comes before the main
clause, particularly if the phrase or clause is four or more words long.
Examples: Having simply run out of energy, the sprinter lost the race.
In determining his fee, Mr. Brown has considered the length of time
required for your consultation.
Finally, use a comma any place where misreading or misunderstanding

might occur without one. Take a look at the following sentence:
Patients who can walk up and down the halls several times a day.
Did you have to reread that sentence? More than likely you did. On first
reading, you might have been expecting to find out something about
patients who are able to walk up and down the halls. Notice the difference
when a comma is added:

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Patients who can, walk up and down the halls several times a day.
Abbreviations
Use a comma before abbreviations or degrees: Jr., Sr., M.A., Ph.D., M.D.,
etc.
Examples: Charles H. Leiter, Jr.
Suzanne Ellis, M.D.
C. Joel Block, Ph.D.
Numbers
Use a comma to separate thousands, millions, billions, etc., in numbers

containing four or more digits.
Examples: 52,010
53,039,255
3,197
238,963
Direct Address
Use a comma to set off the name used to address someone directly.
Examples: Sir, Mr. Bright will see you now.
Ms. Allen, Mrs. Abernathy has canceled her appointment for today.

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This isn’t what I asked you for, Alex.
Semicolons and Colons
Semicolon
An image of a semicolon
indicates a distinct pause; it
separates independent
thoughts that could each be
written as individual sentences.
A semicolon indicates a distinct

pause; it separates
independent thoughts that
could each be written as
individual sentences.
Use the semicolon to join independent clauses that aren’t connected by

coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, or so). They indicate a
clear pause between thoughts.

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Examples: The supervisor isn’t in this morning; she will be in the office
after 1:00.
Incorrect: We had to delay the roofing job for a week, it rained most of the
time.
Correct: We had to delay the roofing job for a week; it rained most of the
time.
Similarly, use a semicolon between main clauses that aren’t connected by

coordinating conjunctions, even when therefore, nevertheless, however, or
thus are present. Those words are conjunctive adverbs and aren’t strong
enough by themselves to separate main clauses. Note that the conjunctive
adverbs are set apart from the second clause by a comma.
Example: The supervisor isn’t in this morning; however, she will be in the
office after 11:00.
When a coordinating conjunction is present, it’s best to use a semicolon

between main clauses if the clauses are long, contain commas, or if
emphasis is desired.
Example: The problem of malpractice concerns not only lawyers, but

clients too; and, although difficult, it must be resolved.
Always use a semicolon between items in a series when one or more of

those items contain commas.
Example: The following prepared the committee report: Jonathan

Carpenter, chairperson; Helen Adams, secretary; James Cooney, Safety
Committee representative; and Walter Evans, member-at-large.

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Colon
The colon has several different uses in writing. For example, use a colon
after the salutation of a business letter (unless you know the person well
enough to use his or her first name. In that case, use a comma after the
name).
Examples: To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Dr. Brown:
Friends:
Dear Mrs. Short:
Colons are also used to express time.
Examples: 8:30 A.M.
12:25 P.M.
Use a colon when citing a passage from a book or a publication to indicate

the location of the passage.
Examples: Luke 4:7
The New York Times, November 20, 21:7
Use a colon when stating proportions numerically.
Example: The ratio was 16 to 1 (16:1).
Colons are also the most appropriate form of punctuation after an

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introductory phrase or clause that precedes a list or an enumeration of
items.
Examples: The new officers were elected as follows: President, Richard

Gloucester; Vice President, Susan Stephens; Secretary, Elizabeth York;
Treasurer, Mark Burns. (Note that the names in this list are separated by
semicolons, because the names are separated from their titles by
commas.)
Please send the following by parcel post: two grammar books, one pencil,
one pen, and a notebook.
The following examples illustrate the appropriate use of colons in

punctuating lists
Incorrect: Two things are asked of us; accuracy and efficiency.
Correct: Two things are asked of us: accuracy and efficiency.
Incorrect: Four colors are available, pink, blue, yellow, and peach.
Correct: Four colors are available: pink, blue, yellow, and peach.
Of course, there are times when a colon is not appropriate in a sentence

that contains a list. Specifically, you wouldn’t use a colon before a list
following a form of the verb to be.
Incorrect: His favorite foods are: spaghetti, pizza, and lasagna.
Correct: His favorite foods are spaghetti, pizza, and lasagna.
Using the Apostrophe

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An image of the apostrophe
shows possession or indicates
letters left out of a word: "The
doctor
The apostrophe shows

possession or indicates letters
left out of a word: "The doctor's
handwriting isn't easy to read."
The apostrophe shows that one or more letters have been left out of a
word, resulting in a shorter form of the word, known as a contraction. An
apostrophe is also used with nouns to show possession.
Contractions
Use an apostrophe to indicate letters that have been left out of a word.
Examples: The secretary isn’t (is not) in the office at the moment.
The staff won’t (will not) follow the director’s advice.
Wait ’til (until) the sun shines, Nellie.
While contractions are considered informal and you won’t be using them

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very much in business writing, it’s important to understand what it is
contractions do and how they differ from possessive pronouns. When
you’re sure of what you’re writing, your documents won’t be marred with
spelling and usage errors.
Use contractions to shorten a word, syllable, or word group. Use an

apostrophe to show that letters or sounds are missing when you write a
contraction.
Example: It’s too bad that the dog hurt its paw. (The contraction It’s in this
case shortens the word group It is.)
Some people have trouble remembering the difference between its/it’s,

whose/who’s, and your/you’re. They confuse the contractions with
possessive pronouns that sound the same. When you’re in doubt, think
about what the contraction means. Take a look at the following examples
and try to decide which is correct.
Who’s/Whose going to vote next?
Who is going to vote next?
or
Whose going to vote next?
Since you can say who is, you can use the contraction. Who’s is the proper
choice.
Note: You’ll notice that there are contractions throughout this course.
That’s because we’re using a conversational tone, the way a teacher

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would speak in a classroom. We want you to feel as if there’s a real person
behind these words. Our purpose (to teach) and audience (you) permit us
to use a conversational style. However, many types of writing do require
the use of a formal style. Contractions are informal.
Common Contractions
Two Words Contraction
are not aren't
could not couldn't
did not didn't
do not don't
does not doesn't
has not hasn't
have not haven't
had not hadn't
is not isn't
should not shouldn't
was not wasn't
were not weren't
will not won't
would not wouldn't
I shall/will I'll
you will you'll
he will he'll
she will she'll

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it will it'll
we shall/will we'll
they will they'll
I would I'd
you would you'd
he would he'd
she would she'd
we would we'd
they would they'd
let us let's
I am I'm
you are you're
he is he's
she is she's
it is it's
that is that's
they are they're
we are we're
what is what's
where is where's
who is who's
I have I've
you have you've
he has he's

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she has she's
it has it's
we have we've
they have they've
I had I'd
you had you'd
we had we'd
he had he'd
she had she'd
they had they'd
Juan has Juan's
Eileen is Eileen's
Possessives
Use an apostrophe and an s to form the possessive case (the form that
shows ownership) of singular nouns, including names.
Examples: John’s appointment is tomorrow.
Dr. Smith’s article has been published.
Mr. Wallace’s car is in the shop.
Note, however, that there are different views on whether to use an

apostrophe and an s at the end of names and singular nouns that end in s.
Examples: Mr. Jones’ garage
or

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Mr. Jones’s garage
Kansas’s governor
or
Kansas’ governor
When in doubt, consult your supervisor. The important point is to be

consistent in whichever form you’re advised to use.
Use an apostrophe alone when expressing the possessive form of plural

nouns that end in s. Add an apostrophe and an s in the case of plural
nouns that don’t end in s.
Examples: The Smiths’ daughter is 12.
It’s a children’s disease.
Additionally, an apostrophe followed by an s is often used to form the plural

of words, numbers, letters, and figures.
Examples: i’s
e’s
7’s
and’s
but’s
Marco made straight A’s this semester.

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Incorrect: The store is holding a sale on mens’ clothing.
Correct: The store is holding a sale on men’s clothing.
Note that there are different opinions regarding the use of apostrophes to
indicate the plural of years and decades. Possibilities include:
the 1990s
the 1990’s
the 90s
the 90’s
In such cases, it’s best to consult your manager to determine which

approach is preferred by your organization.
To show joint possession, use an apostrophe and an s with the last

element in the series. If possession isn’t joint, each word should be made
possessive.
Examples: John and Mary’s parents attended the performance. (In this
case, the assumption is that John and Mary are brother and sister, and
there is only one set of parents.)
Mr. Allen’s and Mrs. Allen’s shirts were identical. (Each individual has his or
her own shirt.)
Quotation Marks and Parentheses
Quotation Marks

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In many cases, quotation marks, used in pairs “ ”, indicate directly quoted
or spoken words, or are used to set dialogue apart from the rest of the
sentence or group of sentences.
As seen in some of the earlier examples of punctuation marks, quotations

within a sentence are set off by a comma. In most cases, the end mark of a
direct quote precedes the closing quotation mark.
Examples: Sandra said, “I’m not feeling very well.”
The conductor asked, “May I see your ticket?”
Jorge’s father exclaimed, “Turn that music down!”
However, when a direct quote of a declarative sentence is used at the

beginning of a sentence, the end mark is usually replaced by a comma.
Example: “I’m not feeling very well,” Mary said.
An exception to this rule involves direct quotations of questions and

imperative statements in which exclamation points are used.
Examples: “Do you think he’ll reply to my email?” Jorge asked.
“I don’t care how late it is!” Elizabeth shouted.
Additionally, in some cases, direct quotations may be broken up, with an

attribution of speech set in between the two parts. In such cases, a comma
is inserted before the closing quotation mark of the first part of the quote
and the appropriate end mark is inserted before the closing quotation mark
in the second part.

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Examples: “The good news,” the doctor said, “is that your blood pressure
is normal.”
“Am I the only one,” Alice wondered, “who thinks this coffee tastes awful?””
When a direct quote follows an independent clause, a colon is generally

preferred.
Example: My father’s favorite quote came from Abraham Lincoln’s first

Senate campaign: “A house divided against itself cannot stand.”
In some cases, when quoting only a small portion of text, no punctuation is

needed before the opening quote. These quotes are often preceeded by
the word “that.”
Examples: In an interview, the Governor admitted that “too much money

was being spent on political campaigns.”
Though it has been revealed that their work was funded by corporations,
some scientists continue to claim that “greenhouse gases are not to blame
for climate change.”
Finally, quotation marks are used when referring to titles of short works,
such as songs, poems, short stories, essays, and articles appearing in
journals, magazines, and newspapers.
(Longer works, like movies, books, television series, and symphonies, are
generally italicized, as are paintings and sculptures.)
Examples: “I Will Survive,” by Gloria Gaynor (song)
“The Telltale Heart,” by Edgar Allen Poe (short story)

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“Shall I Compare Thee?” by William Shakespeare (poem)
“What Lies Beneath That Oscar Outfit?” by Caroline Tell (newspaper

article)
Parentheses
Parentheses, used in a pair ( ), set off information that isn’t essential to the
meaning of a sentence or paragraph. (Note that parentheses—es—is
plural. The singular, referring to one, is parenthesis—is.)
Parentheses are frequently used to enclose an explanatory term.
Example: After taking her routine vital signs (temperature, pulse, and
blood pressure), the nurse made the patient as comfortable as possible.
They can also be used to enclose minor digressions from the main idea.
Examples: The weights that James were first able to move (not lift, mind
you) were measured in ounces.
My sister received first prize, and I was given a holy card as a consolation
prize. (The nuns always gave holy cards as rewards.)
Additionally, parentheses are used to enclose references to tables,

diagrams, charts, and so on.
Example: The cost of office supplies has risen steadily over the past five
years. (See Table II.)
Parentheses are often used to enclose letters or numbers that come before
listed items.

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Example: The patient came to the doctor’s office with the following
symptoms: (1) shortness of breath, (2) dizziness, (3) ringing in ears, and
(4) pain in left chest.
In this case, only one parenthesis may also be used.
Example: The patient came to the doctor’s office with the following
symptoms: 1) shortness of breath, 2) dizziness, 3) ringing in ears, and 4)
pain in left chest.
When in doubt whether to use two parentheses or one in a list, consult

your supervisor.
A word of caution: parentheses can be overused. While little asides to the

reader can add a delightful touch to some papers, keep in mind that early
drafts of papers often have far too many digressions and afterthoughts. In
revising, it’s best to weigh the value of material placed in parentheses and
consider working it into the structure of the sentence or paragraph.
Hyphens and Dashes
The Hyphen
An image of hyphens join

separate words or parts of
words: "The ex-chairman kept
his self-respect even when
three-fourths of the board
members disagreed with his
statement."

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Hyphens join separate words or
parts of words: "The ex-
chairman kept his self-respect
even when three-fourths of the
board members disagreed with
his statement."
The hyphen separates the parts of a word. It can join two or more separate
words to form a compound word. The following are instances when you
would use a hyphen:
With compound words that begin with self (self-conscious, self-

evident, self-respect, self-confident).
After the prefix ex-, pro-, or anti- with a proper noun or adjective (ex-
President, pro- American, anti-Fascist).
With compound adjectives (adjectives made up of more than one

word) that precede the modified noun. (It was a first-rate report.)

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With compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with
fractions that are used as adjectives. (She just turned twenty-nine. A
two-thirds majority will decide the issue.)
To divide a word at the end of a line. If you must divide a word at the
end of a line, divide between syllables. Syllables are the units of
sound that combine to make up a word. One-syllable words should
never be divided. See how hard it is to read such words split in two?
cha-
ir (chair)
ty-
pe (type)
spel-
led (spelled)
Multisyllabic words can, however, be divided between syllables.

Compound words (those made up of smaller words) and words with
prefixes or suffixes are the easiest to break and still read smoothly.
Examples: chairperson
typewriter

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misspelled
To determine where syllables divide, you can look for centered dots in the
dictionary entry of the word. In many cases, they’ll appear as follows:
chair•per•son type•writ•er mis•spelled
Whenever possible, though, it’s best to avoid dividing words. Most words
are simply easier to read when they’re not broken up by a hyphen. Also,
never use a hyphen after an adverb ending in -ly. An adverb isn’t part of a
compound adjective.
Example: It was a nicely written report.
The Dash
The dash, which is a longer solid line than a hyphen, is made on a

typewriter or computer by typing two hyphens—no space before, after, or
between. (In some programs, you can create a dash using the key
combination Ctrl + Alt + the minus sign from the number pad in
Windows or Option + Shift + minus sign on a Mac computer.)
The dash may be used singly or in pairs. It’s an emphatic mark of

punctuation that calls attention to the material it sets off. For that reason, it
can be a useful mark in helping you to stress what’s important. However,
be careful. The dash isn’t an end mark of punctuation. Nor is it meant to be
sprinkled liberally throughout a piece of writing when you haven’t taken the
time to choose a more appropriate mark. If you find yourself overusing the
dash to try to achieve emphasis, you’ll want to restructure some of your
sentences.

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Use dashes to set off parenthetical elements that interrupt the main
structure of the sentence, especially if they’re abrupt or you wish to
emphasize them.
Examples: He thinks—and rightly so—that the problem can be solved.
The night he proposed—and I remember it well—I was wearing a bathrobe

and had my hair in curlers.
You can also use a dash with a repeated word or phrase for additional or
special emphasis.
Examples: We’re now faced with a new problem—the problem of

implementing the program.
He works hard—too hard, in fact.
Use a dash before a summarizing statement.
Example: Mr. Gannon, Ms. Smith, Mr. Ormsby—all had the same idea.
Use the dash to prepare for a list, a restatement, or an amplification of an

idea.
Example: Along the wall are bulk liquids—sesame oil, honey, safflower oil,
and olive oil.
You can also use dashes to set off appositives that contain commas.
Example: Gumbo—a New Orleans dish of rice, okra, beans, and spicy
seasonings—has a special place on our Thanksgiving table.

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A dash is often used to indicate an abrupt change of thought or interrupted
speech.
Examples: Marriage is a venerable institution and I often think that maybe

I’ll get married someday—but who wants to live in an institution?
“I’d like to say that I fully support the candidacy of—” The wild applause of
the crowd interrupted his speech.
Finally, you can use a dash to achieve a dramatic pause.
Example: He was at last at peace—in his grave.
Signs and Symbols
Signs and symbols are often used in illustrations, but generally aren’t used
in text. Exceptions are dollar signs ($), percent signs (%), and other signs
that may be used frequently within a particular field. Depending on the type
of work you’re doing, you may occasionally need to use electronic,
chemical, or element symbols.
The $ sign should always precede dollar amounts; its use eliminates the
need to use the word dollar after the amount.
Examples: This year’s budget allows approximately $3,200 for

maintenance.
The company sold its Denver plant for $5.5 million.
Use an ampersand (&) as necessary in proper nouns, but never use it as a

substitute for the word and in text. Company names, law or accounting
firms, publishers, and other names may include the ampersand as part of

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their name. Note that when a company name includes a series of names,
no comma is used before the ampersand. Some companies may leave out
all commas and the ampersand in a series of names, so always check your
source to ensure accuracy.
Examples: Galletly & Morris, Inc.
Jackson, Small, Cohen & Metz
Parker Grimes Kuryakin
When using mathematical symbols in equations, insert a space both before

and after the operation sign. Note that the “times” symbol is not the same
as the letter X—it’s a special mathematical symbol that requires an
appropriate font.
Examples:
If the symbol and number are used in text, not as part of an equation, there
should be no space between them.
Examples: <
In illustrations, symbols may be used for indicating measurements, such as

feet and inches. These symbols aren’t the same as quotation marks—
they’re straight, rather than curved. However, in text, use the abbreviations
ft. and in. rather than the symbols.
Examples:
36'9" 36 ft. 9 in.

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18" 18 in.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations save writing space and sometimes make written

presentations easier to read. For example, in many fields, writing AC
instead of alternating current can make a document more readable and
less intimidating. For economists or people dealing with financial services,
writing GDP instead of gross domestic product serves the same space-
saving and simplifying purpose.
On the other hand, you can confuse your readers if you don’t use
abbreviations carefully. Don’t abbreviate words or terms not used
frequently in your text. For example, there’s nothing wrong with spelling out
cubic centimeter, volt, or price-earnings ratio if they appear only a few
times.
Avoid abbreviations that might cause confusion. For example, the

abbreviation in. (inch) might be misread as the word in, if it comes at the
end of a sentence. With these cautions in mind, use the following rules.
Abbreviate units of measurement.
Examples: 5 hp (horsepower), 17 km (kilometers),
55 rpm (revolutions per minute)
10 in. (inches)
32°F (degrees Fahrenheit)

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8 gal. (gallons)
20 doz. (dozen)
7 yr. (years)
Never make an abbreviation plural, except for the abbreviations for

figures, volumes, numbers, and pages.
Examples: 5 hr., not 5 hrs.; 14 amp., not 14 amps.
but
3 figs., 4 vols., 5 nos., and 7 pp.
Use periods after any abbreviation that may cause confusion, even if
the practice in the technical field is to omit the periods.
Always use a period after the abbreviations ibid., vol., etc., and p.
If you use a term often, but are uncertain of your reader’s familiarity
with it, write the term out in full the first time you use it. Then place the
abbreviated form immediately after it in parentheses. From then on,
you can use the abbreviation alone.
Example: The quality factor (Q) of a tuned circuit is the ability to be

selective at a particular frequency. The higher the Q, the more

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selective a particular circuit will be to a band of frequencies.
Abbreviate the title of an individual if the title appears before the name
of the person.
Examples: Dr. Preston Smyth is a renowned surgeon.
but
The doctor is a renowned surgeon.
I had Prof. Thomas Wilkes for biology.
but
Thomas Wilkes was my biology professor.
Personal titles—Mr., Mrs., and Ms.—are always abbreviated.
Don’t abbreviate the days of the week and the months of the year
unless you’re listing them in a bibliography or footnote. Make sure the
style manual you’re using allows such abbreviations. Some require
that days and months be spelled in full.
Use abbreviations only when you have a sound reason for doing so or
when they’re standard usage in your field. For all other instances,
follow this well-known rule: When in doubt, spell it out.

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Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Punctuation is used to give the written word expression.

End marks are used to end sentences.
A period indicates a full stop—the end of a completed thought, and is
used:
1. To end declarative sentences, which form a complete statement.
2. To end imperative sentence, which are a type of sentence that
indicates a command or a request.
3. To end indirect questions, which suggest that a response is
requested.
4. To express a number as a decimal.
5. After abbreviations.
6. After Roman numerals used to refer to sections of an outline or
report.
A question mark is used at the end of a sentence that asks a direct
question.
A question mark can be enclosed in parenthesis to indicate doubt
about the correctness of a word or fact preceding the question mark.
An exclamation mark is used at the end of a declarative sentence to
convey strong feeling or when an imperative sentence is particularly
urgent.
When you are quoting another person, you place the end mark inside
the end quote.
A comma breaks a sentence into separate thoughts and grammatical
units, and is used:

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1. Between words in a series (preferably including one before the
and that’s with the last word in the series).
2. To separate coordinate adjectives (adjectives of equal
importance) before a noun.
3. Before coordinating conjunctions when they join two independent
clauses.
4. To introduce a short, direct quotation in the form of a complete
sentence.
5. At the end of a quotation if it’s followed by explanatory, unquoted
remarks.
6. Before and after such words as for example, to be sure, in fact,
however, nevertheless, and therefore, when they’re used to
comment or explain in a sentence that is already complete.
7. Around any part of a sentence that’s taken from its natural
position and put elsewhere in the sentence.
8. After a phrase or clause that comes before the main clause,
particularly if the phrase or clause is four or more words long.
9. To indicate the omission of a word.
10. To separate items in addresses.
11. To set off the name used to address someone directly.
12. To separate items in dates when the day of the week or month is
included, but not if you write only the month and year.
13. Between the parts of a name or phrase when they’re written in
reverse order.
14. Between the title and the name of an organization when of or of
the has been omitted.
15. Before abbreviations or degrees.
16. To separate thousands, millions, billions, etc., in numbers

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containing four or more digits.
17. Any place where misreading or misunderstanding might occur
without one.
A semicolon indicates a clear pause between thoughts and is used:
1. To join independent clauses that aren’t connected by
coordinating conjunctions.
2. Between main clauses that aren’t connected by coordinating
conjunctions, even when therefore, nevertheless, however, or
thus are present.
3. Between main clauses if the clauses are long, contain commas,
or if emphasis is desired.
4. Between items in a series when one or more of those items
contain commas.
A colon introduces a description, an explanation, or a list, and is used:
1. When citing a passage from a book or a publication to indicate
the location of the passage.
2. When stating proportions numerically.
3. After an introductory phrase or clause that precedes a list or an
enumeration of items.
An apostrophe is used to indicate either possession or show that one
or more letters have been left out of a word, resulting in a shorter form
of the word, known as a contraction.
Contractions are considered informal and are not recommended for
use in business writing.
When using an apostrophe to show possession:
1. Use an apostrophe alone when expressing the possessive form
of plural nouns that end in s.
2. Add an apostrophe and an s when expressing the possessive

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form of plural nouns that don’t end in s.
3. Use an apostrophe and an s with the last element in the series to
show joint possession.
4. Use an apostrophe and an s on each word if possession isn’t
joint.
Quotation marks are used in pairs “ ” to indicate directly quoted or
spoken words, to set dialogue apart from the rest of the sentence or
group of sentences, or when referring to titles of short works
appearing in journals, magazines, and newspapers.
To punctuate quotes:
1. When a direct quote of a declarative sentence is used at the
beginning of a sentence, the end mark is usually a comma,
except direct quotations of questions and imperative statements
in which question marks and exclamation points are used.
2. If direct quotes are broken up with an attribution of speech
between the two parts, insert a comma before the closing
quotation mark of the first part of the quote and the appropriate
end mark before the closing quotation mark in the second part.
3. When quoting only a small portion of text, no punctuation is
needed before the opening quote.
Parentheses are used in a pair ( ) to set off information that isn’t
essential to the meaning of a sentence or paragraph. They can be
used to enclose:
1. An explanatory term.
2. Minor digressions from the main idea.
3. References to tables, diagrams, charts, and so on.
4. Letters or numbers that come before listed items.
A hyphen is used to separate the parts of a word or join two or more

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separate words to form a compound word.
A dash is a longer solid line than a hyphen and is used:
1. To call attention to the material it sets off
2. To set off parenthetical elements that interrupt the main structure
of the sentence.
3. With a repeated word or phrase for additional or special
emphasis.
4. Before a summarizing statement.
5. To prepare for a list, a restatement, or an amplification of an idea.
6. To set off appositives that contain commas.
7. To indicate an abrupt change of thought or interrupted speech.
8. To achieve a dramatic pause.
Signs and symbols are often used in illustrations, but generally aren’t
used in text. Exceptions include:
1. The $ sign should always precede dollar amounts.
2. Use an ampersand (&) as necessary in proper nouns.
3. Mathematical symbols in equations. (Insert a space both before
and after the mathematical symbol.)
Use abbreviations for words or terms used frequently in your text,
following these rules:
1. Abbreviate units of measurement.
2. Never make an abbreviation plural, except for the abbreviations
for figures, volumes, numbers, and pages.
3. Use periods after any abbreviation that may cause confusion,
even if the practice in the technical field is to omit the periods.
4. Always use a period after the abbreviations ibid., vol., etc., and p.
5. If you use a term often, but are uncertain of your reader’s
familiarity with it, write the term out in full the first time you use it.

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Then place the abbreviated form immediately after it in
parentheses. From then on, you can use the abbreviation alone.
6. Abbreviate the title of an individual if the title appears before the
name of the person.
7. Always abbreviate personal titles—Mr., Mrs., and Ms.
8. Don’t abbreviate the days of the week and the months of the year
unless you’re listing them in a bibliography or footnote.
9. Avoid abbreviations that might cause confusion.
10. Use abbreviations only when you have a sound reason for doing
so or when they’re standard usage in your field.
Discover More: Punctuation
Indicate the proper end mark of punctuation to each sentence.
1. You’ll be ready soon, won’t you

2. Mimi asked you to mail this coat
3. Please sit right down and make yourself comfortable
4. I just can’t believe you did that
Revise the following sentences, inserting commas where needed:
5. We studied biology algebra general business and English grammar.

6. Biology is an area of study concerned with living organisms—their
form and structure their behavior their function their origin their
development and growth etc.
7. The dark dingy musty cellar needed to be cleaned.

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8. Turning his car left Bill crashed into a truck emerging from a side road.
Revise the following sentences, inserting colons or semicolons where

appropriate:
9. I learned all the rules and regulations of basketball however, I never

really learned to handle the ball very well.
10. When you report for the test make sure you have the following items
with you at least three sharpened No. 2 pencils, your entrance ticket,
and a picture identification.
11. Richard had three choices have the car fixed, buy a new one, or do
without.
12. We went to Niagara Falls my sister and her husband went to Cape
Cod.
Revise the following sentences, inserting hyphens, dashes, quotation

marks, or parentheses where needed:
13. Faith, hope, and charity these are the great virtues, but the greatest of
these is charity.
14. I felt very self conscious when it was my turn to ask ex President Bush
a question.
15. Elena was proud because of what Mr. Hernandez said that hers was a
well written report on typical behavior in fifth grade classrooms.
16. What, Jose wondered, could she be thinking?
Revise the following sentences, inserting apostrophes where needed:
17. Its too late for him to pass the course.

18. Someones red raincoat was left in the gym.

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19. Kindness doesnt cost anything.
20. He excused himself to go to the mens room.
21. Jerrys going to be here soon with his three sons.
22. The trees leaves had all fallen to the ground; now its bare.

Discover More: Punctuation
1. ?
2. .
3. .
4. !
5. We studied biology, algebra, general business, and English grammar.
6. Biology is an area of study concerned with living organisms—their
form and structure, their behavior, their function, their origin, their
development and growth, etc.
7. The dark, dingy, musty cellar needed to be cleaned.
8. Turning his car left, Bill crashed into a truck emerging from a side
road.
9. I learned all the rules and regulations of basketball; however, I never
really learned to handle the ball very well.
10. When you report for the test make sure you have the following items
with you: at least three sharpened No. 2 pencils, your entrance ticket,
and a picture identification.
11. Richard had three choices: have the car fixed, buy a new one, or do
without.
12. We went to Niagara Falls; my sister and her husband went to Cape
Cod.
13. Faith, hope, and charity—these are the great virtues, but the greatest

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of these is charity.
14. I felt very self-conscious when it was my turn to ask ex-President
Bush a question.
15. Elena was proud because of what Mr. Hernandez said—that hers was
a well-written report on typical behavior in fifth-grade classrooms.
16. “What,” Jose wondered, “could she be thinking?”
17. It’s too late for him to pass the course.
18. Someone’s red raincoat was left in the gym.
19. Kindness doesn’t cost anything.
20. He excused himself to go to the men’s room.
21. Jerry’s going to be here soon with his three sons.
22. The tree’s leaves had all fallen to the ground; now it’s bare.
2.8 Distinguish between words that need to be capitalized

and words that do not need to be capitalized
Capitalization
READING ASSIGNMENT
Capital letters are also called uppercase letters. In general, they serve two
major functions.
To indicate the beginning of a sentence
To indicate a proper noun or a proper adjective
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing. A proper

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adjective is a word derived from a proper noun, and is used to describe or
define another noun. Note that in the case of proper adjectives, only the
adjective is usually capitalized; the noun it describes is not capitalized.
There are a few exceptions to this rule, though, as you’ll learn.
Proper Proper
Noun Adjective
Victoria Victorian era
England English language
France French fries
Rome Roman numerals
As you’ll see in the following section, capital letters serve a few other
functions. Let’s begin with some of the more important guidelines.
Beginning Sentences
Always capitalize the first letter of a word that begins a sentence.
Examples: Make hay while the sun shines.
The play opens on the first of the month.
A penny saved is a penny earned.
Summer is my favorite time of year.
The Pronoun I

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Always capitalize the pronoun I.
Examples: They all thought I would be first to climb the mountain.
Whenever I visit my uncle, we always go to a baseball game.
After you finish the dishes, I’ll dry them and put them away.
Notice in the last sentence that the I is capitalized even when it’s part of a
contraction. Therefore, you write I’ll, I’ve, and I’d.
Days, Dates, and Seasons
We live in a world where we have to keep track of time. We need to know

the hour, the day, the month, and the year. We also need to recognize
holidays. Here are five basic rules for capitalizing days, dates, and
seasons:
An image of the names of

holidays, such as Valentine
The names of holidays, such as

Valentine's Day, Thanksgiving,

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and the Fourth of July, are
always capitalized.
1. Capitalize the days of the week: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,

Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.
Examples: Every Tuesday, we go to the park for lunch.
He finished his work late Friday afternoon.
Many people do their grocery shopping on Saturday.
2. Capitalize the names of the 12 months: January, February, March,

April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, and
December.
Examples: In my city, the coldest month of the year is usually

February.
Every September, we take a trip to Florida.
The beach is the busiest during July and August.
3. Capitalize the names of specific holidays—for example, President’s

Day, Martin Luther King Day, Valentine’s Day, Cinco de Mayo, the
Fourth of July, Yom Kippur, Christmas, Ramadan, Thanksgiving Day,
and New Year’s Eve.
Examples: We usually have a big family reunion on the Fourth of

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July.
Many offices are closed on Martin Luther King Day.
4. Don’t capitalize the names of the four seasons—winter, spring,

summer, and fall (autumn), unless the words begin a sentence.
Examples: Last fall, we had more than 20 inches of snow in Nevada.
I started my new job last summer.
Spring comes late in New Hampshire.
Christmas occurs during the winter.
5. Don’t capitalize the words yesterday, today, and tomorrow unless the
words begin a sentence.
Examples: Today is the day Evelyn begins school.
When I was in New York yesterday, I went to a Broadway play.
We plan to finish the report by tomorrow afternoon.
6. Don’t capitalize direction words like east, northwest, south, or western

unless they’re used to name a particular place.
Examples: I live east of San Francisco.

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The Southeast has suffered more hurricane damage.
Jane romanticizes the stories of the Old West.
Writing Dates
There are several correct ways to write dates:
1. Begin with the month, followed by the day and the year. Include a
comma after the day. If you wish to include the day of the week, place
it before the date, followed by a comma.
Examples: December 7, 1941
January 19, 2005
Sunday, December 7, 1941
Wednesday, January 19, 2005
2. Avoid using suffixes or superscripts like th or rd when writing a date.
Examples: July 4 or the Fourth of July
May 3 or the third of May
3. You can write the day first, followed by the month and the year,
without using punctuation (although this is more common in countries

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outside of the United States).
Examples: 7 December 1941
19 January 2005
4. You can write the date using numbers only.
Examples: 12/07/41 (December 7, 1941)
01/19/2005 (January 19, 2005)
Names and Personal Titles
There are three basic rules for capitalizing names:
An image of words like river,

mountain, or beach don
Words like river, mountain, or

beach don't have to be
capitalized unless they're part

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of a name.
1. Capitalize all elements of a person’s name: first name, middle name or

initial, and last name.
Examples: Maria Lasswell Cooper
George M. Long
2. Capitalize Jr. and Sr. when they follow a person’s name.
Examples: Luther Crockett, Jr.
James E. Major, Sr.
3. Capitalize titles used before a person’s name.
Examples: Mr. James L. Robertson
Mrs. Carolyn B. Cranwell
Ms. Jennifer Hopewell
Senator Elizabeth Warren or Sen. Elizabeth Warren
Representative Nancy Pelosi or Rep. Nancy Pelosi
Reverend Marcia G. Levine or Rev. Marcia G. Levine

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Rabbi Gabriel Greenberg
Dr. James R. Maxwell
Professor Lucinda E. Roy
Geographical Names
Capitalize the names of specific places, such as specific rivers, lakes,

oceans, buildings, parks, streets, and mountain ranges. Capitalize the
names of continents, countries, states and provinces, cities, and towns.
Missouri River
Dakota Badlands
Grand Canyon
Lake Erie
Grant’s Tomb
Central Park
Brooklyn Bridge
Yellowstone National Park
Pennsylvania
San Francisco
Africa
Rocky Mountains
Main Street
Don’t capitalize words like river, mountains, and street when they aren’t
part of a specific name.

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Examples: The river will soon overflow.
We couldn’t see the mountains because of the dense fog.
The street on which I live is very quiet
Don’t capitalize the word “the” when it comes just before the name of a
specific geographical location.
Examples: the Canadian wilderness
the United Arab Emirates
the Czech Republic
the Rocky Mountains
the Atlantic Ocean
State Abbreviations
As you may know, the United States Postal Service has assigned each
state a two-letter postal code name (pe.usps.gov/text/pub28/28apb.htm) .
Capitalize both letters in these abbreviations. Use them whenever you
address an envelope.
Father and Mother
An image of make sure

you check the correct
capitalization for any
name, whether an
individual, place, or

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organization, if you have
any doubt about its
accuracy.
Make sure you check

the correct capitalization
for any name, whether
an individual, place, or
organization if you have
any doubt about its
accuracy.
Capitalize words like Father, Mother, Grandmother, and Grandfather when

you use them in place of the person’s name. Don’t capitalize these words
when they follow the, a/an, or a possessive pronoun like my, our, your, his,
her, and their.
Examples: “Please, Father, let me go to the party,” I begged.
My father was a cabinetmaker.

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On what day will Mother be arriving?
My son, an attorney, is a county prosecutor.
I asked my doctor about my wife’s prescription.
Titles of Works
You encounter titles everywhere. There are titles for books, films, television
shows, stage plays, operas, songs, and paintings. When writing titles,
capitalize the first and last word and all major words. Generally, the only
words that you shouldn’t capitalize within a title are articles (a, an, and the),
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for nor, or, so, and yet), and
prepositions. However, some publishers capitalize some prepositions, so
it’s best to check titles before using them in a document.
Examples: House of Cards (television series)
American Gothic (painting)
The Theory of Everything (film)
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (stage play and film)
“Stand by Your Man” (song)
A Brief History of Time (book)
Additional Examples
Here are some additional examples of capitalization rules. If you’re not

sure how a person, group, organization, or other entity spells its name, use
a style guide, dictionary, or business reference to check it.

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The following are generally capitalized.
Special names for people, states, and localities
Examples: Old Hickory, the Lone Star State, the Bowery, the Eternal
City, New World, Wild West, Soho, the Garden of Eden
World and political divisions
Examples: Dominion of Canada, Wayne County, Second Ward, USA
Names of streets, highways, parks, specific buildings, monuments,

and mountains
Examples: Park Avenue, the G. A. R. Highway, Central Park,

Rockefeller Center, Washington Monument, Mount Kilimanjaro, Grand
Canyon
Names of political, religious, and philosophical groups and artistic

movements
Examples: Republican Party, Presbyterians, Jesuits, Impressionism,

Epicureans, Surrealists
Official titles of institutions, organizations, committees, or groups
Examples: County Hospital, Red Cross, Ways and Means

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Committee, Wednesday Club, University of Texas, Dayton Public
Library
Government and judicial bodies
Examples: House of Representatives, Department of Agriculture,

California Supreme Court, Gary City Council
Names of races, tribes, and languages
Examples: Hispanic, Sioux, German
Names of historical periods
Examples: Renaissance, Stone Age, Dark Ages
Important events
Examples: World War I, Boston Tea Party, Battle of Gettysburg
Official, government, military, academic, professional, and religious

titles, when these come before proper names
Examples: President Obama, Mayor Perry, Judge Saunders, General

Eisenhower, Sergeant Becker, Professor Kolbert, Rabbi Klein, Queen
Elizabeth, Doctor Bailey, Treasurer Erica Hugo
Academic degrees that follow a proper name

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Examples: Frederick Allen, M.A.; Juanita Lopez, M.D.; E. S.
Cunningham, Doctor of Law; Virginia Jones, Ph.D.
Titles of acts, treaties, and laws
Examples: Federal Reserve Act, Child Labor Law, Taft- Hartley Act
Special names for regions and the names of points of the compass
when used as special names for regions
Examples: the North, the Middle East
Brand names
Examples: Vaseline, Xerox, Pepsi
Ordinal numbers (numbers representing position in a sequence) in the

names of organizations
Examples: The Fifty-fifth Congress, the Second Illinois Regiment
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.

A proper adjective is a word derived from a proper noun, and is used

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to describe or define another noun.
Capital letters indicate the beginning of a sentence or indicate a
proper noun or proper adjective.
Capitalize the first letter of a word that begins a sentence.
When capitalizing a proper adjective, capitalize the adjective but not
the noun it describes.
Capitalize the pronoun I.
Capitalize the days of the week.
Capitalize the names of the 12 months.
Capitalize the names of specific holidays.
The three proper formats for dates include:
1. Begin with the month, followed by the day and the year. Include a
comma after the day. If you wish to include the day of the week,
place it before the date, followed by a comma.
2. Write the day first, followed by the month and the year, without
using punctuation.
3. Write the date using numbers with a slash ( / ) between the
month, day, and year.
Do not use suffixes and superscripts when writing a date.
To capitalize a person’s name:
1. Capitalize all elements of a person’s name: first name, middle
name or initial, and last name.
2. Capitalize Jr. and Sr. when they follow a person’s name.
3. Capitalize titles used before a person’s name.
Capitalize the names of specific places, but do not capitalize the word
“the” when it comes just before the name of a specific geographical
location.
Capitalize both letters in each state’s two-letter postal code name.

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Capitalize words like Father, Mother, Grandmother, and Grandfather
when you use them in place of the person’s name, but not if they are
preceded by a definite or indefinite article or a possessive pronoun.
Capitalize the first and last word and all major words in a title, but
don’t capitalize any definite or indefinite articles, coordinating
conjunctions, or prepositions.
Discover More: Capitalization
Indicate proper capitalization in each sentence.
1. We want to finish the project before thanksgiving.

2. Have I been here since sunday?
3. You can go if you want to, but i’m not going.
4. Please call the doctor before I return.
5. Please come by Tomorrow since Tuesday is my day off.
6. Did you know where the Bensons celebrated new year’s eve?
7. I asked my professor, dr. Wilson Snipes, what he thought of the Bill of
Rights.
8. Please send your Contributions to Luther Barber, 404 Lakewood
avenue, Covington, SC.
9. White-water rafting on the Colorado river isn’t a game for amateurs.
10. While Martha was with her Doctor, I talked to the Nurse.

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Discover More: Capitalization
1. We want to finish the project before Thanksgiving.

2. Have I been here since Sunday?
3. You can go if you want to, but I’m not going.
4. Please call the doctor before I return.
5. Please come by tomorrow since Tuesday is my day off.
6. Did you know where the Bensons celebrated New Year’s Eve?
7. I asked my professor, Dr. Wilson Snipes, what he thought of the Bill of
Rights.
8. Please send your contributions to Luther Barber, 404 Lakewood
Avenue, Covington, SC.
9. White-water rafting on the Colorado River isn’t a game for amateurs.
10. While Martha was with her doctor, I talked to the nurse.
Lesson 2 Review
Self-Check
1. Identify the verbs in the following sentence. As she heard the names
announced, Sarah remained confident she would be picked.
a. announced, picked
b. she, names, Sarah
c. heard, announced, remained, would be, picked
d. As, the, be
2. Construction is being done at an office building, and the superintendent
is writing a message to those visiting that they will need to be careful when

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entering the building. Which is the correct use of an adverb he might use?
a. Enter careful.
b. Enter with carefulness.
c. Enter with careful.
d. Enter carefully.
3. Identify the adverb in the following sentence. The top teams will meet in
the main pavilion downstairs.
a. downstairs
b. meet
c. main
d. top
4. In the following sentence, identify the subject. Magda's task for the day
is to pack all the boxes.
a. Magda
b. Magda's task
c. for the day
d. pack all the boxes
5. What is the predicate in the following sentence? The school's first snow
day made many kids happy.
a. The school
b. made many kids happy
c. first snow day
d. kids happy
6. Which of the following sentences contains a compound subject?
a. Sheila's husband is building a new deck.
b. Sheila is excited about building a new deck.
c. Sheila and her husband are building a deck.
d. Sheila is designing and building a deck.

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7. What is the indirect object in the following sentence? The delivery boy
brought the pizza to the house.
a. the pizza
b. The delivery boy
c. brought the pizza
d. to the house
8. An employee on vacation receives a message from a coworker that
states the following: When you get back. What is the name for this type of
incomplete sentence?
a. Independent clause
b. Indirect object
c. Dependent clause
d. Compound predicate
9. A sign at the zoo states, It is advised that visitors doesn't feed the
animals. This sentence is grammatically incorrect. How can it be rewritten
so that it contains subject-verb agreement?
a. It is advised that visitors aren't feeding the animals.
b. It is advised that visitors don't feed the animals.
c. It is advised that visitors didn't feed the animals.
d. It is advised that visitors wouldn't feed the animals.
10. A collective noun is the name of a group of people, places, or things. In
which sentence is the collective noun in agreement with the verb?
a. The club are celebrating their 25th anniversary.
b. The team were undefeated the entire season.
c. The staff is having its holiday party on Friday.
d. The council meet next week.
11. Jeff needs to let his wife know that their son, Kyle, took the dog out for
a walk. In his note to her, he writes: Before he left for practice, he took him

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out. How can he write this to be more clear?
a. Before he left for practice, Kevin took him out.
b. Before Kevin left for practice, he took the dog out.
c. He took him out before Kevin left for practice.
d. He took out the dog before he left for practice.
12. Nancy and her husband drove their neighbor, Matteo to the airport.
Which sentence correctly substitutes the nouns in the original sentence
with personal pronouns?
a. They took he to the airport.
b. She and him took him to the airport.
c. Her and him took him to the airport.
d. They took him to the airport.
13. Lily is writing a message to her tennis coach sharing that she was not
pleased with how she played at the match. Which is the correct sentence?
a. I played bad today.
b. The match ended bad.
c. I feel badly about how I played.
d. I played badly today.
14. Barbara is sending her daughter suggestions for recipes. Which is the
correct sentence?
a. The homemade soup is the best of both soups.
b. The homemade soup is more better than the canned one.
c. The homemade one is the better of the two soups.
d. The most best soup is the homemade one.
15. Melissa and her two roommates share house duties. One of her
roommates is messaging the other to let them know which duties Melissa
is doing. Which is the correct sentence?
a. Melissa is going to the supermarket and goes to bank.

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b. Melissa will go to the supermarket and is going to the bank.
c. Melissa is going to go to the supermarket and will go to the bank.
d. Melissa is going to the supermarket and to the bank.
16. Periods, question marks, and exclamation points are all examples of
_______ in sentence punctuation.
a. commas
b. end marks
c. contractions
d. apostrophes
17. Which is the best way to punctuate a set of instructions?
a. You’ll need the following to build the shelf a hammer, a screwdriver,
and nails.
b. You’ll need the following to build the shelf: a hammer, a screwdriver,
and nails.
c. You’ll need the following to build the shelf; a hammer, a screwdriver,
and nails.
d. You’ll need the following to build the shelf. A hammer, a screwdriver,
and nails.
18. Which is the correct use of the contraction it's?
a. It's time to wake up.
b. The alarm went off on it's own.
c. He put the toothbrush on it's side.
d. The dog chewed it's collar.
19. Which is the correct use of a hyphen?
a. Pro-sport
b. Self-aware
c. Dinner-time
d. Up-grade

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20. Jeff is a medical professional who frequently uses the abbreviation BMI
for Body Mass Index. How should he express the term in writing for a
reader who may not be unfamiliar with it?
a. BMI -- Body Mass Index
b. Body Mass Index B.M.I.
c. BMI: Body Mass Index
d. Body Mass Index (BMI)
1. heard, announced, remained, would be, picked

Explanation: A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of
being. Heard and remained are states of being. Announced and
picked are action verbs. Would and be are called helping verbs.
2. Enter carefully.
Explanation: An adverb modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs,
and answers the question of how, when, where, or how much.
Carefully is an adverb that modifies the verb enter. It answers the
question of how those visiting should enter the building. Enter carefully
is the correct answer.
3. downstairs
Explanation: An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs, and answers the question of how, when, where, or how
much. The adverb, downstairs, modifies the verb meet. It answers the

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question of where the team will meet.
4. Magda's task
Explanation: To build a complete sentence, you need a subject and a
predicate. A subject is what the sentence is about. Here, Magda's task
is the subject.
5. made many kids happy

Explanation: A sentence is a group of words that expresses a
complete thought and contains a subject and a predicate. The
predicate tells something about the subject. Made many kids happy is
the correct answer because it tells something about the school's first
snow day.
6. Sheila and her husband are building a deck.

Explanation: A sentence with a compound subject has two or more
nouns or pronouns. Sheila and her husband are building a deck is
correct because Sheila and her husband are nouns.
7. to the house
Explanation: An indirect object is the person or thing that the verb is
done for or directed to. To the house is the indirect object. It is the
thing to which the action of the verb, brought, is directed.

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8. Dependent clause
Explanation: A dependent clause is an incomplete sentence. It
depends on an independent clause to complete the thought. An
example of an independent clause that would make this a complete
sentence is, "When you get back, please call me."
9. It is advised that visitors don't feed the animals.

Explanation: For a sentence to have subject-verb agreement, a
subject and verb must agree in person and in number. It is advised
that visitors don't feed the animals agrees in person and in number
because the verb don't agrees with the plural subject, visitors.
10. The staff is having its holiday party on Friday.

Explanation: The staff is having its holiday party on Friday is the
correct answer. The staff is considered one unit, and therefore, the
verb, "is" must be singular to be in agreement.
11. Before Kevin left for practice, he took the dog out.
Explanation: When using a pronoun, it's important to make it clear to
whom or what the pronoun is referring. An antecedent is the noun to
which the pronoun refers. Before Kevin left for practice, he took the
dog out is the correct sentence because Kevin is a clear antecendent
used before the pronoun, he.

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12. They took him to the airport.
Explanation: They took him to the train station is the correct answer.
They refers to Nancy and her husband, and him refers to their
neighbor, Matteo.
13. I played badly today.

Explanation: The modifiers bad and badly are commonly misused.
Badly is used to modify a verb that denotes action. I played badly
today is the correct sentence because badly is modifying "played", a
verb that denotes action.
14. The homemade one is the better of the two soups.

Explanation: Modifiers are often misused when making comparisons.
When comparing only two things, use the comparative form. The
homemade one is the better of the two soups is the correct sentence
because the adjective better is the comparative form of the modifier.
15. Melissa is going to the supermarket and to the bank.

Explanation: When two or more elements are used in a sentence, they
must be in the same grammatical form. Melissa is going to the
supermarket and to the bank is correct because it uses parallel
construction. The verb tense "going to" matches both "the
supermarket" and "the bank".

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16. end marks
Explanation: End marks are periods, question marks, and exclamation
points. They are used to end sentences and indicate to the reader
where one thought ends and another begins.
17. You’ll need the following to build the shelf: a hammer, a screwdriver,
and nails.
Explanation: When writing a list, a colon should be used after the
introductory phrase and before the list of items. You’ll need the
following to build the shelf: a hammer, a screwdriver, and nails is the
correct answer because a colon comes after the introductory phrase
You’ll need the following to build the shelf and before the listed items
a hammer, a screwdriver, and nails.
18. It's time to wake up.

Explanation: An apostrophe is used to join two words to form a
contraction. It's is a contraction of two words, it and is. It's time to
wake up is the correct answer.
19. Self-aware
Explanation: A hyphen is often used to join two separate words.
Words that begin with self are instances when you would use a
hyphen. Self-aware is the correct answer.

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20. Body Mass Index (BMI)
Explanation: When using an abbreviation in writing that the reader
may not be familiar with, write out the term in full, then place the
abbreviated form immediately after it in parentheses. In this example,
Body Mass Index (BMI) is the correct answer.
Flash Cards
1. Term: Noun
Definition: A word in a sentence that names a person, place, thing,
quality, idea, or action
2. Term: Pronoun
Definition: A word that substitutes a noun. The word the noun is
substituting must be previously referenced or understood before using the
pronoun.
3. Term: Verb
Definition: A word that expresses an action or a state of being. Verbs can
also be actions that are perceived or sensed.
4. Term: Adjective
Definition: A modifier to a noun. It answers the question which one, what
kind, or how many of the noun that it's modifying.
5. Term: Adverb

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Definition: A modifier to a verb, adjective, or other adverb. It answers the
question how, when, where, or how much of the verb, adjective, or other
adverb it is modifying.
6. Term: Subject
Definition: The person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about
7. Term: Predicate
Definition: The part of the sentence that contains the verb or verb phrase
8. Term: Direct Object

Definition: A noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb
9. Term: Indirect Object

Definition: A person or thing that the verb is done for or directed to
10. Term: Parallel Construction

Definition: A sentence that has two ideas must be grammatically matched.
Nouns must be matched with nouns, verbs with verbs, phrases with
phrases, and clauses with clauses.
11. Term: Proper Noun

Definition: The name of a particular person, place, or thing. A proper noun
should be capitalized.
12. Term: First Person

Definition: Indicates the person who is speaking or writing

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13. Term: Second Person
Definition: Indicates the person spoken or written to
14. Term: Third Person

Definition: Refers to the person or thing spoken or written about
15. Term: Antecedent

Definition: The noun to which the pronoun in the sentence refers
16. Term: Modifier

Definition: A word that extends, restricts, or sharpens the meanings of
other words. Modifiers primarily consist of adjectives and adverbs.
17. Term: End Mark

Definition: Punctuation that ends a sentence. End marks can be periods,
question marks, or exclamation points.
Medical Office Procedures : Professional

Communications
Lesson 3 Overview
Most working professionals can expect to meet and interact with a number
of different people every day. How effectively you communicate with
people often determines the level of success you attain in your chosen

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field. This study unit has been
designed to help you develop
more effective professional
communication skills in order to
increase your chances for
success.
Today’s competitive
marketplace demands that you constantly refine your communication skills.
By applying proven tips and communication techniques, you can gain the
confidence needed to express yourself effectively and to achieve your
professional goals.
3.1 Identify how to handle incoming calls in an office setting

Professional Communications
READING ASSIGNMENT
Incoming Calls
An image of an office
professional, many of your
duties will involve telephone
communications.

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As an office professional, many
of your duties will involve
telephone communications.
One of the most important lines of communication within a business is the

telephone. Every office has at least one, and some have hundreds. The
telephone must be answered whenever it rings. It demands your immediate
attention no matter what you may be doing. As an office professional, you’ll
receive and make dozens of calls every day from all kinds of people—sales
representatives, business executives, suppliers, and/or clients, just to
name a few. In time, you’ll learn how to be prepared for each type of call.
Answering Calls Correctly
When you become an office professional, you may be responsible for

answering the telephone. If you follow the guidelines in this section, you’ll
be able to handle yourself in a professional manner.
1. Know your telephone system. Quite often, phone systems and

capabilities differ from company to company. Telephone training is
part of a company’s orientation program. Also, literature should be
available on how to use the various functions of your phone system.
2. Answer the phone promptly. Try to answer by the second ring. You
can build a reputation for efficiency by providing fast telephone
service.
3. Identify yourself. When you answer outside calls on the office

telephone, identify your firm or organization, as well as yourself. For

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example, you might say, “Brigsby and Young, Ms. Simmons
speaking,” or “Good afternoon, Brigsby and Young, CPAs, Mr. Carlton
speaking.” Mentioning the firm first lets the caller know if he or she
has dialed the correct number. Saying your name lets the person
know who has been reached. If your company has multiple
departments, you can greet callers by naming the department and
identifying yourself, saying, “Purchasing department, Cynthia Chung
speaking.”
An image of an office
professional is wearing a typical
headset.
This office professional is

wearing a typical headset.
4. Position the telephone correctly. If you’re using a traditional handset,

place it firmly against your ear with the center of the mouthpiece about
three-fourths of an inch (approximately two centimeters) from your
lips. Never talk with the phone under your ear. Many office
professionals now use headsets when they answer the phone. If you
find yourself using a headset, make sure the mouthpiece is properly

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positioned.
5. Show courtesy to callers. Give your attention to the person at the

other end of the line. Don’t try to talk to the caller at the same time that
you’re talking to someone else. Generally, the individual who’s in your
presence should receive priority treatment over someone who’s calling
you. Exceptions would be if the telephone conversation is urgent or if
the person on the line is a high-level official. Simply say to the person
on the phone, “I have someone in my office right now. May I return
your call in a few minutes?” Write down the person’s phone number,
and then make sure you return the call.
Don’t allow the day’s occurrences to influence your telephone

personality. Maintain a pleasant, cheerful disposition. Customers have
their own problems and don’t necessarily want to know how well or
badly your day is going.
6. Explain interruptions. If you must leave the telephone for information,

explain this to the caller. If you’re gone more than 30 seconds, offer to
call him or her back within a few minutes. If the person prefers to wait,
put the call on hold rather than just placing the receiver on your desk.
Remember, too, to thank the caller for his or her patience. If the
telephone rings while you’re speaking to someone else, excuse
yourself politely, ask the first caller to wait, and immediately answer
the second call. Then, get back to the original caller as soon as
possible.
7. Conclude calls cordially. Usually, the caller is the person responsible

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for terminating the conversation. If you’re the one being called, you
should wait for the caller to end the call unless there’s a good reason
to do otherwise. Every time you speak on the telephone, your voice
and manner ought to make an impression that reflects favorably on
you and the company you represent.
Handling Requests for Information Properly
Administrative assistants are often responsible for handling information

requests from customers, such as price and order information. Most
requests are strictly routine and answered easily via catalogs, price
schedules, and product descriptions. However, there will always be a few
non-routine information requests that require special handling. Either the
information request is complex and requires several minutes to fulfill, or the
data must be gathered because it isn’t readily to wait until you can gather
the information, or if they would available. In these instances, ask callers
whether they prefer like you to call them back.
Sometimes callers will insist on waiting, no matter how long it takes. They
might be anxious because the information is needed urgently. If this is the
case, you should come to the phone every few minutes so they don’t think
you’ve forgotten them. Always remain courteous and use expressions such
as “Thank you for waiting, Mr. Stengel,” or “It will be just a few more
minutes.”
At the conclusion of the conversation, wait for the caller to say goodbye.
You, in turn, should respond with, “Thank you for calling, Ms. Simone.
Goodbye.” It’s only courteous and in good taste for the caller to hang up
first. In addition, you’ll know that the conversation has ended.

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Using Appropriate Telephone Language
The business office has a more formal atmosphere than your home, so the
language you use should also be more formal than what you would use
when speaking to friends. Avoid the habit of using slang. Phrases and
expressions such as “yep,” “nope,” “yeah,” and “bye-bye” are too casual for
the office. Although you should be friendly to callers, try not to socialize on
business calls.
Concentrating on Telephone Conversations
Listening carefully to what someone says on the telephone will help to

ensure accuracy. When you’re speaking with someone, give that person
your complete attention. Don’t let your mind wander to what you’re going to
do late or what you’re going to say when it’s your turn to talk. The ability to
concentrate on what’s being said takes practice. Make it a point to be truly
interested in what the other person is saying and focus on what’s being
communicated. Repeat important points to make certain you’ve heard
them correctly, write the key facts down for future reference, and don’t trust
your memory. Also, don’t be afraid to ask that a comment be repeated,
because it’s better to ask than to misunderstand.
To develop good listening skills:
Speak clearly
Repeat information for clarification
Summarize key points given to you

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Use verbal reinforcement with the other person, such as “yes” and “I
see”
Use the first name (or last name if more appropriate) of the person or
the pronoun “you”
Answer questions frankly or admit that you don’t know but that you’ll
find out
If the office is noisy, the speaker has a soft voice, or there’s a poor
connection, you’ll need to pay closer attention than usual. Ask callers to
please speak louder if you can’t hear them well, or close your office door if
possible. Try to eliminate or minimize any possible distractions. Sometimes
it might be better to ask the caller if it would be convenient to return the call
as soon as you’ve dealt with outside distractions.
As a daily exercise, listen to individuals as closely as possible without

interrupting. You’ll discover listening to be an enjoyable art, and you’ll learn
a great deal.
Screening Calls
Screening calls requires you to temporarily assume the role of judge. You
have to decide if an unfamiliar person should be put through to your boss—
or anyone else. But perhaps it’s a busy time and he or she doesn’t want to
be disturbed. Perhaps your boss has asked you to divert most of his or her
calls for the moment.
Deciding whether to place a call through requires skill and tact. As you
become acquainted with clients, you’ll learn to recognize their voices and

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automatically put them through to your employer. But what do you do when
the person calling has an unfamiliar voice? First, inquire politely as to the
caller’s identity. Ask “May I ask who is calling, please?” or “May I tell Ms.
Virchow who is calling?” An abrupt “Who’s calling?” is neither professional
nor courteous.
SAY DON'T SAY

Ms. Hargrove isn’t expected back in
the office before the end of the week.
Ms. Hargrove is home with the flu.
May I take a message?
Ms. Hargrove isn’t at her desk at the

Ms. Hargrove isn’t taking any calls
moment. May I take a message?
this afternoon.
Ms. Hargrove is at the Green View
Ms. Hargrove will be in tomorrow
Country Club playing golf with Mr.
morning; may I take a message?
Gray for the rest of the afternoon.
Ms. Hargrove is out of town until next
Tuesday. May I take a message and Ms. Hargrove is in Kansas City
have her call you back when she discussing the new Birch account.
returns?
Ms. Hargrove isn’t available to return Ms. Hargrove has a lot of things to
your call this afternoon. May I take a catch up on from her last trip. She
message? isn’t free to take calls at this time.
When the person you’re answering for is involved in a meeting, what

should you say to the caller? “I’m sorry; Mr. Caswell doesn’t wish to be
disturbed” will sound rude.

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A more delicate, tactful approach would be “I’m sorry, but Mr. Caswell is in
conference and is expected to return at 3:00 P.M. May I be of assistance,
or could someone else help?” Or you could say, “Mr. Caswell is in a
meeting. If you’ll give me your name and number, I’ll have him return your
call as soon as possible.” If you want to be more direct, you could say, “I’m
sorry, but Mr. Caswell won’t be available until 3:00 P.M. this afternoon.
Would you like to leave your name and number so he can return your call
at that time?”
As you gain more experience in handling telephone conversations, the

situations you encounter will become easier to handle. Making quick, smart
decisions will get easier.
Be honest and helpful while being tactful. Don’t purposely deceive the
caller by saying the executive is out of the office when he or she isn’t.
If the call is to be returned, be sure you obtain the following information:
The caller’s name—spelled correctly
The phone number—with correct area code and extension
The company name of the caller
The time and date of the call
The purpose of the call with all details clearly written
Your initials or first name in case the message receiver has questions

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After you record the message, repeat back to the caller the important
information, such as the correct spelling of his or her name and the phone
number. You don’t want to embarrass yourself or the person who will be
returning the call by mispronouncing the person’s name. Worse yet, you
don’t want the person for whom you took the message to tell you that the
number you recorded is incorrect and the caller can’t be contacted.
Companies generally have preprinted message pads so you can record

information easily. Make sure your writing is legible.
Taking Detailed Messages
Sometimes, messages extend beyond the usual “While you were out” sort.
Instructions, price quotes, meeting directions, convention agendas,
address lists, and purchase order specifications are just a few of the types
of messages you might receive. Although some callers may prefer leaving
a voicemail, some may wish to leave a message with you, or an executive
may call from another branch and dictate instructions to you.
To ensure you don’t make any errors or misunderstand messages, follow

these simple rules:
1. Write down every instruction clearly.
2. Ask questions immediately when you don’t understand a word,

phrase, or idea.
3. Repeat back, word for word, the entire message after it’s given.
4. Clearly establish whether the message must be processed by a

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certain time.
5. Ask “what if” questions when you aren’t sure the message can be
acted upon within the allotted time frame.
“What if” questions are sometimes crucial. Let’s say there’s an urgent
message for Ms. Virchow that must be acted upon before 3:00 P.M. You
have no idea where she can be reached, so you need to ask important
questions.
What if I’m unable to get in touch with Ms. Virchow by 3:00 P.M.?
Is there anyone else who can make the decision for her?
Can a decision be delayed past 3:00 P.M.?
What if you’re out when Ms. Virchow calls back?
Whom should Ms. Virchow call?
Before you hang up with the caller, ask yourself these questions and see if
you know the answers. If not, then you’ll need to ask the caller more
questions until enough information is gathered in order to terminate the
phone call.
Taking clear, reliable, and accurate messages is vital. If you’re negligent in

obtaining correct information, it isn’t only a poor reflection on you, but on
the company as well.
Not Volunteering Information

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Suppose a caller says, “Where is Ms. Virchow today? I know she isn’t in
the office.” What do you say? Some bosses don’t want anyone to know
where they are when they’re away from the office. Others don’t mind a
select few knowing their whereabouts, but they insist that nobody outside
the company know. As a general rule, it’s best to discuss guidelines with
the person for whom you answer the phone so that you aren’t
embarrassed. Quite likely, your boss will give you a response to use on the
phone before leaving. For instance, Ms. Virchow might say, “If there are
any callers, tell them I’ll be with a client the rest of the day and will return
their calls first thing tomorrow morning.”
The intention here isn’t to be mysterious; it simply isn’t desirable for

everyone to know how your boss uses his or her time—especially
competitors! Individuals in executive positions may travel on company
business at night, on weekends, and during holidays, attend evening
meetings, or work late to finish reports. To make up for these extra hours,
executives may take a few hours for personal business during the day.
Some executives also mix business with pleasure by entertaining clients.

All of these activities are confidential, unless the executive says otherwise.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Know how to operate your office’s telephone system.

Always answer the phone promptly.
Identify your company or department, and yourself when you answer
the phone.

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Position the telephone correctly so that it is in the best position for you
to hear and be heard.
Give your attention to a person in your physical presence first, even if
that means answering the phone and requesting a call back.
Give your full attention to the person at the other end of the line—
eliminate or minimize any distractions.
Keep your telephone personality pleasant and cheerful, regardless of
the type of day you are having.
Use formal language when speaking; avoid casual expressions and
slang.
Explain any interruptions to the caller.
If you need to gather additional information for a caller, ask if they
would like to wait for the information or they would like a call back.
When screening calls for someone:
Be truthful, but tactful.
Politely inquire about the caller’s identity.
Don’t volunteer information about the person’s whereabouts
unless they have indicated they want callers to know where they
are.
If you cannot put a caller through, ask if you or someone else can
be of assistance or if you can take their name and number for a
call back.
Collect the following information for messages:
The caller’s name, correctly spelled.
The caller’s phone number, including area code and any personal
extension.
The caller’s company name.
The date and time of the call.

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The purpose of the call, if given.
For more detailed messages, write down every instruction clearly.
Your initials or first name so that the message receiver can ask
any follow up questions.
When you collect caller information, verify the information by repeating
it back to the caller.
When the person who calls initiates termination of your conversation,
conclude the call cordially.
Discover More: Incoming Calls
1. The correct way to answer an incoming call is to identify_______ and

_______.
2. If applicable, when answering incoming calls you may also identify the
_______ in which you work.
3. Suppose you’re on the phone with a client and you must leave the
phone for more than 30 seconds. What should you do?

Discover More: Incoming Calls
1. the company name, your name

2. the name of the department or division
3. Try to get back to the caller and explain the delay or take down the
caller’s information and return the call when you have the information
requested.

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3.2 Recognize how to use telecommunications technology
to handle phone calls and to organize phone numbers
Handling and Organizing Telephone Calls
READING ASSIGNMENT
Transferring Calls Correctly
Consider how Rolanda and Enrique, both inexperienced office

professionals, handle the following situation:
“Harry, there’s a woman on the phone. I don’t know what she wants, but
maybe you can help her!” With that, Rolanda hands off a puzzled caller to
poor Enrique, who is caught by surprise.
Enrique gets on the phone. “Hello, may I help you? Oh, I’m sorry, but I
believe you want the shipping department, but I’m not sure.” In the end, the
poor caller may be transferred three or four times before he or she hangs
up in disgust. What does the way Rolanda and Enrique handled the
situation say about the company?
Obviously, Rolanda and Enrique are unfamiliar with the departments and
which people can handle incoming calls. Their ignorance sends a message
to customers or clients: “These people don’t know what they’re doing. I’d
better do my business with another company.” And with that, they take
hundreds or perhaps thousands of dollars’ worth of their business to a
competitor.

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How to handle a situation like this is partly a matter of finding out what
each person and department does; it’s also a matter of common sense. A
caller should never be transferred more than once unless business must be
conducted with two or more individuals or departments within the
company. By knowing precisely which person can handle specific requests,
you eliminate 99 percent of the problem calls.
Sometimes, you might be absolutely stumped about whom the caller

should contact. If so, ask the person’s name, number, and purpose of the
call. Tell the caller that someone will call them back in a few minutes.
Then, you and your coworkers can solve the problem together. This way,
the caller won’t be left on hold for a long period of time or shifted from
department to department. By showing interest and determination to find
an answer for the caller, you’re demonstrating that you care and are taking
the issue seriously. Your desire to help will be noticed and appreciated.
Try to find the answer as quickly as possible, hopefully within 15 to 20

minutes. (If it’s any longer, you might convey the message that you don’t
know what you’re doing or that you’ve forgotten the caller.) Once you have
the information or have identified the proper contact person, return the call
and enthusiastically announce you’re prepared to provide assistance.
Transferring calls takes care and attention. Usually, it requires calling

another extension and making sure that someone else has answered and
will talk to the caller. You should make sure the other person is on the
phone before you disengage the connection. Otherwise, the caller will be
disconnected and have to dial the office again. When you do transfer the
call, tell the caller, “Mr. Adams, I’ll transfer you to Ms. Hutchins in Human
Resources. If we’re disconnected for some reason, her extension is 4250.”

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If you need to transfer a call, make sure you know the proper procedure. In
many cases, this involves putting the person on hold so you’re able to dial
another’s extension. You’ll have two people on the line for a moment. Make
sure the person you’re talking to knows that you’re transferring the call and
to whom he or she is being transferred. You should do this before you put
that person on hold. Again, give the person on your phone the extension of
the person to whom you’re transferring, in case the person is disconnected.
Then, let the person in your firm know that you’re transferring the
individual. When you’ve notified both parties, you might say, “Ms.
Thompson, I have Mr. Jones on the phone to speak with you now. Go
ahead.” Then, quietly hang up your receiver.
Placing Telephone Calls Efficiently
There will be very busy days when you’ll need to find an individual’s or
company’s phone number as quickly as possible. The secret to locating
any person efficiently is to keep telephone numbers accessible and, for
people called frequently, to note their schedules so you know which
telephone number to try first.
The standard rule for locating a telephone number is to search for it only
once. After locating a number, it should be recorded and then placed in
your personal telephone directory, in a desktop file, or placed on speed
dial. Speed dial is a function available on certain telephones that stores
phone numbers. You only have to push the appropriate button and don’t
need to dial the entire number. Then, the next time that number is needed,
it will be at your fingertips. Never get into the habit of having to look up the
number again and again. This takes too much time. Make it a rule that
each time you have to search for a number, you write it down and place it

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where you can access it easily.
Before placing a call, anticipate any potential problems. If the person being
called isn’t in, will your supervisor speak with another person or whoever is
there? Do you have the alternate person’s name and extension? Are you
to leave a message? And, if so, what are you to say?
Handling Special Calls
Although most calls involve just two parties, in the business environment,
you may need to facilitate calls in which several people will participate. In
addition, some of the persons who need to speak together may live in a
different part of the United States, or even in another country. Calls of this
nature will require extra planning and consideration.
Conference Calls
Business decisions often require that two, three, or more people located in
various parts of the country be contacted. When the information must be
gathered quickly, a conference call is often the solution. Conference calls
aren’t nearly as expensive as flying individuals to a common site for a
meeting. For example, suppose your employer is a national sales manager
for a major corporation. The company has regional sales managers in
Boston, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Seattle, and Los Angeles. There’s an
urgent need to get input from these managers about a new policy. A
decision must be made today. Thus, a conference call is requested.
Procedures for the conference call aren’t complex. An individual must have
the names, area codes, and numbers of all parties at hand before initiating
the request. Hopefully, everyone is available. Usually, a time is set when

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everyone will be available and ready for the call to be put through.
Time Zone Differences
In addition to having standard and daylight saving time periods, the United
States is divided into six time zones that correspond to zones throughout
the Western Hemisphere. These zones are known as eastern standard
(EST), central standard (CST), mountain standard (MST), Pacific standard
(PST), Hawaii-Aleutian standard (HST), and Alaskan standard (AKST)
time.
You need to be aware of these time zones when you’re making long-
distance calls. For example, if it’s 9:00 A.M. in California (PST), it would be
10:00 A.M. in Montana (MST), 11:00 A.M. in Minnesota (CST), and noon in
South Carolina (EST). To determine the time for Alaska, subtract one
hour from Pacific time. Hawaii is two hours behind Alaska. Thus if it’s 9:00
A.M. in California, it would be 8:00 A.M. in Alaska and 6:00 A.M. in Hawaii.
Canada is divided into six time zones: Newfoundland, Atlantic, eastern,

central, mountain, and Pacific. For example, if it’s 9:00 A.M. in British
Columbia, it would be 10:00 A.M. in Alberta/Saskatchewan, 11:00 A.M. in
Manitoba/northwestern Ontario, noon in southeastern Ontario/Quebec,
1:00 P.M. in New Brunswick/Nova Scotia/Prince Edward Island/Labrador,
and 1:30 P.M. in Newfoundland.
An image of map of United States. Time zones are

illustrated with colors: blue is Pacific, yellow is Mountain,
green is Central, purple is Eastern, and red is Atlantic.

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Time zone and area code maps can help you determine
time zones in different parts of the country.
Several online sites, such as Great Data

(greatdata.com/areacodetimezone) and LincMad
(www.lincmad.com/areacodemap.html) , allow you to relate time zones to
area codes for different states. If you look closely at the time zone and area
code map, you’ll notice that parts of some states are in two time zones.
Western Nebraska, for example, uses MST, while eastern Nebraska uses
CST.
If you frequently call foreign countries, learn their schedules for daylight
saving time. Some foreign countries may not have daylight saving time, or
may not have it on the same dates as the United States or Canada.
Websites like TimeAndDate (www.timeanddate.com/time/map/) and
WorldTimeZone (www.worldtimezone.com/) can help you determine the
appropriate time in different countries. Also, when calling businesses in

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other countries, be aware that they may celebrate different holidays than
are observed in the United States, and at different times as well. Thus, if
you call during these times, personnel won’t be available to take your calls.
It’s a good idea to do a bit of research online to ensure that an international
call isn’t being scheduled on a holiday.In determining time differences
throughout the world, it’s possible that the difference may be so great that
you can either gain or lose a day. For example, if it’s 11:00 P.M. Monday in
Nevada, it would be 8:00 A.M. Tuesday in Denmark.
Telecommunication Technologies
On some occasions the person you need to contact by phone is

unavailable. Other times you won’t be able to take a phone call
immediately. Fortunately there are ways to keep communication going
forward. A number of features are available for getting your message to
someone and accessing messages left for you, even when you can’t be in
the office.
Using Voicemail
Recording a greeting. Leaving voicemail messages is a common action

for most businesses. It combines the immediacy of the spoken telephone
message with the convenience of storage. It’s particularly suited for short
messages. Voicemail is available through answering machines, as a
service from your telephone provider, or through your computer (known as
integrated messaging). Answering machines typically rely on internal
recording technology, while integrated messaging records messages as
email attachments.
If your company has voicemail, you can record a personalized greeting that

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individuals will hear when they call. You can record this greeting several
times until you’re satisfied with it; then you can save it. Remember, your
greeting should be professional in content and tone. With voicemail, you
have the option of changing your greeting at any time so you can tell
callers of special circumstances. For example, you might record a special
message when you’re going to be out of the office for a day or on vacation
for a week. You could leave instructions so individuals calling you will know
whom to contact in your absence. Remember to check your voicemail daily
and to change your greeting on a timely basis to reflect your availability.
Receiving messages. Different voicemail systems inform you of

messages in different ways. Some show a flashing light on your phone,
while others provide a quickly repeating dial tone when you pick up the
receiver. By calling a specific number and/or using a password, you can
listen to your messages and then keep, repeat, delete, or save them. It’s a
good idea to check messages at least once a day to respond to them
appropriately.
Sending messages. If you’re using voicemail to leave a message for

someone else, there are some general rules to follow. For instance, you
should
Make sure the message is complete and that you repeat your name
and contact information.
Make your message clear and concise.
Never leave confidential messages on voicemail.

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Provide a good time to return your call.
Remote access. If your company has voicemail capability, you can dial
into your company phone and retrieve messages regardless of where you
are and what time it is. So, if you’re out of the office for some reason, you
can check your calls. To access your voicemail when you’re out of the
office, enter your assigned identification number as though you were at
your desk. Then you can listen to your messages, fastforward, listen again,
delete, and save as though you were at your desk.
Call Forwarding
If your telephone or voicemail system has call forwarding, you can send
any incoming calls to another extension. For example, if you go to lunch,
you can have your calls forwarded to another employee’s desk so that
employee can take messages for you. Or, suppose you know you’re going
to be away from your desk in another part of the building. You don’t want to
miss an important call, so you can temporarily have your calls forwarded to
an extension where you’re going to be. However, don’t forget to cancel the
forward command upon returning to your desk!
Call Waiting
Call waiting is used when there’s a single line, and it alerts you that
another call is waiting. When you hear the call waiting tone, you can
choose to ignore it or briefly put your caller on hold while you attend to the
waiting call. This feature is available on regular phone systems as well as
voicemail.
When a call is camped on your line, the caller is waiting while you’re on the

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line with another person. As soon as you hang up, the call rings on your
extension. This feature is available on both regular phone systems and
voicemail systems.
Teleconferencing
A growing number of businesses are using teleconferencing as a way for

companies located in different cities, states, and even countries to
communicate without the expense of traveling. Teleconferencing typically
takes place in one of two ways. In the first way, participants dial the same
number at a designated time and are connected. The other method
employs an operator, who takes care of getting everyone connected.
Commonly, teleconferences are combined with webinars, online seminars
in which participants are also connected through a presentation on the
Internet.
Organizing Telephone Numbers
The busy office professional always keeps a list of commonly called

numbers and extensions in a Word document and/or an Excel-type
spreadsheet. Frequently called numbers can also be stored in the speed
dial function on your telephone, so you only have to push the appropriate
button and don’t need to dial the entire number.
An image of computer screen shot showing Excel spreadsheet with list of

names and phone numbers used by the purchasing department.

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Sample Spreadsheet of Frequently Called Numbers
Larger companies usually have online telephone directories. The company

directory indicates key people in alphabetical order with their department
and telephone extensions. However, this kind of list may become outdated
due to personnel shifts and turnovers unless it’s meticulously maintained. It
also may not contain cell phone numbers, which limits its usefulness.
Sometimes your company list may indicate the names of individuals, but
you don’t always know their function within the company. When you
discover someone’s function and that person becomes important to you,
you can also enter this information on the company database in a separate
column.
If you place telephone calls on behalf of your business, your employer may
require you to keep either a written or computerized daily log of your calls.
Sometimes it becomes important to have a record of an individual’s call.
The log is useful to the accounting department in reconciling the phone
bills each month. The log is also useful for helping management measure

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client communication effectiveness as well as scheduling future
appointments.
Telephone Log
Date Time Name * Number Message
Key Points and Links

READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Transferring a call involves taking the current caller on your extension

and moving the call to another person’s extension.
Know which person in your company can handle specific requests so
that each caller is transferred only once.
If you do not know who can handle a caller’s request, let them know
you will call them back shortly with assistance, then take no more than
15–20 minutes to find out the appropriate person to assist them.
To transfer a call:
Know how to transfer a call using your telephone system before
you attempt it the first time with a customer.
Request the caller’s name.
State to the caller that you are transferring the call.
Give the caller the name and extension of the person they are
being transferred to.

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Make sure the call is answered before removing yourself from the
call.
Give the customer’s name to the person you are transferring the
call to.
Search for telephone numbers once, then record them in a personal
telephone directory or in speed dial for quick and easy access.
Conference calls involve more than two people on the same call.
When arranging a conference call between people in multiple
geographic locations, be sure to consider any difference in time
zones, as well as standard and daylight savings time periods.
The United States has six time zones: eastern standard (EST), central
standard (CST), mountain standard (MST), Pacific standard (PST),
Hawaii-Aleutian standard (HST), and Alaskan standard (AKST) time.
Canada is also divided into six time zones: Newfoundland, Atlantic,
eastern, central, mountain, and Pacific.
If you do business with companies outside of the United States and
Canada, learn their time zones and if they adhere to daylight savings
time.
To calculate the difference between time zones:
Going west to east, add one hour per time zone
Going east to west, subtract one hour per time zone.
Voicemail allows a caller to leave a recorded message for another
person.
There are two types of voicemail—integrated messaging which
records messages as email attachments sent to your computer or an
answering machine type service provided by your telephone provider.
Know how to use your voicemail system to record greetings, playback
your messages, and send messages, both through local and remote

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access.
The voicemail greeting your callers hear should be professional in
content and tone; record it several times if necessary to get it right.
Some voicemail systems allow you to record a temporary greeting for
special circumstances such as vacations.
Check your voicemail several times a day.
Call forwarding allows you to send calls coming into one extension
directly to another extension.
Call waiting signals you while on a call that another call is coming in.
Call waiting allows you to switch between your current call and the
new incoming call.
Teleconferences allow multiple callers in multiple locations to be
connected for a meeting.
Webinars combine a teleconference with an online presentation
shown through the Internet.
Links
Great Data (greatdata.com/areacodetimezone)

LincMad (www.lincmad.com/areacodemap.html)
TimeAndDate (www.timeanddate.com/time/map/)
WorldTimeZone (www.worldtimezone.com/)
Discover More: Handling and Organizing Phone Numbers
1. Identify three potential questions you need to answer before placing

an outgoing call for your supervisor.

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2. Before transferring a call, what should you tell the person on the other
end of the line?
3. It’s a good idea to give callers being transferred _______ in case
they're disconnected.
4. Call _______ is a service that informs you another call has come in
that needs to be answered.
5. Identify the five rules to follow when taking detailed messages.
6. When leaving a voicemail message, it’s important to repeat _______
and _______.
7. When leaving a voicemail message, it’s important to provide _______.

Discover More: Handling and Organizing Phone Numbers
1. If the person being called isn’t in, will your supervisor speak with
another person or whoever is there? Do you have the alternate
person’s name and extension? Are you to leave a message and, if so,
what are you to say?
2. That you’re transferring the call and to whom
3. the extension of the person to whom you’re transferring
4. waiting
5. The five rules to follow when taking detailed messages are:
a. Write down every instruction clearly.
b. Ask immediately when you don't understand a word, phrase, or
idea.
c. Repeat back, word for word, the entire message after it’s given.
d. Establish clearly whether the message must be processed by a
certain time.
e. Ask what-if questions when you aren’t sure the message can be

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acted upon within the allotted time frame.
6. your name, contact information
7. a good time to return your call
3.3 Describe seven components of effective oral

communication
Seven Components of Effective Oral Communication
READING ASSIGNMENT
Oral Communication Skills
The ability to speak clearly and well is an integral part of professional

communication, so knowing the basics will help you perform your job better
—especially if a good deal of your work involves handling telephone calls.
Let’s explore some of the qualities that are needed for strong oral
communication skills.
Articulation
Your professional interactions require you to be articulate, or able to

express yourself readily, clearly, and effectively. This is especially
important when speaking on the telephone, when facial expressions and
other types of nonverbal communication can’t be seen. Use concise words,
correct grammar, and speak in a pleasant tone of voice without rushing.
Rate of Speaking
Your rate or pace of speaking can serve as a source of interference when

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trying to get a message across. Always strive to speak at a moderate rate,
that is, not too quickly or too slowly. You’ll find listeners more attentive to
what you have to say when you speak at a moderate rate.
Analyze your voice to see if it needs improvement in this area. How quickly
do you speak? Do people often ask you to repeat a statement? Do they
seem to lose interest when you’re speaking? Your voice should sound
natural, not affected. If you have a tendency to be a fast talker, slow down.
If you speak too slowly, speed up.
Volume, Pitch, and Tone
Your speaking volume is the degree of loudness. The pitch of your voice is
its highness or lowness of sound. Tone communicates mood or feeling;
your voice can have soft, rough, sweet, harsh, excited, bored, and many
other qualities. The volume, pitch, and tone of your voice vary according to
circumstances. Listen to someone who’s thrilled about something. That
person’s voice has a high, louder-than-usual quality to it. Or, listen to
someone giving a speech over a microphone; the tone is normally lower
and richer.
Some people speak so loudly that they blast the listener’s eardrums.
Others speak so softly that they can hardly be heard. It’s difficult to
concentrate on either type of voice. Of course, there are times when
shouting and whispering are the appropriate speaking volumes. But do you
shout or whisper when you speak in normal conversation?
Although it’s good to maintain a moderate volume, pitch, and tone in the
office, you shouldn’t take moderation too far. Speaking in a monotone
voice—one that doesn’t show a change in feeling or pitch—is a quick way

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to put a listener to sleep. A voice with variety is more pleasant than a
constant humming sound. Raise and lower your voice as you speak. This
variety makes you sound more invested in the conversation and attentive
to the needs of the person on the other end of the telephone (or indeed, to
people with whom you converse regularly in your workplace). Use a
pleasant tone of voice that shows enthusiasm and warmth.
The telephone can bring out the worst in people’s voices. Some people
who speak at a moderate volume face-to-face use the telephone like it’s a
bullhorn. Others speak as if they believe the telephone wires amplify their
voices. Since a significant part of your job may include answering the
phone and/or making calls, you should make sure that your voice is at the
right level. Ask your friends to spend time with you on the telephone and
give you helpful feedback on your volume, tone, pitch and speed.
Enunciation and Pronunciation
In the movie My Fair Lady, the character of Eliza Doolittle repeated the
phrase, “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain,” over and over. Her
manner of speaking made it almost impossible to understand what she was
saying. After enough practice and instruction, however, she finally made
herself clearer. In so doing, she learned the art of enunciation and
pronunciation.
Enunciation is the way you form your words when you speak.
Pronunciation is how you say each syllable. To perform both properly, you
have to use your lips, teeth, jaw, and tongue. It can be hard for you to tell
how you sound; we’re used to our own ways of speaking and may not
notice a flaw or problem. To study your voice, read out loud into a

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recording device (many smartphones are equipped with the capacity to
record speech) and then play it back. How do you sound? Do you notice
anything that needs work? Don’t stop there. Have someone else listen to it,
too, and get his or her feedback. You may discover an accent that you
didn’t realize you had!h practice and instruction, however, she finally made
herself clearer. In so doing, she learned the art of enunciation and
pronunciation.
Avoid the following common mistakes in enunciation and pronunciation.
Don’t confuse per with pre
perform pretend
persist prevent
perhaps prescription
Distinguish between the sound of ern and ren.
southern children
western brethren
northern
eastern
Sound the final g, but don’t hang on to it and don’t make it hard like
the g in grunt.
sitting sing
playing ring
dancing thing

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Don’t run words together.
Give me (not gimme) Catch them (not ketch em)
Saw her (not saw r) Don’t you (not doncha)
Let me (not lemme) Might as well (not mize well)
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Your professional interactions require you to be articulate, or able to

express yourself readily, clearly, and effectively.
Your rate or pace of speaking can serve as a source of interference
when trying to get a message across. Always strive to speak at a
moderate rate, that is, not too quickly or too slowly.
Your speaking volume is the degree of loudness.
The pitch of your voice is its highness or lowness of sound.
Tone communicates mood or feeling; your voice can have soft, rough,
sweet, harsh, excited, bored, and many other qualities.
Strive to speak with varying degrees of volume, pitch, and tone to
communicate that you are invested in the conversation and attentive
to the needs of the person you are speaking to.
Enunciation is the way you form your words when you speak.
Pronunciation is how you say each syllable of a word.
Avoid the following common mistakes in enunciation and
pronunciation:
Don’t confuse per with pre.
Distinguish between the sound of ern and ren.
Sound the final g in words, but don’t hang on to it and don’t make

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it hard like the g in grunt.
Discover More: Effective Oral Communication
1. The highness or lowness of the sound of your voice is referred to as

2. The degree of loudness is
3. Speaking in a _______ voice doesn't show a change in feeling or
pitch.
4. _______ is how you say each syllable.

Discover More: Effective Oral Communication
1. pitch
2. volume
3. monotone
4. Pronunciation
3.4 Identify benefits and drawbacks of using email as well

as the standard parts of an email
Using Email
READING ASSIGNMENT

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Email has become the fastest, most common method of communication in
business today. As you likely know, emails are electronic messages
created on one computer and sent to another one, usually within seconds.
Knowing how to properly and professionally write and respond to them is
an essential part of your job.
Two types of email exist: intranet email and Internet email. Individuals
using intranet email send and receive email that stays within a particular
company or organization, often a network of a company’s computers.
Internet email travels everywhere else—from across the street to the other
side of the world.
Benefits of Using Email
Emails have a number of advantages:
1. Individuals can send emails from their home or office computers,

giving everyone greater flexibility in terms of when they choose to
send and receive messages. They can send messages 24 hours a
day, every day of the year. Also, the speed of sending messages to
other countries via email is usually mere seconds.
2. Individuals are better able to clarify information with others, and

feedback is obtained more quickly, so decisions can be made faster
and more efficiently.
3. Because email is more informal, individuals are more likely to use it

than to make a telephone call or send a written message when
communicating with others in the corporate hierarchy.

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4. Probably the biggest advantage of using email is that it eliminates
“telephone tag.” When people are away from their offices and phones
they may miss important messages, particularly if they don’t have
voicemail.
5. Emails are there to read and reread at one’s convenience. Also,

individuals have more time to think about the message and how they
will respond to it. This isn’t always possible when using the telephone
as a communication tool.
6. Emails reduce the number of telephone interruptions that occur in the

typical workplace.
When to Use Email
All communication methods have their individual advantages and

disadvantages. For example, using the telephone is faster than sending
written correspondence through the mail, but with written correspondence
you have documentation of what was said. Sending information via fax is
quick, but it may not remain confidential.
Face-to-face contact may be the most effective way to communicate, but it

involves dressing professionally, finding a specific person, thinking on the
spur of the moment, and choosing your words carefully. By sending an
email, you can communicate with the person at your convenience—even
from home in your pajamas! You can also organize your thoughts carefully
to make sure you’ve made your points in an organized manner before
sending the email.

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During a phone call, you can be interrupted and a variety of distractions
may affect your ability to communicate. Email allows you to get your ideas
across in the way you wish, without interruption.
Emails offer advantages over methods like overnight delivery: An email is

delivered much more quickly, and you don’t have to fill out tiresome
paperwork. (Of course, if you need to send a package, email isn’t going to
do it!)
The Dangers of Using Email
Even though email is the easiest form of communication, it carries a risk of

privacy loss. Also, because speed is such a great benefit of this
communication method, individuals are prone to spend less time
composing email messages than they do when using other communication
media. They may compose messages off the cuff instead of taking time to
look up data, ask questions, or give enough thought to their responses.
Often, they don’t check for proper spelling, punctuation, and grammar or
retain an appropriate business tone.
Finally, email messages should be short so that the recipient doesn’t have
to scroll down the screen for too long. If the material is long, a letter or fax
might be a better alternative.
Privacy Issues
Credit card accounts and automatic teller machines have special

passwords to prevent others from accessing them, as do email servers.
However, if you keep your email program open all day (perhaps just
minimized to the bottom of the screen), all someone needs to do to read

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your messages is restore the screen. Because emails are sent from
computer to computer, anyone along the way may have access to the
message. Naturally, by law, no one else should be reading it.
Encryption programs are available to encode email messages. Symantec

(www.symantec.com/) encodes plain text and can be decoded by anyone
else with the software.
Choosing a good password is another key to maintaining privacy. You

need to choose one that’s
Easy for you to remember
Difficult for anyone else to guess or figure out
A combination of letters and numbers
At least six characters long
Never keep your password near your computer or in a location where

someone else might discover it.
Legal Issues
Several legal issues have come to light as a result of the increased use of
email. As mentioned earlier, individuals in your company and elsewhere
have the ability to intercept and read your email messages. And just
because you delete them from your computer doesn’t mean that they can’t
be retrieved at a later time and read by others. In fact, some companies are
required by law to monitor the email activities of their employees.

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Another legal issue involves what materials you might legally put in your
email messages. Most often, incorporating the ideas of others within a
message is legal as long you put the ideas in your own words. However, if
you were to scan the full text of a copyrighted document into your email
messages, you would be violating intellectual property copyright laws. If
you were to attach government documents to your email messages, that
would not be an infringement of copyright laws. A good rule of thumb,
however, is not to put materials into your email messages that were
developed by others unless you have their written permission to do so.
Other potential legal problems might exist through
Using others’ messages
Reposting messages
Duplicating and distributing digitized images
Copying sound files
Uploading and downloading adult materials
Downloading clip art or photo files
Engaging in chat sessions
Viruses
Computer viruses pose a real danger to files stored on your computer.

Viruses can be passed to your computer from contaminated websites or

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email attachments. You might open an attachment that contains a virus
that infects your computer; thanks to networking, all of the computers in
your company could then become infected. Viruses are capable of doing
great damage, so having adequate firewall protection is essential. It’s also
important that you have antivirus software in place to scan email
attachments.
Take particular care when you download or access files from the Internet.
Make sure of the integrity of a file’s source before you allow the file onto
your system. The rule is to make sure you scan all files received from the
Internet with antivirus software before you use them.
The Email Address
If you work for a company that installs Internet access for its employees,
you’ll have access to the Internet, and you’ll be assigned an email address.
Internet service providers provide access to the Internet, and one or more
email addresses, for a monthly fee. You should review the services and
rates for several of these companies before you select one.
Once you receive an email address, you can send and receive email. This
address has two parts: the user name and the domain. For example:
username@domain.com. You use your user name to sign on to the
Internet service. The domain specifies where you have your user account.
It can be the name of a commercial carrier or an Internet service provider.
An address generally contains between 8 and 10 characters. Numbers can
be used. Often, you can pick the user name you wish to use. However, if
your company has provided Internet access for you, you may be assigned
an address. If your user address has already been selected by another

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user on the system you’re using, you’ll receive a message to that effect,
and you’ll have to alter your address.
The @ (at) symbol on your keyboard links your user address with the
domain name. This symbol is necessary to locate the correct individual and
domain. Commas, apostrophes, and spaces aren’t part of an email
address. Dots replace apostrophes and commas, and spaces are deleted.
The last set of letters in the domain portion of the address represents the
type of domain at which the account resides, such as
.com (commercial service)
.net (local network)
.org (private organization)
.mil (military organization)
.edu (educational institution)
.gov (government institution)
In your database of clients or customers, you should add their email

addresses. If you aren’t sure of a person’s email address, you can often
find it listed on the company’s website as part of the contact information.
Parts of the Email Message
The email message consists of several parts: the address (To:), the carbon

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copy line (Cc:), the subject line, and the message. You must fill in the
address line, and some email systems require that the subject line also is
completed.
Address Line
This line contains the address of the person to whom you’re sending the
email. If you wish to send the message to more than one person, put a
semicolon between each of the addresses (no spaces are necessary).
Carbon Copy
On this line, you indicate the address or addresses of any additional

people you would like to read your message. Let’s say, for example, you’re
writing to someone and you’ve mentioned that you’ve discussed the
information in your message with your supervisor. You would include your
supervisor’s address on the Cc: line as a courtesy. That person will also
receive a copy of the message. You may include multiple addresses on
this line as well—just put a semicolon between addresses.
Blind Carbon Copy
A blind carbon copy (BCC) is a secret copy of your message sent to

someone. No one but you and the blind carbon copy recipient knows that
he or she has received a copy of your message. Perhaps you’re writing a
note of praise about another employee to that person’s supervisor. You
might send a blind copy to the employee to let him or her know that you’ve
done this.
Subject Line

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This line is like the title of a book, encapsulating the main idea of the
forthcoming message. Subject lines should be clear and brief, because
people tend to scan the subject lines of incoming emails to determine if
they want to read them now or later. If your receiver is someone who’s
likely to read your message anyway, such as a friend or family member,
you may not always need a subject line. But in business, your messages
will probably get more attention from internal and external recipients if you
include a strong subject line. As another consideration, a message with no
subject line may be considered spam, or junk, and deleted unread.
The Message
Although most email systems are capable of recording and sending out
several pages of text, you want to keep your messages concise, ensuring
that the most important part appears at the beginning of the message.
Individuals have neither the time nor desire to read lengthy messages on
screen. You should be aware that the way you key your message on
screen won’t necessarily be the way the reader receives it, depending on
the email system he or she is using. Never type your message in all capital
letters; this is perceived as shouting. Also, be mindful of your wording—
humor doesn’t always translate well!
Attachments
Email systems let you attach other files to your email messages. Before
adding an attachment, you should make sure your reader is expecting it.
You should also mention the attachment and its purpose in the body of
your message. Be aware that not all email systems are compatible. In
other words, your reader may receive your attachment in a completely

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different format from the one in which you sent it. In some cases, the
reader may not be able to read the attachment at all. You can test your
system by sending a trial file to make sure that what you send can be
accessed and read by the receiver.
Key Points and Link

READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Emails are electronic messages created on one computer and sent to

another one, usually within seconds.
Intranet email send and receive email that stays within a company or
organization, often a network of a company’s computers.
Internet email travels everywhere else—from across the street to the
other side of the world.
Secure your email program with a strong password and keep it
private.
When creating a password, choose one that is:
Easy for you to remember
Difficult for anyone else to guess or figure out
A combination of letters and numbers
At least six characters long
Email addresses have two parts: the user name and the domain
separated by the @ symbol.
Domain names include a set of letters at the end representing the type
of domain:
.com (commercial service)
.net (local network)

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.org (private organization)
.mil (military organization)
.edu (educational institution)
.gov (government institution)
An email message contains the following parts:
Address (To:), which is the address(es) of the person(s) to whom
you’re sending the email.
Carbon copy line (Cc:), which is the address(es) of additional
person(s) you would like to read your email.
Blind carbon copy line (Bcc:), which is the address(es) of anyone
you want to see the email without others knowing.
Subject line, a clear and brief encapsulation of the main idea of
the message.
Message, which is the content you want the recipient(s) to read.
Never compose emails in all caps—it's the electronic version of
shouting.
Your company might monitor your emails.
An email attachment is a file sent with the email.
Emails are subject to laws governing copyrights.
Configure an antivirus program to scan your emails before you open
them.
Link
Symantec (www.symantec.com/)
Discover More: Email

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List six benefits of using email as a means of communication.

Discover More: Email
a. Individuals can send emails from their home or office computers,

giving everyone greater flexibility in terms of when they choose to
send and receive messages. They can send messages 24 hours a
day, every day of the year. Also, the speed of sending messages to
other countries via email is usually mere seconds.
b. Individuals are better able to clarify information with others, and
feedback is obtained more quickly, so decisions can be made faster
and more efficiently.
c. Because email is more informal, individuals are more likely to use it
than to make a telephone call or send a written message when
communicating with others in the corporate hierarchy.
d. Probably the biggest advantage of using email is that it eliminates
“telephone tag.” When people are away from their offices and phones
they may miss important messages, particularly if they don’t have
voicemail.
e. Emails are there to read and reread at one’s convenience. Also,
individuals have more time to think about the message and how they
will respond to it. This isn’t always possible when using the telephone
as a communication tool.
f. Emails reduce the number of telephone interruptions that occur in the
typical workplace.

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3.5 Explain best practices for composing and sending an
email
Best Practice for Composing and Sending an Email
READING ASSIGNMENT
Writing Email Messages
Since email messages are an informal method of communicating with

others, begin your message with a personal greeting to the recipient. You
may address the individual by his or her first name if that’s the level of
familiarity you’ve established. If you don’t know the individual, remain
formal, briefly identifying yourself, your company, and who might have
suggested that you write to him or her. If you’re writing to someone in
another country, be sure to keep that person’s customs and traditions in
mind. For example, in Japan, greetings tend to be more formal, even in
email. If you’re writing to several individuals, it’s often best to use a general
greeting such as “Greetings” or “Hello.”
Abbreviations and Acronyms
A good general rule in writing business correspondence is to avoid using a

lot of abbreviations and acronyms. Your reader may not readily know what
they stand for and may not even be able to guess. If you do abbreviate
words, make sure you abbreviate them correctly and in an acceptable
manner based on the dictionary.
It’s more appropriate to use acronyms in informal email messages. An

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acronym is a word formed by the first letters of several successive words,
such as ASAP for “as soon as possible.” It’s fine to use these if you think
your reader will know their meaning, but don’t overuse them.
It’s most appropriate to use acronyms when you’re using a long phrase
throughout a message. The first time, you key the complete phrase, and
then in parentheses put the acronym. For example, you might use an
acronym for President of the United States (POTUS). From that point on in
your message, you could simply use the acronym, and the reader will
know what it means. Many common acronyms are used on the Internet. A
few are listed in the accompanying figure, and you can add to this list as
you see them appear in messages you receive.
Organizing Your Email MessagesYou may have heard of or used

emoticons, faces created by using certain keys on your keyboard. They
visually represent expressions or emotions you might wish to convey to
your reader in your messages. Emoticons are meant for personal
correspondence only—don’t use them in business emails.
Some Common Email

Acronyms
BRB Be right back
BTW By the way
F2F Face to face
FYI For your information
IMO In my opinion
LOL Laugh out loud
OIC Oh, I see

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TTYL Talk to you later
Structure your messages like newspaper journalists do. Start out with the
most important point, then the next most important, and so on. In the
newspaper business, if some of the article must be cut because of space
limitations, the editor generally starts cutting at the bottom of the article and
works upward, thereby cutting the less important information. If you
structure your message with the most important information first, your most
important points will appear on the first screen, even if your message
extends to additional screens.
Considering Your Reader’s Point of View
When structuring emails, you should put yourself in the shoes of your
reader. Ask yourself the following questions:
What’s my purpose for writing this?
What do I hope to achieve?
What will my reader find most interesting or persuasive?
How would this reader want the information presented?
What does the reader need to know?
How will the reader feel about the information?
How much detail does the reader want?

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How much detail does the reader need?
How knowledgeable about the topic is my reader?
Have I presented my reader with all of the information necessary to

achieve my purpose?
In other words, don’t write the message based on what you want to hear;
write it based on the reader’s needs. Make it easy for your reader to
respond. Wherever possible, try to give the reader a choice of “yes” or “no”
answers. The more complicated your expectations for the reader, the less
likely he or she will take time to respond.
Use Clear and Short Paragraphs
Paragraphs should be kept short. Begin each paragraph with a major idea,
and then use three or four sentences to elaborate or provide additional
details. Provide all information in a paragraph that relates to the major idea.
Leave additional space between paragraphs to make reading them easier.
Use Lists or Bulleted Items
Using numbered lists or bulleted items can help your points stand out and
make the message visually appealing to your reader—as long as you don’t
overuse them. Your computer will automatically figure out the spacing for
you. Capitalize the first word in each numbered or bulleted item.
Add an Informal Closing to Your Message
Keep the closing of your message short and informal. You can follow it with

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your name or initials. Remember, when sending messages to other
countries, follow their traditions. You might include an informal “Thanks”
before your name or initials, or, if the situation or recipient warrants it, you
might use the more formal “Sincerely yours” or “Most sincerely.”
Use the Correct Writing Style
As with all business correspondence, people may make judgments about

you based on the way you present your ideas in writing. Thus, it’s essential
that you apply your best efforts to correct word choice, grammar usage,
concision, and spelling, or people will notice. Although many email systems
include a spellchecker, don’t rely on it to catch your errors.
Replying to and Forwarding Email
When you receive an email from someone, you have the option to respond
to the sender. The recipient’s address and even the subject line in the
original message sent to you will be inserted automatically. Additionally,
you have the option of retaining the content from the message to which
you’re responding or deleting it.
Email systems also allow you to forward a message from someone to

another party. In this case, you should add some type of explanation at the
beginning of the message as to why you’re forwarding it. You should also
supply this new recipient with any additional information or instructions
required to understand the message.
Sending International Email
Using the Internet, you’re not only able to send email messages to people
in your state and throughout the United States, but you’re also able to

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communicate directly with individuals all over the world. As stated
previously, you must be sensitive to cultural differences as you
communicate with an international audience. Communicate in simple
language and avoid slang expressions (such as “that would be cool” or
“sweet deal”) and idioms (such as “dig in his heels” or “keep an eye out”).
Receiving Junk Email or “Spam”
In the same way that it’s hard to watch television without commercials, it’s
hard to have email without spam. Usually, spam is made up of ads,
notices, requests for contributions, and generally uninvited, unwanted
information. When you receive spam, simply delete it. Many email systems
allow you to block future emails from companies or individuals who have
sent you spam. Others come with built-in spam filters that remove the
messages and put them into a separate file for you to delete.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
Begin your email messages with a personal greeting to the recipient,

using their first name if you have established a level of familiarity with
them or a formal salutation if you don’t know them.
Briefly identify yourself, your company, and who might have
suggested you write them.
Keep customs and traditions of other countries in mind when
composing greetings to foreign clients and associates.
Organize the content of your email message from most important to
least important.

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Write the message based on what your reader needs to know.
Use short, clear paragraphs.
Use numbered lists or bullet items to help your points stand out—
remember to capitalize the first letter in each list item.
Apply your best efforts to correct word choice, grammar usage,
concision, and spelling when composing your email message.
Close your email with a short, informal phrase.
Replying to an email allows you to respond to an email without
composing a new email.
When you reply to an email message, the sender’s address is
automatically entered in the To: line, the original subject line entered
in the reply’s subject line, and the content of the original message
might be included in the message area.
Forwarding an email occurs when you send an email you have
received to another recipient.
Spam is an email containing uninvited, unwanted information; typically
made up of ads, notices, and requests for contributions.
Some email systems allow you to mark spam so that it is blocked from
delivery to your account.
Discover More: Sending Email
When organizing your email messages, what are the five points to
consider?

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Discover More: Sending Email
Considering your reader’s point of view, use clear and short paragraphs,
use lists or bulleted items, add an informal closing to your message, and
use the correct writing style.
3.6 Identify the parts of a business letter

Communicating By Mail
READING ASSIGNMENT
Communication takes place in a variety of ways, from face-to-face

meetings or phone calls to emails and letters. Even in this electronic age,
in which a growing number of people have become accustomed to running
their fingers over a keyboard instead of picking up a pen, information is still
put on paper and sent out to other departments, companies, agencies, and
individuals. As a professional, you’ll likely be called upon to compose
business letters on behalf of your company or your supervisor. You may
also be expected to manage the flow of incoming mail and packages sent
to your company or supervisor. So let’s begin by taking a look at a few
guidelines for writing and formatting business letters.
Composing Business Letters
Readers and writers alike have come to expect several standard parts to
business letters, including letterhead, dateline, inside address, subject or
attention line, salutation, body, complimentary close, signature block,
reference initials, enclosure or copy notations, and postscripts. Of course,

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you won’t always use all the parts for every letter. Which ones you use will
depend on the purpose of the letter and the intended recipient.
An image of the Parts of a Business Letter

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The Parts of a Business Letter
Letterhead/Heading

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People in business, including doctors and lawyers, don’t just type their
return address at the top-right corner of the page. They have their name or
the name of their business, often with an eye-catching symbol called a
logo, printed on good- quality stationery. This embossed or imprinted
stationery is called letterhead. Since letterhead is expensive, it should be
used for final drafts only. To ensure a professional image, as well as to
assure the recipient that the letter is authentic, letterhead should be used
for all official correspondence leaving the office. Store letterhead and its
matching blank stationery in a compartment where it will lie flat and remain
clean. Don’t let the edges stick out and get damaged.
If you don’t have a letterhead, simply type a return address at the top of the
page. This is called the heading. Center it or place it on the left margin,
depending on the letter style you’re using. (A later section of this study unit
explains letter styles.) The return address should include the following:
Line 1: Company’s legal name (if a business)
Line 2: Complete street address
Line 3: City, state or province, and ZIP code or postal code
Line 4: Phone number (optional)
Line 5: Email address or website (optional)
When typing the return address, as opposed to using letterhead, it’s

customary to place the date on the next line after the address, with no
extra space.
Medical Arts Building, Suite 7

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460 Washington Avenue
Anytown, State 12345-6789
May 26, 20–
Notice that the sender’s name doesn’t appear in a typewritten

return address, even though it does appear on some letterheads.
The reader knows to find the name in the typed
signature line.
Dateline
Every letter should be dated. This may seem like a minor detail in a letter
to your mother, but in a professional document the date is extremely
important. Type the dateline at least two or three spaces below the
letterhead—it can be as much as 17 spaces down the page in a very short
letter. If the letter has been dictated, the date of the letter should be the day
dictated, not the day placed in the mail. Spell out the month in full, followed
by the number of the day of the month, followed by a comma and the year.
Special Notations
You’re probably familiar with the types of notations that go at the bottom of
a letter, such as those indicating who did the typing and whether there are
enclosures. Did you know that some special notations belong two lines
below the date? They’re the sorts of notations that require immediate
attention:
CONFIDENTIAL
PERSONAL

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via REGISTERED MAIL
Refer to Policy DVF–822
The Inside Address
You may wonder why the inside address is necessary, since the address
on the envelope should succeed in getting the letter to its destination.
Often, however, the envelope is thrown away as soon as the letter is
opened. In that case, the inside address serves as identification.
Furthermore, the United States Postal Service (USPS) checks the inside
address of a misdirected letter when there’s no return address on the
envelope. Here again the inside address serves as identification.
The inside address of the letter follows the same format as the address on
the envelope. It should contain the name, street address, city, state or
province, and ZIP or postal code of the person to whom the letter is being
sent. Note, however, that the inside address uses punctuation, which the
envelope address doesn’t. Also, the inside address is typed in a mix of
upper and lowercase (except for the state or province code).
Spell the name and address the person to whom you’re writing according
to the person’s preference. It’s discourteous to do otherwise. Use the
customary forms of address. Don’t abbreviate (with the exception of the
abbreviations for states or provinces set up by the post office). An address
is incomplete without the ZIP or postal code. Consult a ZIP code directory
or, if you don’t have one, you can look it up on the USPS website
(zip4.usps.com/zip4/welcome.jsp) .

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Here are some examples of inside addresses:
Franz A. Heiden, M.D.

193 Wall Street
New York, NY 37781
Samuel Feldon, Attorney at Law

1216 King’s Place
Boston, MA 41467
Geoffrey K. DeRoberts
2066 Cray Street, #502
Montreal, QC H3A 1K6
If you know only the title or position but not the name of the individual, first
call the company to try to find out the person’s name. If you’re
unsuccessful, address the letter to the individual’s title in the company:
Director of Human Resources

Community Hospital
101 Main Street
If your letter is for an organization as a whole and not an individual or

specific group, then use the following format:
Childers Investment Group

4115 Market Boulevard
San Francisco, CA 90332
Subject or Attention Line

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Use a subject line if the topic is part of a series of correspondence, such as
an ongoing problem with a customer or an order. You may also use a
subject line to speed the handling of your letter if you know it will pass
through the hands of an administrative assistant. Most letters, however,
don’t require a subject line.
Use an attention line when you’re directing a letter to an individual’s

attention, but not addressing the letter directly to that person. Usually, if
you’re addressing a specific person, it’s best to simply address the letter to
that reader and not use an attention line. However, sometimes that target
reader will be acting as part of a larger group. An attention line ensures
that the letter moves through the proper channels to receive attention from
all members of the group.
The subject or attention line usually goes two lines after the inside address
and two lines before the salutation. The heading for a subject line,
especially in a field such as medical records, is often RE:, which is short for
regarding.
Example of a subject line:
Jacob Esau, M.D.

Chief of Staff
Community Hospital
101 Main Street
RE: Tanya Owens-Lord
Dear Doctor Esau:

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Example of an attention line:
Community Hospital
101 Main Street
ATTENTION: Jacob Esau, M.D., Chief of Staff
Ladies and Gentlemen:
Note that the attention line means the letter isn’t being written to Dr. Esau
only, so the greeting is given to the larger group. Also, don’t include “Dear”
when using “Ladies and Gentlemen.”
Salutation
Salutation is a fancy word for a greeting. Most business letters begin the
salutation with the conventional “Dear.” After that, it can get tricky! If you
know the name of the person you’re addressing, you need to decide the
level of formality to use. Even in business letters, it’s possible to use an
informal salutation—but only when the letter writer is on very familiar terms
with the recipient. Business letters usually maintain a formal tone, even
among friends.
A formal salutation uses the person’s title and last name. It ends with a
colon. An informal salutation ends with a comma when the first name is
used alone. In a formal salutation, type “Doctor” instead of “Dr.” Don’t use
two titles meaning the same thing. For example, in preparing the inside
address, use Mitchell Powell, Ph.D., not Dr. Mitchell Powell, Ph.D. For the
salutation, use Dr. Powell, followed by a colon.

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The trick in writing salutations is deciding how to address recipients whose
gender you don’t know. Now that women are prominent at all levels in all
sorts of businesses, you can’t just type “Gentlemen” or “Dear Sir.” It’s
always preferable to use a name in the address and salutation, but if you
can’t do so, you can rely on the standby
To Whom It May Concern:
However, many readers feel that this old standby is too oldfashioned and
stiff. Here’s a nonsexist salutation with a slightly more personal tone.
Dear Sir or Madam:
If you know the person’s name but you don’t know whether the person is
male or female, don’t guess. You don’t want to use Ms. Donnelly just
because the person’s first name is Chris. In these instances, use
Dear Chris Donnelly:
Groups can be addressed as follows:
Ladies: (when the group is composed entirely of females) Gentlemen:

(when the group is composed entirely of males) Ladies and Gentlemen:
(when the group is composed of both genders, or when you don’t know the
composition of the group)
If all of your recipients belong to the same group, you can use the name of
the group in the salutation:
Dear Sales Team:

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Dear Profile Committee:
Dear Colleagues
The Body
The body of a letter, which begins two lines after the salutation, is the
actual text of the message being conveyed. While you may not be the
person actually composing most of the communications in your workplace,
knowing the components of an effective communication will be valuable
information when you’re typing or editing those communications. In
addition, if you show yourself knowledgeable about such matters, you may
find your supervisor or office manager turning over some of the
correspondence to you.
The body of a letter consists of three essentials: a beginning, middle, and

an end. Because business and professional people are busy, the
beginning of a letter should tell them what they want or need to know up
front in the first sentences. This can include
A reference to any important previous correspondence
A brief statement of the subject and purpose of the letter
The body should establish a satisfactory tone, generally pleasant—not

harsh, critical, or arrogant.
The middle paragraphs of a letter develop and support the case or main
idea. They may also

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Present questions that need answering
Answer the ones posed by the reader
Address the reader’s complaint
Supply the information mentioned in the opening
In short, the middle is the place to make sure the reader understands the
what and why of the letter.
Endings are especially important parts of letters because, in most cases,

what readers remember in a document or letter is the last thing they read.
So the ending is the place to
Restate the letter’s desired action
Leave the reader with a lingering, positive impression of the writer and
the company or organization represented
Influence future business
If the letter requests an action, the closing paragraph should promote that
action by telling the reader what is to be done, when, and how. If the
response can be made easily and save time for the reader, so much the
better. You may choose to end with something like “Phone me collect so I
can answer all your questions”; “Check the appropriate box and detach the
bottom of this letter along the perforated line”; or “For your convenience,
you may answer my questions in the margins of my letter and return it to

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me in the enclosed, addressed, stamped envelope.”
One last note: Make sure the concluding sentence is a complete sentence.
Not: Hoping to hear from you.
But: We hope to hear from you soon.
Complimentary Close
The salutation is the letter’s “hello,” and the complimentary close is the
“goodbye.” Select a close that matches the salutation in tone and level of
formality. Place the close two spaces beneath the body of the text, aligned
with the date. Capitalize only the first word in the close, and follow the
phrase with a comma.
Most formal: Yours truly, Yours respectfully, Very truly yours
Formal: Sincerely yours
Less formal: Sincerely
Informal: Warm regards, Cordially, Best wishes
When in doubt, choose the simple and useful Sincerely.
Signature Block
The signature block contains the sender’s name written twice—first

handwritten, preferably in black ink, and then in type. The letter-sender’s
name belongs four spaces directly below the complimentary close. Under
the sender’s name, type his or her formal title, if appropriate.

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Sincerely yours,
Katherine Schnell
Katherine Schnell
Chief Executive Officer
When two people have to sign the letter, you can type the two signature
blocks side by side or one beneath the other. The side-by-side method
saves space and suggests that the two people are equally behind the
letter.
Sincerely yours,
Kay Bell, M.D. Joseph Roman, R.N.
Kay Bell, M.D. Joseph Roman, R.N.
Chief of Staff Head Nurse
Reference Initials
In the case of letters that have been dictated by a manager or supervisor, a

set of reference initials may sometimes be inserted two spaces below the
typed signature line, flush to the left margin. The first set, which refer to the
person who dictated the letter, are typed in capital letters. They’re followed
by a slash or a colon, and then by the initials of the person who transcribed
the letter, in lowercase letters.
KS/lrf or KS:lrf
Enclosure Notation

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It’s important in formal business communication to indicate whether there
are enclosures accompanying the letter. The enclosure notation allows the
sender to double-check and make sure the package is complete before it
goes out. The enclosure notation also helps the recipient know if he or she
has received what the sender intended to send.
When there’s more than one enclosure, note the number. Even better, list
what the enclosures are. This information will also help you select the right
envelope size to use. Here are some sample notations.
Enclosure
2 Enclosures
Enc. (2)
Check enclosed
Enclosed: Urinalysis results
Enclosed: Trial transcripts (3)
Copy Notation
If copies of the letter will be distributed to more than one person, you
should type cc: followed by a list of the recipients’ names. The abbreviation
stands for carbon copy, a reference to days long past when letters were
typed in duplicate or triplicate on typewriters, with sheets of carbon paper
inserted between blank sheets of letterhead. The abbreviation is still used

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today, even though multiple copies are sent from a computer to a printer.
Occasionally, you may see pc: (for photocopy). The names that follow the
copy notation go in order of rank—but in most cases, the easiest (and
safest) ranking to figure out is alphabetical.
cc: R. Brennan
J. Esau
S. L. Robel
Sometimes copies are sent to others without a copy notation on the

original. In such cases, be sure to include the notation on the file copy to
ensure a complete record.
The Postscript (P.S.)
P.S. is an abbreviation for postscriptus, which is a Latin phrase meaning

“something written after.” Any P.S. belongs at the very end of the letter,
two spaces below the last enclosure or copy notation. Be careful not to use
a P.S. for information that really should have been worked into the body of
the letter. If you’ve overlooked an important point, don’t just tack it on later
—instead, revise the letter. On the other hand, it’s fine to add an
afterthought that’s not really crucial to the main point of the letter.
P.S. Thanks, by the way, for the surprise party. We’ve never had a more
enjoyable anniversary celebration.
Another acceptable way to use a P.S. is to emphasize an important point

that might get lost in the middle of a letter.

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P.S. After May 15, please use my Maine address.
Key Points and Link

READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
The standard parts of a business letter include (in order):

Letterhead or typed heading
Dateline
Inside address
Subject or attention line
Salutation
Body
Complimentary close
Signature block
Reference initials
Enclosure or copy notations
Postscripts
Letterhead is embossed or imprinted stationary that includes a
company’s name and, in some cases, address and their logo.
Use letterhead for only final drafts of official correspondence.
Include a dateline in every letter.
Special notations that require immediate attention are typed two lines
below the dateline.
The complimentary close is the “goodbye” and should match the
salutation in tone and level of formality.
The signature block contains the sender’s name written twice—first
handwritten, preferably in black ink, and then in type. The letter-

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sender’s name belongs four spaces directly below the complimentary
close. Under the sender’s name, type his or her formal title, if
appropriate.
Link
USPS website (zip4.usps.com/zip4/welcome.jsp)
Discover More: Business Letters
1. If your company has letterhead paper, you should type the

date _______.
2. The attention line of a letter is usually placed _______.
3. The _______ of a letter should be the same address as on the
envelope.
4. When you’re directing your letter to one particular person within a
company, it’s best to put _______ in the address.
5. When Jim Crossen, Bob Granger, and Jane Hart must all receive a
copy of the letter, how can this be indicated?

Discover More: Business Letters
1. below the letterhead.

2. above the salutation.
3. inside address
4. the person’s name
5. cc: Jim Crossen

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Bob Granger
Jane Hart
3.7 Explain common practices related to sending and

receiving domestic and international mail
Domestic and International Mail
READING ASSIGNMENT
Sending Mail: Addresses and ZIP Codes
The “ZIP” in ZIP code is an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, which
was created to speed up mail processing at the post office. All the mail
leaving your office must have a ZIP code. This five-digit number and four-
digit extension enables mail to be processed quickly through the use of an
optical character reader, or OCR. The OCR electronically reads a ZIP code
and sorts it by its digits. The OCR’s printer sprays on a delivery point bar
code for that address. Then it zooms the mail item to a sorting channel,
and finally to the letter carrier responsible for that region. This system can
process 10 pieces every second, or up to 36,000 pieces of mail per hour.
It’s therefore essential that an address be placed in the proper space on an
envelope. If the address isn’t correctly placed, the scanner in the OCR
won’t be able to read the number and the envelope will have to be
manually handled instead—slowing down the process considerably.
An image of a Typical Business Envelope with the OCR Read Area

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A Typical Business Envelope with the OCR Read Area
According to U.S. Postal Service guidelines, envelopes should be no
smaller than 31⁄2 by 5 inches and no larger than 61⁄8 by 111⁄2 inches. A
standard No. 10 business envelope is 91⁄2 by 41⁄8 inches. Thickness should
be no less than .007 inch or more than 3⁄16 inch. Card stock thickness
shouldn’t exceed .0095 inch.
Here are some general tips for addressing business mail:
To ensure that the address can be scanned, always type it rather than
addressing the envelope by hand.
Don’t use italic or script fonts (type styles), which OCR can’t read.
If the envelope is too large to fit into your printer, use an address label.
Type the entire address in uppercase letters.

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Place address information in this order:
Line 1: Recipient’s name or attention line. (If an attention line is necessary,

the USPS recommends that you always put it first.
Line 2: Company, department, title, or other important sub information.

(You may divide this line into two and end up with a five-line address, or
omit this line and end up with a three-line address.)
Line 3: Street address or PO box number and any defining information

such as room, suite, or apartment number. (All of this information should
go on one line, and that line should be second from the bottom.)
Line 4: City, state or province, and ZIP code or postal code. Use two-letter
state abbreviations (both capital letters with no period after the second
letter) on all letters.
Avoid putting the ZIP code on its own line. If you must use another line
to stay in the OCR read area, begin it flush with the other lines rather
than indenting.
Don’t use punctuation, even if leaving it out seems incorrect to you—

no periods after abbreviations, no comma between city and state or
province.
If you don’t know a ZIP code or postal code, look it up in the U.S.
Postal Service Zip Code Directory or Canada’s Postal Code Directory,
both of which are available online. You can also order the U.S. ZIP
code directory from the Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20401.

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Use standard abbreviations, especially when writing out the material
will cause the line to go beyond the OCR read area.
Apartment APT Attention ATTN

Avenue AVE East E
Expressway EXPY Heights HTS
Hospital HOSP Institue INST
Junction JCT Lake LK
Lakes LKS Lane LN
Meadows MDWS North N
Park PK Parkway PKY
Plaza PLZ Ridge RDG
River RV Road RD
Room RM Route RT
Rural R Shore SH
South S Square SQ
Station STA Street ST
Terrace TER Turnpike TPKE
Union UN View VW
Village VLG West W
It’s also acceptable to use abbreviations of a long-titled professional

organization.
Instead of:

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SOCIETY OF CHILDREN’S BOOK WRITERS AND
ILLUSTRATORS
P.O. BOX 66296
MAR VISTA STATION
LOS ANGELES CA 90066
Type:
SCBWI
P.O. BOX 66296
MAR VISTA STA
LOS ANGELES CA 90066
Place any special markings in the appropriate corner, outside of the

OCR read area and bar code read area. For instance, a notation for
the person who mails the letter, such as SPECIAL DELIVERY or
REGISTERED MAIL, should go in the upper right, beneath the space
left for postage. A notation for the recipient, such as HOLD FOR
ARRIVAL, PLEASE FORWARD, CONFIDENTIAL, or PERSONAL,
should go in the lower left corner of the envelope.
Now you’re ready to put the letter in the envelope. Be sure to fold the letter
carefully. Keep edges lined up straight so the letter won’t get wrinkled or
the creases won’t give the letter a lopsided look when the reader opens it.
Also, crooked creases can lead to damaging the letter on the way in and
out of the envelope. Be aware that a sharp letter opener can cut a
carelessly folded letter along with the envelope.
Addressing International Mail

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Non-American addresses are slightly different. Most of them look as
follows:
Ricardo Montoya (recipient’s name)
Montego Internacional (business’s name)
Calle 14 No 9654 (street address)
C9931GAT San Sebastian (postal code and city/town)
SPAIN (country name in capitals)
There’s some variance in how each country handles its addresses. Some
may have short, two- or three-line addresses, while others—such as South
American countries, Japan and other Pacific countries, and Great Britain—
may require up to seven lines of information in their addresses. The
following lists other notable differences:
1. You may experience difficulty recognizing and abbreviating company

legal designations, such as Limited (Ltd.). You can obtain a listing of
company legal designations and their abbreviations from the U.S.
Postal Service (www.usps.com/) .
2. Many international delivery addresses include the building name and

number as well as the apartment, room, suite, or floor number. Street
names are often long. In many countries, a street name may be
composed of family names.
3. In the United States, the second line of the address is the street
address. However, in some countries, the second line is necessary for

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the building name and outer/inner building numbers.
4. Many European countries use country codes to indicate the country of

designation. These codes consist of one, two, or three alphabetic
characters followed by a dash. The country code is placed to the left
of the city line (before the postcode, if one is used, or before the name
of the city). For example, B-1000 BRUXELLES is a country
code/postcode combination for Belgium.
Each country decides where its postcode should be positioned. It

might be to the right of the city, to the right of the state province, or to
the left of the city. To make your mail as correct and deliverable as
possible, you should put the code in the position where the country’s
postal service will expect to find it.
Examples include the following:
To the left of the city:

7400 NA DEVENTER NETHERLANDS
To the right of the city:

LONDON SWIY 5HW GREAT BRITAIN
To the right of the state or province:

MONCTON NB BIC 1E4 CANADA
5. The country destination must be indicated in some way on the

envelope when it travels from one country to another. This name
should be in all capital letters, spelled out in full, and standing alone on

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the last line of the address, as indicated previously. Note: An
exception to this rule is mail sent from the United States to Canada.
Acquire as much information as possible about the countries where

you are sending mail to. Make the acquaintance of foreign nationals
and discuss addresses with them. People who have actually lived in a
country are your most knowledgeable sources. Ask them to set up
guidelines for recognizing important words and for editing out
unnecessary or repetitious words. Practice on sample addresses until
you’re confident of your ability to edit and input addresses properly.
Handling Incoming Mail and Packages
Companies and offices receive a large amount of mail each day. Due to the
many time-limit requirements in the office, this mail must be opened right
away. It’s good practice to date-stamp each piece of mail you open with
the date it was received. This will assist you in determining the due date for
any necessary response. However, two exceptions exist to this rule: (1)
Never open any mail addressed as “personal” or “confidential.” This mail
should be opened only by the person to whom it’s addressed. (2) Find out
the company’s preference for date-stamping original documents,
particularly those of a legal nature. For example, your supervisors may
prefer you place a date stamp on a small piece of paper and clip it to the
document. Or you could make a copy of the document and place the date
stamp on the copy.
After the mail has been opened and date-stamped, it should be reviewed
for important dates, such as upcoming meetings or deadlines. These dates
should then be entered on a calendar. If you’re opening the mail for others,

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they may have you annotate or highlight important points in the documents
with a highlighter. After this preliminary sorting and calendaring, the mail
can be given to your supervisor for review and direction.
Most supervisors have a preferred way of handling mail. Some want you to
pull files and match them with appropriate mail items so that responses
can be dictated in some way. Others will give you specific instructions on
what actions to take regarding pieces of mail. You may also be asked to file
many of the letters and documents as they arrive. In any event, it’s
essential to keep in mind the importance of having your supervisor see all
the incoming mail soon after it arrives. This is true no matter how
unimportant it may appear to you. A delay in your supervisor’s review of
certain documents can result in missed deadlines or opportunities.
Mail Registers
Some companies still use a register to keep track of all the expected and
received mail. In the past, mail registers were typically kept in books, but
now most are recorded on computers. The mail register contains data such
as when packages are expected to arrive, when a contract was sent, the
expected arrival time of a check, when a catalog is due, or what was
missing from a package when it was received.
Specific types of registers show the different activities of a company. Thus,

it’s quite easy to see what items are sent under separate cover, what
checks have been received, or when a certified letter arrived. Supervisors
might want you to keep a separate mail register for different types of
documents. For example, you might keep a separate register for negotiable
instruments such as bonds, stock certificates, and certified checks. Another

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register might be kept for payments received on accounts, and yet another
might be kept for special delivery, registered mail, and insured mail.
When Your Supervisor Is Away
There will be times when your supervisor will be away for several days on
a trip or vacation. Find out ahead of time how the mail should be handled in
his or her absence. Some supervisors will want all mail held until they call
in and will make decisions about what should be done. Others will request
that the office professional route all mail to another person for action.
When a supervisor permits an office professional to make decisions and take action, a computer
record is maintained so that nothing is forgotten. The supervisor can scan the document and know
precisely what has occurred while he or she was away.When a supervisor permits an office
professional to make decisions and take action, a computer record is maintained so that nothing is
forgotten. The supervisor can scan the document and know precisely what has occurred while he or
she was away. In any case, the office professional still processes mail by
sorting, opening, scanning, annotating, and distributing routine items to
offices and departments.
General Mail Register

Date Time Action to be
Sender Recipient Description
Received Taken (if known)
Registered
9/13 10 A.M. H. Smith B. Thomas
letter
Missing
9/18 T. Harth F. Franklin
enclosure

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B. Certified
9/18 2 P.M. G. Gonzales
Reynolds letter
B. Stock
9/19 9 A.M. K. Shevchenko To accounting
Simms certificate
Letters should be answered relatively quickly. If your supervisor is the only

one who can do so, you should send a quick acknowledgment of the letter
that explains that the supervisor is away and will respond upon returning. If
the supervisor is on vacation, simply say so. Don’t mention any other
details, however.
If someone else in the firm can handle urgent mail, forward it to him or her.
Make a note of this so that you can explain how you handled the situation
when your supervisor returns.
Your supervisor may telephone the office on a daily basis to keep in touch
with what’s happening. Usually, this is a good time to briefly explain any
important correspondence and ask questions about what action is required.
The supervisor may dictate a letter or email response over the phone or
provide specific facts to use when you compose one. This ensures all mail
has been attended to immediately. The office professional doesn’t usually
have to tell the supervisor about every letter that has come into the office
unless requested to do so.
While the supervisor is away, the office professional processes routine

correspondence and keeps a record of what has taken place in case the
supervisor wants to look over all correspondence upon returning. The
office professional can divide the pieces into categories so that the review
will be efficient.

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Key Points and Link
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
ZIP code is an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, which was

created to speed up mail processing at the post office.
All the mail leaving your office must have a ZIP code, which is a five-
digit number with optional four-digit extension that enables an optical
character reader (OCR) to read the code and sort the mail by digits for
processing and delivery.
Envelope addressing guidelines for America or Canada:
To ensure that the address can be scanned, always type it rather
than addressing the envelope by hand.
Type the entire address in uppercase letters.
Don’t use italic or script fonts (type styles), which OCR can’t read.
Avoid using punctuation.
Use standard abbreviations in titles and street addresses.
Type address information in this order:
Recipient’s name or attention line.
(Optional) Company, department, title, or other important
sub information. You can also split this information across
two lines.
Street address or PO box number and any defining
information such as room, suite, or apartment number.
City, two-letter state abbreviation in capital letters or
province, and ZIP code or postal code.
Place any special markings in the appropriate corner, outside of
the OCR read area and bar code read area.

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If the envelope is too large to fit into your printer, use an address
label.
Envelope addressing order for international mail:
Recipient’s name
Business’s name
Street address
Postal code and city/town
Country name in capital letters
Date-stamp each piece of mail you open with the date it was
received unless your company has a different policy.
Never open mail that marked as “personal” or “confidential” and is not
addressed to you.
Review mail for important dates and enter them in the calendar.
If instructed to do so, review letters you open for others and highlight
important points.
If used by your company, enter received letters and packages in the
mail register.
If you open mail for another employee and they are going to be out of
the office for a period of time, find out how they would like you to
handle the mail that is received during their absence.
Link
U.S. Postal Service (www.usps.com/)
Discover More: Domestic and International Mail

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1. When addressing mail to other countries, the name of the country
appears by itself on the _______ of the address.
2. List an address formatted correctly for OCR scanning.
3. The attention line should be placed on the _______ line of the mailing
address.
4. The date you type at the beginning of a letter or report should be the
date that the document is _____.

Discover More: Domestic and International Mail
1. last line
2. MR JONATHAN CARDONI
504 WARFORD DR
SYRACUSE NY 13224
3. first
4. dictated
Lesson 3 Review
Self-Check
1. Maria works at Health Medical Center and part of her responsibilities
includes answering the phone. How should she answer the phone?
a. Hello, Maria speaking.
b. Health Medical Center, Maria speaking.

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c. Health Medical Center, how can I help you?
d. Good afternoon, Health Medical Center.
2. Jose is answering the phone for a doctor's office. Dr. Lee is unavailable
for phone calls because a patient came in for an appointment, had an
emergency event, and Dr. Lee followed the patient to the hospital. How
should Jose respond to a caller who is asking to speak to Dr. Lee?
a. Dr. Lee is at the hospital with a patient who had an emergency this
morning. Can I take a message?
b. Dr. Lee is at the hospital with a patient who had an emergency this
morning. Can you please call back tomorrow?
c. Dr. Lee isn't in the office at the moment. Can I take a message?
d. Dr. Lee is unavailable and I don't know when he will be back. Can you
call back tomorrow?
3. When is it acceptable to transfer a caller more than once?
a. When you don't know to whom to transfer the call
b. Never
c. When the person at the correct extension says he or she can't take
the call
d. Never, unless the caller must conduct business with two or more
individuals or departments
4. Ravi works for a medical office in New York and needs to make a call to
a doctor's office in Colorado. It's 8 a.m. in New York. What does Ravi need
to consider?
a. He doesn't need to consider anything and should place the call as
quickly as possible.
b. That it's too early in the morning for a call to Colorado due to time
zone differences
c. That it's too late in the day for a call to Colorado due to time zone

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differences
d. Whether the person he needs to speak with at the Colorado office will
be available
5. Jose works for a busy doctor's office and frequently has to make phone
calls to other local doctors' offices, pharmacies, and hospitals. How should
Jose organize and manage all the phone numbers he uses regularly?
a. He should keep a list of commonly used numbers so he doesn't have
to look them up more than once.
b. He should search the Internet for the numbers every time he needs
them.
c. He should look the numbers up in the phone book each time he needs
them to confirm accuracy.
d. He should use the office's internal phone directory to manage the
numbers.
6. The way you form your words when you speak is called
a. enunciation.
b. tone.
c. pitch.
d. pronunciation.
7. Maria is speaking with another office manager on the phone. As she
does so, the other office manager has to hold the phone away from his ear
during the call. What does Maria need to be more aware of?
a. She needs to be aware of the pitch of her voice.
b. She needs to be aware of the volume of her voice.
c. She needs to be aware of how articulate she is.
d. She needs to be aware of her pronunciation.
8. Jose has to make many phone calls for his job at a doctor's office, and
he is often asked to repeat what he says. What is likely causing this issue?

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a. He is speaking in a monotone.
b. He is speaking with too much emotion.
c. He is failing to listen to the other person.
d. He is speaking too quickly.
9. What is an advantage of using email as a form of communication?
a. It documents what has been said.
b. It's faster than the telephone.
c. It's confidential.
d. It's copyrighted.
10. Maria is writing an email to another office and wants to encapsulate the
main idea of the email. Where will she put this information?
a. In the subject line
b. In the address line
c. In the message
d. In the carbon copy line
11. John works for a doctor's office and is writing an email to another
medical office in which he needs to use an acronym for a long phrase. How
should he handle this situation?
a. He should avoid using the acronym altogether.
b. He should go ahead and use the acronym since the audience is
another medical office.
c. He should use the complete phrase the first time and follow it with the
acronym in parentheses.
d. He should put the acronym in parentheses and then follow it with the
complete phrase.
12. How should you structure your email message?
a. You should put the most important information in the middle of the
message.

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b. You should put the most important information at the end of the
message.
c. Email is less formal than a written business letter so structure isn't
important.
d. You should put the most important information in the first part of the
message.
13. What are two tools that you can use to keep your email messages clear
and easy to understand?
a. You can use acronyms and abbreviations.
b. You can use short paragraphs and abbreviations.
c. You can use short paragraphs and bulleted lists.
d. You can use short paragraphs and attachments.
14. Which of the following lists the standard parts of a business letter?
a. Letterhead, subject line, salutation, body, and signature block
b. Letterhead, subject line, attachment line, salutation, body, and
signature block
c. Letterhead, attachment line, date stamp, salutation, body, and
signature block
d. Letterhead, subject line, carbon copy line, salutation, body, and
signature block
15. Isabella is new to working in a doctor's office. What should she use for
all official correspondence?
a. Letterhead
b. Email
c. The doctor's name and address
d. Registered mail
16. What is the purpose of an inside address?
a. The inside address always serves as the return address.

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b. The inside address no longer serves a purpose, but is still expected
on all formal business letters.
c. The inside address serves as a way to direct a letter to an individual's
attention without addressing the letter directly to that person.
d. The inside address serves as identification when the envelope is
thrown away or if a letter is misdirected and has no return address.
17. Jose is writing a business letter for his medical office. He needs to end
the letter with a formal complimentary close. Which of these should he
choose?
a. Warm regards
b. Best wishes
c. Hope to hear from you soon
d. Sincerely yours
18. Why must all mail leaving an office have a zip code?
a. Because the postage rate changes based on the zip code
b. Because a zip code and its four-digit extension enables mail to be
processed quickly and automatically using an optical character reader
c. Because letter carriers don't know where to deliver the mail if it
doesn't have a zip code and a four-digit extension
d. Because zip codes are required by the U.S.government for all mail
19. What do many European countries use to indicate the country of
designation on mail?
a. A country zip
b. A zip code
c. A country abbreviation
d. A country code
20. Part of Maria's responsibility in her job at a doctor's office is opening,
date-stamping, and sorting the mail. What should she do with any mail

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addressed as personal or confidential?
a. She should never open any mail addressed as personal or
confidential.
b. She should open mail addressed as confidential first and not open
any mail addressed as personal.
c. She should open mail addressed as confidential and date stamp it and
hand deliver mail addressed as personal.
d. She should handle mail addressed as personal and confidential the
same way she handles the rest of the mail.
1. Health Medical Center, Maria speaking.

Explanation: When answering outside calls on a company telephone,
identify your firm or organization and yourself.
2. Dr. Lee isn't in the office at the moment. Can I take a message?
Explanation: When you are screening calls, be sure to keep
confidential activities confidential and always ask to take a message.
3. Never, unless the caller must conduct business with two or more
individuals or departments
Explanation: A caller should never be transferred more than once
unless business must be conducted with two or more individuals or
departments within the company.

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4. That it's too early in the morning for a call to Colorado due to time
zone differences
Explanation: Ravi needs to be aware of time differences between time
zones when making long-distance calls and take them into
account. Because Colorado is in a later time zone, offices are unlikely
to be open at 8 a.m. Eastern time.
5. He should keep a list of commonly used numbers so he doesn't have

to look them up more than once.
Explanation: Office professionals like Jose should always keep a list of
commonly called numbers and extensions in a word processor or
spreadsheet.
6. enunciation.
Explanation: Enunciation is the way you form your words when you
speak.
7. She needs to be aware of the volume of her voice.

Explanation: If the other office manager needs to hold the phone away
from his ear, then Maria needs to be more aware of the volume of her
voice.
8. He is speaking too quickly.

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Explanation: Speaking too quickly is likely interfering with Jose's ability
to get his message across. He should work on his speaking pace.
9. It documents what has been said.

Explanation: An advantage of using email as a form of communication
is that it documents what has been said.
10. In the subject line

Explanation: Maria should put the summary of the main idea of the
email in the subject line.
11. He should use the complete phrase the first time and follow it with the
acronym in parentheses.
Explanation: John should use the complete phrase the first time and
then follow it with the acronym in parentheses. Once he does, he can
use the acronym throughout the rest of the email.
12. You should put the most important information in the first part of the
message.
Explanation: When you write an email, structure your messages like
newspaper journalists do and put the most important information first.
13. You can use short paragraphs and bulleted lists.

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Explanation: Two tools you can use to keep your email messages
clear and easy to understand are short paragraphs and bulleted lists.
14. Letterhead, subject line, salutation, body, and signature block

Explanation: Letterhead, subject or attention line, salutation, body, and
signature block are all standard parts of a business letter.
15. Letterhead
Explanation: To assure recipients that the letter is authentic, Isabella
should use letterhead for all official correspondence leaving the office.
16. The inside address serves as identification when the envelope is

thrown away or if a letter is misdirected and has no return address.
Explanation: The inside address is a good way to ensure the letter
goes where it should if the envelope is thrown away, has an incorrect
address, or if the letter is otherwise misdirected.
17. Sincerely yours

Explanation: As Jose needs to end the letter with a formal
complimentary close, he should choose to end his letter with Sincerely
yours.
18. Because a zip code and its four-digit extension enables mail to be

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processed quickly and automatically using an optical character reader
Explanation: All mail leaving an office must have a zip code to ensure
quick and accurate delivery. A zip code and its four-digit extension
enable mail to be processed quickly and automatically by an optical
character reader.
19. A country code

Explanation: Many European countries use country codes consisting
of one, two, or three alphabetic characters followed by a dash to
indicate the country of designation.
20. She should never open any mail addressed as personal or

confidential.
Explanation: Maria should never open any mail addressed as
personal or confidential, though she can date stamp the outside
envelopes.
Flash Cards
1. Term: Screening Calls
Definition: Deciding if an unfamiliar person should be put through to
someone else in the office
2. Term: Integrated Messaging

Definition: Voicemail services offered through your computer

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3. Term: Teleconferencing
Definition: A form of telephone conferencing in which participants in
different locations dial into a designated number at the same time or are
connected by an operator
4. Term: Webinar
Definition: Online seminar in which participants are connected through a
presentation on the Internet
5. Term: Articulate
Definition: The ability to express yourself readily, clearly, and effectively
6. Term: Pitch
Definition: The highness or lowness of a sound
7. Term: Tone
Definition: The emotional quality of a sound or voice
8. Term: Enunciation
Definition: The way you form your words when you speak
9. Term: Pronunciation
Definition: How you say each syllable
10. Term: Salutation

Definition: A formal or informal greeting in a business letter

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11. Term: Reference Initials
Definition: Initials that are inserted below the typed signature line flush to
the left margin, indicating that the letter was dictated to someone else, who
typed the letter
12. Term: Enclosure Notation

Definition: Allows the sender of a business letter to double-check and
make sure the package is complete before it goes out
13. Term: Copy Notation

Definition: Indicates who has been copied on a business letter or email
14. Term: Encryption

Definition: Software that encodes email messages to keep the contents
private and secure
15. Term: Domain

Definition: Specifies where you have a user account, such as a
commercial carrier or an Internet service provider
16. Term: Acronym

Definition: A word formed by the first letters of several successive words,
such as ASAP for as soon as possible
17. Term: Spam Filter

Definition: Removes unwanted emails and puts them into a separate file
for you to delete

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18. Term: Country Codes
Definition: A code many European countries use to indicate a business
letter's country of designation
19. Term: Date Stamp

Definition: A stamp of the date on a piece of mail indicating when it was
received
20. Term: Register

Definition: A method of tracking expected and received mail
Medical Office Procedures : Basic Word and

Excel
Lesson 4 Overview
The Microsoft Office 2016 suite

of applications includes Word
and Excel. In this lesson, you’ll
learn how to use these
applications independently to
produce a variety of
professional-looking documents
and spreadsheets. After
mastering the fundamentals of Word and Excel, you’ll learn about the

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Office 2016 features that allow you to seamlessly integrate and share
information among applications.
A word processor application is used to create, edit, print, email, and share
documents. With Word, you’ll do all this along with learning about
document design and layout so that you’re able to effectively communicate
your message.
A spreadsheet application is used to organize, analyze, and interpret data.

With Excel, you’ll learn how to produce spreadsheets that include formulas,
functions, charts, and tables. You’ll also be learning about spreadsheet
planning and how to format and present data for greatest impact.
When you’re ready to put it all together, you’ll learn how to produce Word
documents that include spreadsheet data and charts. You’ll also learn how
to merge Excel data with a Word document to produce form letters. Your
integrated documents will reveal a high level of expertise that demonstrate
your ability to use Word and Excel professionally, academically, and
personally.
4.1 Explain how to create a Word file

Getting Started With Word
READING ASSIGNMENT
The Microsoft Word 2016 word processor is used to create professional-

looking documents such as letters, flyers, brochures, and eBooks. The
instructions to start Word will vary depending on your installation. However,
you will most likely need to click the Word 2016 icon in the Taskbar at the
bottom of the screen or double-click the icon on the Desktop.

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After becoming familiar with the Word interface, you'll learn about the many
features for typing and editing text. Some of these features, such as the
spelling and grammar checker, Smart Lookup, and the thesaurus can help
you improve your writing. Other features, such as cut, copy, and paste can
help you refine your message without having to retype text.
The Word Window
After starting Word, the first thing you’ll see is a Start screen with links to
recently opened documents on the left (or, if there are none, a link to Open
Other Documents). On the right of the screen are links you can use to
create a new blank document or to create a document based on a
template.
An Image of the Word Start Screen
The Word Start Screen
Click Blank document or Single spaced (blank) to open a new document

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in the Word window. A blank document adds additional space between
lines and extra space after a paragraph compared to the single spaced
option.The Word window is the application interface where you interact
with the software.
An Image of the Features of the Word
Features of the Word Window
The Word window includes these features:
The Quick Access Toolbar is at the top of the window and has
shortcuts to commonly used commands. The default shortcuts are
Save, Undo, and Redo. You can click the Customize Quick Access
Toolbar icon to add or remove shortcuts.
An image of the Customize Quick Access Toolbar Option

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The Customize Quick Access Toolbar Option
The file name, or document name, is displayed in the top center of the
window. When you save a new document, the name you provide will
be displayed here.
In the upper-right corner are the Ribbon Display Options button, which
lets you control how the Ribbon displays; Minimize button, which you
click to hide a window; the Restore button, which you click to reduce
or expand the window size, and the Close button, which you click to
close the application window.
The Ribbon contains Word commands. Commands are organized into

tabs that run along the top of the Ribbon. Click a tab name to display
a different set of commands. Within a tab, commands are grouped.
Some groups include a dialog box launcher (a small arrow icon) in the
lower-right corner that you click to display a dialog box or task pane

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with additional options related to the group. Some command buttons
on the Ribbon have an arrow at the side you click to display a menu of
additional options.
The File tab is different from the other Ribbon tabs. Click File to
display the Backstage view with options for opening, saving, printing,
sharing, and closing a file. To get back to the document window
without executing a command on the File tab, click the Back arrow in
the upper left of the screen or press the Esc key.
The Tell Me box is a search tool and help feature. When you can’t
locate a command, or when you just want to learn how to perform an
action, click Tell me what you want to do and then type any word or
phrase in the box to display a menu of related search results. The
search results will include related commands and an option to display
a Help dialog box with more information.
Rulers run along the left and top of the document area. They show
the size of the paper and are useful for alignment purposes. If the
rulers don’t appear in your Word document, you can enable them by
clicking the Ruler checkbox on the View tab.
Scroll bars are located along the right side of the window and below
the document, if necessary. You use them to bring unseen parts of the
document into view. The scroll bars may disappear from view when
typing. Moving your mouse makes them reappear. To scroll a
document in the window, drag the scroll box, click above or below it in
the scroll bar, or click the up or down arrows at the top and bottom of

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the scroll bar.
An Image of the ScreenTips
ScreenTip
The Status bar runs along the bottom of the window. In the lower left
of the status bar is a page count, word count, and a proofing errors
indicator. On the right side of the status bar is a Zoom slider you can
use to change the magnification of your document. Icons for changing
the document view are also near the Zoom slider.
ScreenTips are small boxes that pop up when you hover the mouse
over a command on the Ribbon or other features on the Word
document window. ScreenTips display information about a feature,
including keyboard shortcuts for executing the feature without having
to remove your hands from the keyboard.
Working With Input Devices
An input device is used to communicate with an application. The input

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devices you’ll most likely use are the keyboard, mouse, touch pad, and
stylus.
The keyboard is used to type text into your document. The location where
the next character typed will appear is indicated by a blinking line called the
insertion point, or cursor. Along with keys for typing text, the keyboard has
keys for moving the insertion point and communicating with Word:
The arrow keys move the insertion point in the direction of the arrow.
Ctrl+left or right arrow moves the insertion point from word to word in
the direction of the arrow (press and hold the Control key (Ctrl) and
then press the arrow key once). Ctrl+up or down arrow moves the
cursor to the beginning of the previous or next paragraph.
The Home and End keys move the insertion point to the beginning or
end of a line, respectively. Similarly, Ctrl+Home and Ctrl+End move
the insertion point to the beginning or end of a document.
The Delete key is used to remove the character to the right of the
insertion point. The Backspace key removes the character to the left.
The Page Up and Page Down keys are used to scroll a document
within the window.
The Esc key function will vary depending on the context, but is
commonly used to cancel the current operation. For example, if a
dialog box is open you can press Esc instead of clicking Cancel.
The mouse is a pointing device used to select commands and respond to

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prompts. It displays a graphic image called a pointer which is used to point,
click, or drag. Pointing means to move the mouse until the pointer is resting
on a command or feature of the interface. When you click, you point and
then quickly press and release the left mouse button. Double-clicking
involves pressing the left mouse button twice in quick succession. This is
used to select text. Right-clicking means to quickly press and release the
right mouse button. This often opens a list of available commands.
Dragging means to select text and then press and hold the left mouse
button while moving the mouse. Release the button when the item being
dragged is where you want it.
Depending on the situation, the shape of the pointer may be an arrow, an I-

beam, a hand, or an hourglass.
An Image of the Shapes of the

Mouse Pointer
The Shapes of the Mouse

Pointer
The arrow pointer is displayed when the pointer is on a command or

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other selectable item. Click the pointer on the command to select it.
Hover, don’t click, over any Ribbon command or icon to display a pop-
up description.
The I-beam pointer is displayed within a document. Move the I-beam

with the mouse and then click to move the insertion point to that
location.
The hand pointer appears when pointing to a hyperlink, like that found
in a help window displayed by the Tell Me box. When you click a link a
browser window opens.
The hourglass pointer is displayed to indicate that Word is working on

an action.
A mouse may also have a scroll wheel, which can be rotated to move a
document up or down in the window.
The stylus and touch pad input devices work similarly to a mouse, but the
touch pad has the added capability of drawing. This feature is useful for
writing equations, which Word converts automatically.
View this tutorial (support.office.com/en-us/article/Use-a-pen-to-draw-write-

or-highlight-text-on-a-Windows-tablet-6d76c674-7f4b-414d-b67f-
b3ffef6ccf53) on using a stylus or touch pad to draw in Microsoft Office
2016.
Saving a File
To make a document available for future use, it must be saved as a file to a

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lasting medium such as a hard disk, USB flash drive, or cloud drive.
A hard disk is the computer’s storage.
A USB flash drive is a portable storage device that can be plugged

into the USB
port on a computer and is easily moved from computer to computer.
A cloud drive is online storage that’s available to you from any

computer, tablet, phone, or other device with Internet access.
To save a document:
An Image of the Save Dialog Box
The Save Dialog Box
1. On the Ribbon, click the File tab to display a screen of options.

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2. Click Save. A list of locations is displayed.
3. To save a document to your computer, click Browse. A dialog box is

displayed. In the pane on the left of the dialog box, navigate to the
appropriate location to store the file. The address bar at the top of the
dialog box displays the path of the selected location.
4. In the File name box, change the default name to one that’s
descriptive of the file’s contents. A valid name can include letters,
numbers, spaces, and some special characters. Be sure to keep the
Word file name extension of .docx.
5. Click Save. The new name is displayed at the top of the document
window.
There are other ways to save a document. You can also click the Save
icon on the Quick Access Toolbar. A third way to execute Save is to press
Ctrl+S on the keyboard. This method allows you to keep your hands on the
keyboard.
Save Often
Save your document as soon as you create it and save often as you work
on your document. This way if an error occurs you won’t lose hours of
work.
You might want to set the automatic save function of Word to save every
few minutes just in case you forget. Click File, Options. In the dialog box

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that opens, click Save and adjust the AutoSave settings.
Using Save As
You should always save your files in the default Word format, which adds a
.docx extension to the file name. You can create a second copy of your file
with a different name or in a new location using Save As. To keep your file
in the same location, but use a different name, simply type a new name in
the Name box on the Save As screen. If you want to save the file in a
different location, click the Browse button on the Save As screen and
choose the location.
If you want to give a copy of a Word file to someone who doesn’t have
Word installed, or who has an older version, you can save a copy as a PDF
file. PDF stands for Portable Document Format. This format maintains the
formatting and layout of your file, but can’t be easily changed.
An Image of the Save As Options
The Save As Options

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To create a copy of a file as a PDF, click the File tab and then click Save
As. If you want to save the new file in the current location, then you need
only change the file type by selecting PDF (*.pdf) from the list below the
file name.
PRODUCTIVITY TIP
Keyboard shortcuts such as Ctrl+S are a way to keep your hands on the
keyboard while working on a document, which may improve productivity.
Opening a File
To edit or print a document, it must first be opened in Word. Opening a file

transfers a copy from the storage media to the computer’s memory and
displays it in the Word window.
To open a file:
1. Start Word to display the Start screen.
2. Links to recently used documents are on the left side of the window.
Click a link to open it.
3. To open a different file, click Browse to display a dialog box.
4. Navigate to the location of the file and then click the file name to
select it. Click Open to transfer the file to the Word window.
If you want to open a file when Word is already running, click the File tab
and click Open to display the Browse button and links to recently used

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documents. You can also press Ctrl+O.
Printing and Emailing a Document
Documents may be printed or attached to an email for distribution. In either

case, you use options on the File tab.
To print a document:
1. On the Ribbon, click the File tab.
2. Click Print. A list of options for the available printer is displayed along
with a preview of the document.
3. Take some time to review your print options. Note the Copies option at
the top for increasing the number of printouts. Also, note the Pages
option for printing specific pages.
4. Click Print to send a copy of the document to the printer.
An Image of Email Options

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Print Options
Emailing requires that your computer have access to an email account.

Another consideration with email is the file format. You can email a Word
document as an attachment, which provides the email recipient with a copy
of the actual Word file. This option is good when you want the recipient to
make changes to the document. However, if your document contains
material that you don’t want changed, sending the document as a PDF is a
better option.
To email a document:
An Image of the Email Options

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Email Options
1. On the File tab, click Share. There are several ways to share a Word
document.
2. Click Email. Note the email options, which include Send as

Attachment and Send as PDF.
3. Click an attachment option. A new email message is displayed with

the file in the Attached line.
4. Type the recipient’s email address in the To box and type a message
in the area below.
5. Click Send to send the attached file to the recipient.

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EMAIL BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS AS PDF ATTACHMENTS
Invoices, product sheets, estimates, and other business communications

should be emailed in PDF format to prevent accidental changes to the
contents.
Closing a File and Quitting Word
An Image of the Unsaved Changes Warning

Dialog Box
Unsaved Changes Warning Dialog Box
When you’re done working on a document, you can close the file by
clicking Close on the File tab, which removes it from the Word window.
The keyboard option is Ctrl+W. At this point, a new document can be
created, an existing document opened, or the application closed. To quit
Word, click the Close button (X) in the upper right corner of the window.
An open document will automatically be closed. If the document has
unsaved changes, a warning dialog box will be displayed. You can click
Save to save the document before it’s closed.
TELL ME HOW
The Microsoft Word 2016 application has many features. You can use the
Tell Me box to help you understand these features. Explore the features of

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Word by typing questions or phrases related to document creation into the
Tell Me box. Click the Get Help on option at the bottom of the menu to
learn more.
Microsoft Word 2016 includes many features for typing and editing text.
Some of these features, such as the spelling and grammar checker, Smart
Lookup, and the thesaurus, can help you improve your writing. Other
features, such as cut, copy, and paste, can help you refine your message
without having to retype text.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TYPING AND EDITING SKILLS
In most workplaces, electronic documents have replaced traditional pen-

and-paper forms, messages, and notes. As such, typing and editing using
word processing programs have become essential skills for nearly all job
fields.
Workers in the medical and veterinary fields assess and take notes on
patients using electronic documents.
Mechanics fill out diagnoses and repairs electronically to give the
information to customers easily and to file bills and estimates digitally.
Employees in the fields of business, marketing, and advertising send
reports and memos to coworkers, clients, and investors using Word
documents, often with a company letterhead.
Typing Text
In a new Word document, the insertion point appears as a blinking line in

the upper left of the document. As you type, characters appear and the

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insertion point moves to the right. When your text reaches the right edge of
the document, the insertion point is automatically moved to the next line in
a process called word wrap. It’s important to allow the text to wrap
automatically; press Enter at the end of a paragraph only. Later, you’ll see
that when edits are made, word wrap adjusts text as necessary.
Another consideration when typing is how many spaces you type after a
period. Word automatically adjusts space proportionally between
characters and words to provide the best reading experience. To avoid
distracting gaps, you should type only one space after a period at the end
of a sentence. This will give your document a more professional look.
Planning is an important aspect of creating any type of document. If you’ll

be typing an address block or other text that should be single spaced, then
you’ll need to click No Spacing on the Home tab before typing to change
the paragraph style (paragraph styles are covered in Assignment 4). A new
Word document uses the default style, which adds extra space after a
paragraph. This is more appropriate for a term paper or business letter.
One final consideration when typing is ergonomics. Ergonomics is the

scientific study of people at work. The goal of ergonomics is to reduce
stress, strain, and fatigue. To work more efficiently and productively while
reducing the possibility of eyestrain, you should change the magnification
of the document so that you can easily read the text as you type. The
Zoom controls in the lower right of the document window are used to
change the magnification. Click + to increase the magnification, click – to
reduce, or drag the slider in either direction. The magnification doesn’t
affect the size of the text when printed.

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Inserting Special Characters
You can add characters that don’t appear on the keyboard, such as ¢ or é,
to a document by inserting a symbol. On the Insert tab, click Symbol to
display a menu of the most common or most recently used symbols. Click
a symbol to insert it into the document or click More Symbols to display a
dialog box with additional symbols and special characters. Some symbols
can be added through keyboard shortcuts. For example, (c) converts to ©,
(r) to ®, (tm) to ™, and -- to —. Look in the AutoCorrect dialog box for
more.
An Image of the Insert Symbol Command
The Insert Symbol Command
USING SPECIAL CHARACTERS
Regardless of your career, you may find yourself needing to use special
characters when typing and editing text.
A customer, client, or coworker may have a name that requires an

accented letter (for example, Hernández).
You might write about a trademarked (™), copyrighted (©), or

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registered (®) property or slogan.
Your job may require you to deal with foreign currency such as Euros
(€), Francs (₣), or yen (¥).
You may record temperatures in degrees (°) or use mathematical

symbols (+, ×, ÷).
Typing Hyperlinks
An Image of Adding a
Hyperlink
Adding a Hyperlink
When you type email addresses or webpage URLs, Word automatically

converts them to hyperlinks, making the text blue and adding an underline
to indicate a link. If you distribute the file as a Word document or as a PDF,
the reader can click the links in your document to open the corresponding
websites.
Word uses the @ symbol and the text www. to decide if your text should be
formatted as a hyperlink. If you type a link that doesn’t follow this protocol,

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then you can right-click the text and select Hyperlink to display a dialog
box where you can specify link information.
Spelling and Grammar Checking
An Image of the red and blue markings highlight spelling

and grammar errors.
The red and blue markings highlight spelling and grammar

errors.
Word continuously analyzes spelling and grammar as you type. When a

word isn’t recognized, it’s displayed with a red squiggly line. And when a
phrase seems grammatically incorrect, Word places a blue squiggly line
below the questionable text.
When your document displays red or blue squiggly lines, you’ll want to
investigate. Nothing affects your credibility like spelling and grammar
errors.
An image of click on one

of the suggested
options to replace the
misspelled word.

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Click on one of the
suggested options to
replace the misspelled
word.
For words flagged as spelling errors, right-click the word to display a menu
with suggested spellings and other options.
On the menu, click one of the options to replace the misspelled word. If the
word you’ve typed is correctly spelled, then you can safely click Ignore All
or Add to Dictionary. The Add to Dictionary command will recognize the
word in all future documents and all other Office applications.
For words flagged as grammatical errors, right-click the text to display a

menu with suggested corrections and other options.
An Image of the Grammar Task Pane

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The Grammar Task Pane
Click a suggestion to replace the text or click Grammar to display a task

pane with more explanation about the potential error. A task pane is a set
of options that remain open with your document. To close the task pane,
click the Close button in the upper right corner of the pane.
AutoCorrect is a feature that automatically corrects the spelling and

capitalization of common words. For example, teh becomes the and florida
becomes Florida. If Word decides that a combination of letters should
really be a word from its AutoCorrect dictionary, the correction is
automatically made without you having to retype anything. For example, as
soon as you type a space after “thier” Word changes the spelling to “their.”

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An Image of the Undo
AutoCorrect Menu
The Undo AutoCorrect Menu
When the AutoCorrect feature changes a word that was correct as is,
hover over the changed word to display a blue bar and then click the bar to
display a menu. Click Change back to to revert to the former spelling. The
AutoCorrect action can also be reversed immediately by pressing Ctrl+Z.
An Image of the Proofing Errors

Icon
The Proofing Errors Icon
If you want to process all grammar errors at once, click the Proofing
Errors icon in the lower left of the Status bar. To check for spelling and
grammar together, on the Review tab, click Spelling & Grammar. Both
methods open task panes where clicking Ignore or selecting a replacement
and clicking Change resolves that error and shows the next one in the
document.
LEARN MORE ABOUT SPELLING AND GRAMMAR CHECKING

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If you want to better understand and control the way Word decides on
spelling and grammar checking, on the File tab, click Options. In the Word
Options dialog box, click Proofing. Click AutoCorrect Options to
customize that feature (see figure). Click Settings next to Writing Style to
see grammar options. Many of the options in this dialog box are set with
checkboxes. Click a checkbox to either select or clear the option.
An Image of Proofing and AutoCorrect Options
Proofing and AutoCorrect Options
Editing Text
The process of changing the contents of a document is called editing and

almost always involves adding and removing text. When you edit, you must
first place the insertion point where the edit is to occur. Both the arrow keys
and the mouse can be used to position the insertion point. Next, you can
type to insert new text or press the Backspace or Delete keys to remove

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unwanted text.
You’ll probably find yourself in the editing process while you’re still typing
the original document. For example, you may decide that the sentence you
just typed doesn’t work well in the paragraph. In this case, rather than
repeatedly pressing the Backspace key to remove the text, you can click
Undo on the Quick Access Toolbar to remove the most recently typed text.
To redo the last action, click Repeat Typing on the Quick Access Toolbar.
Displaying Formatting Marks
An Image of Formatting marks

are helpful when writing.
Formatting marks are helpful

when writing.
Editing a document is often easier when formatting marks are displayed.

Formatting marks are symbols used to represent characters not normally
displayed as text, such as paragraph marks, spaces, and tabs. These are
sometimes called “invisibles.”
If you don’t see formatting marks, on the Home tab, click ¶ (Show/Hide ¶)
in the Paragraph group. Click ¶ again if you want to hide formatting marks.
Selecting Text
An Image of the Selected Text is Highlighted

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Selected Text is Highlighted
You can edit faster by first selecting the text to be removed or changed.
Selected text is highlighted.
To make a selection, drag your mouse pointer over the characters to be

selected. When you’ve selected text, anything you type replaces the entire
selection with new text. You may also press the Backspace or Delete keys
once to remove all the selected text. If you’ve made a selection by mistake,
simply click the mouse anywhere or press an arrow key to remove the
highlight and leave the text unchanged.
Besides dragging, there are many other ways to select text:
Double-click a word to select the word and the space after.
Triple-click to select an entire paragraph.
Press and hold the Shift key while pressing an arrow key to select
one character at a time. Press and hold the Shift and Ctrl keys while
pressing an arrow key to select one word at a time.
Press and hold the Shift key and then click a character to select from
the insertion point to the point clicked.
Press and hold the Ctrl key and then click anywhere in a sentence to
select the entire sentence.

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Move the pointer to the left of text until it changes to an arrow shape
and then click to select that line of text. Double-click to select the
entire paragraph. Triple-click to select the entire document.
On the Home tab, click Select > Select All to select the entire
document.
Cut, Copy and Paste
An important part of editing is refining what you’ve written. When you

proofread your document, you may find that a sentence would be more
effective at the end of a paragraph rather than in the middle, or you may
see an important detail that should be repeated in closing. For edits like
these you’ll want to move and duplicate information. The Cut, Copy, and
Paste commands on the Home tab make it easy.
To move or duplicate text:
1. Select the text to be moved or duplicated.
2. On the Home tab, click Cut to remove the text from the document or
click Copy to leave the text and create a copy.
3. Move the insertion point to the position where the cut or copied text is
to appear.
4. On the Home tab, click Paste. The text appears at the position.
The keyboard shortcuts for Cut, Copy, and Paste are

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Cut: Ctrl+X
Copy: Ctrl+C
Paste: Ctrl+V
Note that Paste is not Ctrl+P. That’s the shortcut for Print.
The Office Clipboard
An Image of The
Clipboard Task Pane
The Clipboard Task

Pane
When you cut or copy text, it’s placed in an area of memory called the
Office Clipboard. By default, copying and pasting only works for one copied
item or section at a time. To see more Clipboard items, click the dialog box

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launcher in the Clipboard group on the Home tab to display the Clipboard
task pane. When you copy additional items with the Clipboard pane open,
the additional copied items will appear. You can place any of the Clipboard
items at the insertion point by simply clicking the item in the task pane. Or,
if you no longer want an item to be on the Clipboard, point to the item, click
the arrow, and then click Delete.
The Office Clipboard stores text and graphics copied from any Office
application file and allows you to paste the content into any other Office
application file. The Clipboard is useful when you want to “collect” several
copied items before pasting them. However, when you paste from the
Clipboard you won’t have as many paste options from which to choose.
Improving Your Message
Word has several features for improving your message whether it be

through replacing a word with a more effective one, finding occurrences of
text, or adding relevant information to your document.
The Thesaurus
An Image of The
Thesaurus Task Pane

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The Thesaurus Task
Pane
The thesaurus is a tool for finding words that are close in meaning. To use
the thesaurus, right-click a word in the document and then click Synonyms
to display a menu of related words. If you see a word that you like better
than the current one, click it to replace the current word. If the menu is
displaying words with a meaning different from the current word, then click
Thesaurus at the bottom of the menu to open a task pane. From here, you
can click a word in the search results to display synonyms related to that
word. When you find a replacement, point to the word, click the arrow, and
then click Insert.
Find and Replace
The thesaurus replaces a single word. If you want to replace all instances
of a word in a document, use the Replace command on the Home tab,
which displays the Find and Replace dialog box.
An Image of The Find and Replace Dialog Box

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The Find and Replace Dialog Box
Type the word or text to look for in the Find what box and type the
replacement text in the Replace with box. Click More for additional
options. Click one or more of the checkboxes under Search Options to
make a search more specific. You can also use the Special list to add
codes for formatting marks and other special search items to the Find
what and Replace with boxes. For example, you could search for line
breaks, paragraph breaks, and so on. To display fewer options, click Less.
Even after all options are set, you’ll want to perform a search and replace
thoughtfully to avoid changing the wrong text. The safest approach is to
click Find Next to locate an occurrence of the text before clicking Replace.
When you click Replace All, every occurrence of the Find text is
automatically changed without showing it to you.

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An Image of the Navigation Pane
Navigation Pane
There are many reasons to search a document for text. For example, you
may want to refine your writing by checking for overused words. You can
do this by clicking the Find command on the Home tab, which displays the
Navigation task pane with a search box.
When you type search text here, Word highlights every occurrence and
displays the results. You can then click the arrow buttons in the task pane
to move from one occurrence to the next. If you want to search for special
characters, then click the arrow on the Find command and click Advanced
Find. Another option is to select a word and then click Find—word will
search for the highlighted word.

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USING FIND AND REPLACE
The Find and Replace tool may seem very specialized, but it actually can
be very useful in a number of careers:
A company decides to change a new product’s name just weeks

before launch. As a marketing agent for the company, you can use
Find and Replace to quickly locate and change every instance of the
old name in your document, saving your time and the company’s
money.
As a wedding planner, your clients decide they want to change the
ceremony venue from the local country club to a nearby barn venue.
Using Find and Replace, you can quickly locate and update mentions
of the venue name and address on invitations, directions for caterers
and other servicers, and contracts.
A company you serve as part of your public relations firm sends a list
of details so you can create a public statement. After writing the
statement, you realize that the company made a typo in their
representative’s name—they listed the name as Marcy Johnson, when
the representative’s real name is Marcy Johnston. You can perform a
Find and Replace for the name Johnson to easily make the
adjustment.
Smart Lookup
An Image of Smart
Lookup that provides
word definitions and
other resources.

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Smart Lookup provides
word definitions and
other resources.
Another way to improve your writing is to strengthen your content. The

Smart Lookup tool allows you to do research from within your document.
Simply right-click a word or selected phrase and then click Smart Lookup.
Smart Lookup uses the context of your document to determine which
results to display in a task pane. For example, a Smart Lookup on the word
work brings up definitions and links to articles related to human labor and
physics. From the brief summaries, click the link to display the full article in
a browser window.
Key Points and Link

READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points

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Word 2016 has a window with many features to help you create
professional-looking documents.
When you start Word you’ll see the Start screen with links to
documents and a link to create a new document.
To help you perform an action quickly, the Quick Access Toolbar is
located in the upper left corner of the Word window.
When you use Word, you’ll be executing commands from the Ribbon,
which is divided into tabs.
The File tab is different from other Ribbon tabs because it displays a
screen where you can open, save, print, share, and close a document.
You can use the Tell Me box to learn more about the commands and
features of Word.
ScreenTips appear when you point to a command or feature, and
display information about the feature.
The input devices you may use include the keyboard, mouse, touch
pad, and stylus.
The location for the next typed character is indicated by the insertion
point, which is displayed as a blinking line in a document.
You use the mouse to point, click, and drag.
You can save your document with Save on the File tab.
Documents can be saved to a hard disk, USB flash drive, and a cloud
drive.
To open a file, start Word and use a link on the Start screen, or if
Word is already running click the File tab for options to open a file.
When you want to print a file, click File and then Print.
You can email a document as an attachment or as a PDF.
When you’re done working on a file, you click Close on the File tab to
remove it from the Word window.

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If you want to quit Word, click the Close box in the upper right corner
of the window.
The blinking vertical line in a document is called the insertion point
and is where the text you type will appear.
When you type text for a document, press Enter at the end of
paragraphs only to allow word wrap to operate correctly.
You can use the Symbol command on the Insert tab to insert
characters that aren’t on the keyboard.
When you type an email address or a website URL, Word
automatically formats it as a hyperlink.
If you want to format text as a hyperlink, right-click the text and click
Hyperlink.
Use the Zoom control to adjust the magnification of text so you can
see it comfortably.
Possible spelling and grammar errors are automatically detected by
Word.
Right-click highlighted errors to display spelling and grammar options.
Editing is when you change the contents of a document, and it often
includes inserting, deleting, moving, and duplicating text.
Display formatting marks by clicking Show/Hide ¶ on the Home tab.
You can select text by dragging, double-clicking, or triple-clicking with
the mouse or by using the Shift, Ctrl, and arrow keys.
Cut and Paste allow you to move selected text.
Copy and Paste allow you to duplicate selected text.
The Clipboard displays cut and copied items and allows you to place
any item at the insertion point.
Right-click a word and click Synonym to display a list of words with
similar meaning, or click Thesaurus to display a task pane.

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You can find and replace text with the Replace command on the
Home tab.
You can use the Find command on the Home tab to display the
Navigation task pane.
Smart Lookup is a feature that enables you to do research on a topic
from within your document.
Link
Use a pen to draw, write, or highlight text on a Windows tablet

(support.office.com/en-us/article/Use-a-pen-to-draw-write-or-highlight-
text-on-a-Windows-tablet-6d76c674-7f4b-414d-b67f-b3ffef6ccf53)
Discover More: Creating a Word File
Based on what you've read, answer the following questions:
1. What is one way in which you can execute a Ribbon command?

2. List three ways to move the insertion point.
3. How is the File tab different from other tabs on the Ribbon?
4. List two input devices and how you use them.
5. Which key do you press to delete a character to the left of the
insertion point?
6. How can you use the mouse to move the insertion point?
7. What is the purpose of saving a document?
8. List two ways you can execute the Save command.
9. List three storage media for files.
10. What are two ways to distribute a document?
11. Why might the PDF format be a better choice for an email attachment

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than the Word file?
12. What happens when you quit Word with unsaved changes to a
document?
13. The _______ command on the ______ tab is used to add an ã
character at the insertion point.
14. Pay attention to ______ to prevent strain and fatigue.
15. How might Word display the name “Rufaro” when typed?
16. You type the word “Macy” but Word changes it to “Mary.” What steps
would you take to change the word back to “Macy”?
17. The ______and ______ commands are used to duplicate text in a
document.

Discover More: Creating a Word File
1. Your answer should be one of the following:

a. Click the command on the Ribbon.
b. Click a dialog box launcher icon and then execute commands
from the dialog box or task pane.
2. You can move the insertion point in several ways, including pressing
the arrow keys, the Home key, the End key, pressing any
combination of Ctrl and arrow, Home, and End keys, and moving and
then clicking the I-beam pointer with the mouse, touch pad, or stylus.
3. The File tab displays a new screen with options for opening, saving,
printing, sharing, and closing a file. The other Ribbon tabs display
groups of commands above the active document.
4. Answers will vary but you should include two of the four input devices
discussed.
a. The keyboard for typing characters and using keys to move the

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insertion point
b. The mouse for pointing, selecting commands, and moving the
insertion point
c. The touch pad, which works similarly to a mouse
d. The stylus for pointing, selecting commands, moving the insertion
point, and writing
5. Press the Backspace key to delete a character to the left of the
insertion point.
6. Move the mouse to place the I-Beam pointer and then click.
7. The purpose of saving a document is to make it available for future
use.
8. You can execute the Save command by clicking Save on the File tab,
clicking Save on the Quick Access Toolbar, or by pressing Ctrl+S.
9. Hard disk, USB flash drive, cloud drive
10. You can distribute a document by printing it or by emailing it.
11. Because it maintains all the formatting and layout of your file and
doesn’t easily allow changes to be made
12. If you quit Word when there are unsaved changes to a document,
Word displays a warning dialog box that prompts you to save.
13. Symbol, Insert
14. ergonomics
15. Unknown proper names may be displayed with a red squiggle line if
Word doesn’t recognize the spelling.
16. To undo AutoCorrect, point to the word, click the blue bar, and then
click Change back to. You may also immediately press Ctrl+Z to
revert to the previous spelling.
17. Copy, Paste

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4.2 Apply formats to a document
Character, Paragraph, and Page Formatting
READING ASSIGNMENT
Effective documents are more than just the right words on a page. They
must also convey a message through appearance. Character formats set
the tone for the message, while paragraph formats provide organization
and clarity. Page formats divide a document into logical pages, set the
white space around text on a page, arrange text into columns, and add
headers and footers. Arranging elements on a page is called page layout
and it affects your document’s overall usability.
Done properly, a reader often has an idea of the message just by the look
of a document. Imagine a flyer for a children’s sporting event. Now,
imagine a brochure for a company webinar. You can distinguish one from
the other without even reading the words. This is because of formatting.
Character Formats
There are countless ways that you can control the look of your document
with character formats. When you change the look of your text, you’re
making changes to the font, which refers to the typeface, size, and style for
a character. For example, Calibri 11 point regular is the default Word font.
Typeface
An Image of Many Different Fonts That are

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Available
Many different fonts are available.
You can think of typeface as the name of the design of the letters and
other characters. Word gives you dozens of typefaces to choose from in
the Font list on the Home tab. Some are decorative and others are blocky.
Whichever typeface you choose, be sure to keep your audience in mind.

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Typefaces are further classified as serif and sans serif. A serif is the small
stroke or line at the ends of a letter, which draw the letters of a word
together for easier reading. A sans serif font doesn’t have the strokes.
This is a serif font.
This is a sans serif font.
You’ve probably seen many documents organized as paragraphs of text

divided by titles and subtitles. The main text is called body text. You may
see fonts used for titles and headings that are different than the body text.
Serif font is often used for titles because it’s easy to read in large, bold
letters. You’ll help readers better understand your content when titles and
body text are differentiated with serif and sans serif fonts.
The typefaces you use will largely depend on where you work. A
professional office might use creative fonts only on its letterhead, and
sometimes not even then. On the other hand, a job that requires creating
promotional materials, such as marketing or graphic design, will require the
use of many different fonts and colors. Teachers of young children will also
use many more whimsical fonts.
Font Size
The size of a font is measured in points, with 72 points to an inch. If your

document uses headings and body text, then you can make your document
easier to read and understand by making headings and titles at least 2
points larger than body text. You’ll also make your document more
effective if you consider your audience when you decide on font size. For
example, a senior audience will appreciate larger type overall.

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This is 6 point type.
Font Style
Font styles help you make certain words and characters stand out. Styles
include bold, italic, underline, strikethrough, superscript (as in e=mc2),

subscript (as in H2O), color, highlight, and more. However, you’ll need to
be careful using styles. For example, underline is often associated with
hyperlinks and can be misleading if used otherwise. Using too many colors
can lead to a confusing, unprofessional look. Bright colors and highlighting
can make a document hard to read, and some individuals may not be able
to tell blue text from green.
In general, italics are used for emphasis and to indicate titles of books and
magazines. Bold may also be used for emphasis, although it’s more often
used in headings. Underlining is rarely used in word processing; when
typing on typewriters, underlining was used for titles. Strikethrough isn’t
used often; there are some specialized tasks (such as redlining legal
documents) that use it.
Applying Character Formats
An Image of when you select a word in a

sentence the mini toolbar displays.

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When you select a word in a sentence the
mini toolbar displays.
When you want to change the look of text, you must first select the text to
be formatted. Next, select commands in the Font group on the Home tab.
Or to apply several formats at once, click the Font dialog box launcher to
display a dialog box. When you use the mouse to select text, a mini toolbar
appears. This toolbar lets you apply a limited number of popular font
options quickly.
The keyboard shortcuts for Bold, Italic, and Underline are
Bold: Ctrl+B
Italic: Ctrl+I
Underline: Ctrl+U
Paragraph Formats
Paragraph formats are another way to control the look of your document.
Paragraph formats affect an entire paragraph, not just selected characters
within a paragraph. When you change a paragraph format, you change the
way text aligns within a document or how much space appears before,
after, or between lines of a paragraph.
Paragraph Alignment
An Image of the Paragraph

Group on the Home Tab

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The Paragraph Group on the
Home Tab
The way text aligns within a document is called paragraph alignment. You
choose alignment based on the message. For example, a formal paper is
usually left aligned or justified. But when you want to present a catchy
phrase for a product, you may find that right alignment is more effective.
Titles are often centered. You can change the alignment of text by placing
the insertion point in the paragraph you want to format or by selecting
multiple paragraphs together. Then click an alignment command in the
Paragraph group on the Home tab.
Left aligned text is typical for letters, research papers, and general
communication. Text with this alignment lines up on the left, with a jagged
right edge.
Center alignment places text equally between left and right edges.
Right aligned text is used in advertisements and image captions. Text with
this alignment lines up on the right, with a jagged left edge.
Justified text adjusts the space between words to align on both the right
and left edges. It’s most commonly used in newspapers, magazines, and
books. Sometimes it can look awkward if there’s a short line and a lot of
space is added.

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Paragraph Indents
Indents are used to set apart a paragraph from other text. Quotes are one
example of where indented paragraphs are often used. In Word, this
paragraph would be an example of a non-indented paragraph. The text
below is an example of an indented paragraph.
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,

Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time
—Macbeth
Paragraph Spacing
You may want to format paragraphs with space before and after. This
spacing can improve readability as it makes paragraph breaks easier to
see. You might also want extra space between each line. For example,
research papers and drafts often have additional space between lines as
well as above and below paragraphs.
Applying Paragraph Formats
An Image of the Paragraph Formatting

Dialog Box

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The Paragraph Formatting Dialog Box
To apply paragraph formats, first, place the insertion point in the paragraph
to be formatted or select several paragraphs together. To apply indent and
spacing options you can use commands from the Paragraph group on the
Home tab. The Increase Indent command increases the left indent of a
paragraph and Decrease Indent reverses indents. When you want to
choose an option for spacing, click the arrow in the Line and Paragraph
Spacing command. If you want to apply specific line and paragraph
spacing or multiple formats at once, click the Paragraph dialog box
launcher to display the dialog box.
You may also use markers on the ruler to control left and right indents. The

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Left Indent is the small box on the left, and the Right Indent is the arrow
on the right end of the ruler. Be sure you’ve placed the insertion point in
the paragraph you want to format before dragging a marker to change the
indent. The marker above the left indent sets hanging indent, which is
discussed below. It can be tricky to select one without the other. If you
make a mistake, click Undo and try again.
An Image of the Indent Markers
The Indent Markers
DISPLAYING THE RULER
Indents and tabs can be set from the ruler. If the Ruler isn’t showing, click
the Ruler option on the View tab.
Tabs and Tab Stops
When you want to position text within a line, use the Tab key to move text
to locations called tab stops. The default tab stop positions in a new Word
document are at every half inch (0.5″, 1.0″, 1.5″, and so on). Press the Tab
key to move the insertion point, and any text following it, to the next tab
stop.
This paragraph is not indented. It extends from the left side of the

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document to the right. The quote is indented:
We know what we are, but not

what we may be.
–William Shakespeare
An Image of the Tab Symbols
Tab Symbols
For example, the image has several tabs. An arrow is a symbol used to
indicate a Tab character.
An Image of Columns With Tab

Stops
Columns With Tab Stops
Tabs and tab stops are especially useful when you want to align text into
columns.
An Image of the Different Type

of Tab Stops

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Different Types of Tab Stops
Tab stops with a left, right, center, or decimal alignment can be used to
change the way text aligns at the stop. Note the markers in the ruler:
An Image of the tab selector is

above the vertical ruler; click in
the horizontal ruler to add tabs.
The tab selector is above the

vertical ruler; click in the
horizontal ruler to add tabs.
To add a tab stop, first place the insertion point in the paragraph to be
formatted, or select multiple paragraphs together. The default type of tab
stop is a left tab. If you want a different type, click the tab selector above
the vertical ruler on the left side of the window until the correct alignment is
displayed (a ScreenTip will display the tab type). When you have the
correct type of tab, click in the horizontal ruler above the document to add

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the stop. If you need to adjust the position, drag the tab stop to the desired
location on the ruler. Creating a tab stop removes all the default tab stops
to its left. To remove a tab stop click and drag it out of the ruler.
An Image of Using Leaders
Using Leaders
You can create multiple stops at once, or tab stops with leaders, by
opening the Paragraph dialog box and then clicking the Tabs button at the
lower left of the box. Leaders add a repeated character between items
separated by a tab. The Tabs dialog box has several leader options.
Leaders are useful for adding periods (…….) between titles and page
numbers in a table of contents or for creating a fill-in blank on a form using
underscore characters (_____).
An Image of Alt + dragging selects a vertical block of text

without selecting whole paragraphs.

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Alt + dragging selects a vertical block of text without
selecting whole paragraphs.
Once you’ve set tab stops and aligned data, you can select a column of
data by first pressing and holding the Alt key while dragging to select a
vertical block of text. Selecting text in this way makes it easy for you to
format an entire column of data at once.
DON’T USE SPACES TO ALIGN TEXT
Tabs, not spaces, should be used to align text. Inserting spaces is an

unreliable way to position text because they vary in width from one line to
the next depending on word wrap and font.
Lists and First Line Indents
An Image of Lists
Lists
Documents often use lists to organize and present information. Bulleted

lists are used for items of equal importance, and numbered lists are used
for items that should be in a specific order. In the lists shown, the bulleted
list uses box characters to provide a checklist.

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An Image of the Bullet Options
Bullet Options
An Image of Number Formats
Number Formats
To create a list, first select the paragraphs that will make up the items and
then click one of the list commands in the Paragraph group on the Home
tab. If you want to use a symbol other than the default • shape for a
bulleted list click the arrow next to the Bullets command for choices. The
Numbering command has many options for number formats.
Another paragraph format that you’ll make use of in your documents is a

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first line indent. A first line indent moves the first line of a paragraph in from
the remaining lines. A hanging indent leaves the first line in place while
moving the remaining lines in. Lists use hanging indents—the bullet or
number is placed further to the left than the list item text.
An Image of Setting
Indents
Setting Indents
An Image of Indents
Indents

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To precisely set indents, open the Paragraph dialog box. In the
Indentation options, use the Special list to select First line or Hanging
and then type a value in the By box. You can also set indents with markers
on the ruler. To create an indent in this way, first, place the insertion point
in the paragraph to be formatted, or select multiple paragraphs for
formatting. Next, drag the First Line Indent marker to indent the first line
of the paragraph, or the Hanging Indent marker to leave the first line
where it is and indent the rest of the paragraph. If you need to set the left
indent of the whole paragraph, the small box below the triangle markers is
the Left Indent marker.
Copying Formatting
When you’ve spent time getting all the formats just right for a paragraph,
you may end up with several tab stops, indents, or character formats. You’ll
find it convenient to copy and paste formats when you need to apply the
same formatting elsewhere in the document. For this, you can use Format
Painter in the Clipboard group on the Home tab.
To copy paragraph formats, simply place the insertion point in the

paragraph with the formats to be copied, click Format Painter, and then
click in the paragraph to be formatted. To copy character formats only, first
select the text with the formats to be copied, click Format Painter, and
then drag the mouse over the text to receive the formatting.
To apply copied formats to multiple paragraphs or selections of text,

double-click Format Painter when copying the formats. Your mouse
pointer will display the Format Painter icon until you press the Esc key.
Page Size and Orientation

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Page size is the most basic element of document layout. Do you need the
standard 8½″ × 11″ paper size, also called letter size? Or will you be
preparing legal documents that should be 8½″ × 14″, or legal size? Or
perhaps you’re printing 3″ × 5″ cards. Before you begin adding content to a
document, you must choose the correct page size for the layout using the
Size command on the Layout tab. The default document size in Word is
letter size.
An Image of the Layout Tab
Layout Tab
After deciding on the page size, you need to determine the orientation.
Orientation is the direction in which a page will be printed. Portrait
orientation prints the document across the shorter side of a paper, while
landscape orientation prints across the longest side. Word’s default is
portrait orientation because it’s the most often used for business letters and
so on. To change the orientation of a document, use the Orientation
command on the Layout tab. The rulers in the Word window adjust to
correspond to selected page size and orientation.
PORTRAIT AND LANDSCAPE ORIENTATION
Many documents you create or work on will use portrait orientation. It feels
natural because it resembles a typical page in a book. However, there will
be times when landscape orientation is the better fit for your document.

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Creating posters, flyers, or trifolds in landscape orientation will allow you to
incorporate images, columns, and large fonts more easily. Likewise, if your
document includes visuals with a horizontal orientation, such as tables,
charts, or figures, you might find it easier to fit them in landscape
orientation.
Margins
An Image of the Margin

Options
Margin Options
Margins are the white space around the text on a page. Wider margins on
the left and right mean a shorter line length; narrow margins on top and
bottom allow more lines of text on a page. The default margins in a new
Word document are 1″ on top, bottom, left, and right, which are typical for a

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business letter. If you reduce your margins too much you may wind up with
too little white space, giving a cluttered or busy appearance that’s generally
hard to read and unappealing. However, flyers usually have small margins
to allow for large text that can be seen from a distance. When adjusting
margins, keep in mind that white space is as important to layout as the
actual content.
To change your document margins, click Margins on the Layout tab to

display a menu of preset options. If you want to enter custom settings, click
Margins > Custom Margins or click the dialog box launcher in the Page
Setup group on the Layout tab.
MARGINS VS. INDENTS
Margins are a page level format that affects every paragraph in the
document. Indents are used to change the format for specific paragraphs
only.
Pagination
When your document is more than one page in length, you’ll need to
evaluate how to divide the pages. Pagination is the process of deciding
where one page ends and the next begins. For example, if there are two
lines of a paragraph at the bottom of one page and the remaining five lines
are at the top of the next page, you can push the start of the paragraph
onto the next page with the rest of it for a better layout. To move the text,
first, place the insertion point at the beginning of the paragraph and then
click Page Break on the Insert tab to insert a manual page break. The
keyboard shortcut for this operation is Ctrl+Enter.

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If you later edit content or change the margins, your manual page breaks
may wind up dividing text at the wrong locations. You can remove a
manual page break by showing formatting marks and then deleting the
Page Break character.
Headers and Footers
A header appears at the top of every page in a document, and a footer

appears at the bottom of every page. They’re important elements of page
layout. Headers and footers provide titles, page numbers, dates of
publication, and other useful reference information that help you navigate a
document. Readers expect to see them in long documents.
Use the Header and Footer commands on the Insert tab to add a header
or footer to a document. When you click one of these commands, you’ll
see numerous layouts for headers and footers. After you click a layout,
your insertion point is moved to the header or footer and a Design tab with
header and footer tools is displayed.
An Image of the Header & Footer Tools Design Tab
The Header & Footer Tools Design Tab
The Header & Footer Tools Design tab includes commands and options
for formatting and editing headers and footers:

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Header from Top and Footer from Bottom are used to change the
distance from the edge of the page. This is useful when you add
several lines of text to a header or footer, or when your printer needs
more distance from the edge to print the text properly.
Choose Different First Page when your document has a title page or
other first page that shouldn’t display header and footer text.
When you’ve created a complicated document, such as a book with

multiple chapters, Different Odd & Even allows you to alternate the
header and footer text on odd and even pages.
Use the Go to Footer and Go to Header options when you need to

switch back and forth between the areas. Use Previous and Next to
switch between even and odd headers and footers.
Click Close Header and Footer to move your insertion point back into
the body text of your document. You can also press the Esc key.
If you need to edit your headers or footers after closing them, you can
double-click in the area to move the insertion point and display the Header
& Footer Tools Design tab again.
Adding Page Numbers, Dates, and Times
For documents longer than two to three pages, readers expect to look at
the top or bottom of a page and see a page number. Therefore, the best
place to add page numbers to your document is in the header or footer.
When you use the Word command to add page numbers they appear

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automatically on every page and are automatically updated when pages
change. If you edit your document, you don’t need to go back and change
the page numbers.
Page numbers are such a common page element that you don’t even need
to create a separate header or footer first. Simply click Insert > Page
Number, click Top of Page or Bottom of Page, and then select a layout.
This method deletes any existing header or footer and replaces it with the
page number header or footer. If you want to add a page number to an
existing header or footer, position the insertion point in it, then on the
Header & Footer Tools Design tab click Page Number > Current
Position and click a layout.
An Image of Inserting a Page Number
Inserting a Page Number
Styles
An Image of the Styles Group (note the More button)

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The Styles Group (Note the More button.)
A Word style is a named set of formats. The Styles group on the Home
tab shows several named styles. You can click the More button at the end
of the group to expand the list or click the Styles dialog box launcher to
display the Styles pane.
Styles provide an easy way to give your document a consistent look. If you
want to achieve professional results, be sure that all your headings have
exactly the same formats, just as your body text should have the same
paragraph formats. By applying styles, you can be sure that the same
formats are being applied each time. And when you modify a style, all the
text in that style is automatically updated to reflect the change.
An Image of the Modify Dialog

Box (The Style pane is shown
at the right.)

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The Modify Dialog Box (The
Style pane is shown at the
right.)
You can create a new style based on existing formatting by selecting text
or by placing the insertion point in a formatted paragraph and then clicking
the New Style button in the Styles pane or clicking Create a Style in the
expanded Styles group. To modify an existing style, right-click the style
name in the Styles pane or in the Styles group and click Modify to display
a dialog box. Here, you can click Format to display additional options.
Styles are important when creating documents for any type of job. Whether
you’re creating expense reports, newsletters, handbooks, flyers, posters,
or notices, people expect a company’s style to be consistent throughout its
materials. For many companies, document styles go hand-in-hand with
brand recognition. The next time you visit a local store, take a look at the
store’s documents—sales flyers, promotional materials, and the like—and
you’ll likely notice a consistent style throughout.
The Design Tab

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The Design tab includes Themes, Style Sets, Color Sets, Font Sets, and
other document formatting options. You can select any of these options to
change the look of your document. Since most of these options are based
on named styles, you’ll see the greatest impact to your document if you
first apply named styles to text and paragraphs.
The Navigation Pane
An Image of the
Navigation Pane

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The Navigation Pane
As your documents become longer, navigating the content gets more

difficult. The Navigation pane will help you with this. Click Navigation Pane
in the View tab to add a pane on the left side of the document window.
From here, you can click Pages to view miniature, clickable pages of your
document. When you click a page, your document scrolls to that page. If
you applied styles to your document, click Headings in the Navigation
pane to display an outline based on named heading styles. When you click
a heading, your document scrolls to that location.
Columns
Columns are used to control line length in publications with a lot of text,
such as newspapers, brochures, and newsletters. They allow more
flexibility with page layout and the shorter line length is easier to read. To
format your document with columns, click the Columns command on the
Layout tab. Just as you use manual page breaks to improve page layout,
manual column breaks are used to end one column and move content to
the next. You can insert a manual column break at the insertion point by
clicking Breaks > Column on the Layout tab.
Section Breaks
When your document has elements that require different page formats,
you’ll need to use section breaks. A section break allows the same
document to have multiple page formats. For example, a newsletter has a
nameplate at the top of the first page to identify the title and date of the
publication. Below the nameplate are headlines and the body text, which
are typically divided into two or more columns. Because two page formats

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appear in the same document, you’ll need to insert a section break
between the nameplate, which runs the width of the page, and body text,
which is divided into columns.
There are several types of section breaks. Continuous allows multiple

sections on the same page; Next Page starts a new section on the next
page. To insert a section break at the insertion point, click Breaks on the
Layout tab and select a break type.
Generally, eBooks, printed books, and other long documents are divided
into front matter, body matter, and end matter with different page formats
for each. For example, the front matter of a book (table of contents,
preface, and so on) often uses lowercase Roman numerals for page
numbers, while body matter page numbers are in Arabic numerals. You
can use Next Page Sections to divide book content and apply different
page formats within the same document.
Templates
A Word template can save time because it’s already formatted and has
placeholders for information. Templates are available along with the Blank
document option when you create a new Word file. For example, there are
templates for business letters, résumés, reports, and more. You can also
search online for templates using the search bar on the File > New page to
see templates that other users have uploaded.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points

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Font means the typeface, size, and style of text.
When you apply font formats, consider document readability.
You can apply character formats using the commands in the Font
group on the Home tab or with the mini toolbar.
You can set paragraph alignment using commands in the Paragraph
group of the Home tab or the Paragraph dialog box.
Indents set a paragraph apart from other text. You can use the
Increase and Decrease Indent commands in the Paragraph group of
the Home tab, the Paragraph dialog box, or markers on the ruler to set
them.
You can change the spacing above, below, and in between lines of a
paragraph using the Line and Paragraph Spacing command in the
Paragraph group of the Home tab or the Paragraph dialog box.
You can create tab stops using the Tabs dialog box.
You can create bulleted and numbered lists with commands in the
Paragraph group of the Home tab.
Indents are created using the Indentation options in the Paragraph
dialog box or by using markers on the ruler.
You can quickly copy and paste multiple paragraphs and character
formats at once with the Format Painter command on the Home tab.
Change page orientation to portrait or landscape with Layout >
Orientation; page size is also adjusted on the Layout tab.
The white space around text on a page is controlled with margin
settings, which you can change with Layout > Margins or in the Page
Setup dialog box.
You can control the pagination of your document by clicking Insert >
Page Break.
Headers, which appear at the top of every page in your document, are

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added by clicking Insert > Header.
Footers, which appear at the bottom of every page in your document,
are added by clicking Insert > Footer.
The Header & Footer Tools Design tab has options for changing the
distance of the header or footer from the edge of the page, removing it
from the first page of a document, and creating different headers and
footers for even and odd numbered pages.
Edit headers and footers by double-clicking in the desired area to
place the insertion point.
Page numbers, a common feature of headers and footers, can be
inserted through the Insert tab or from the Header & Footer Tools
Design tab.
A timestamp can be added to a document and can be set to update
automatically whenever the document is printed or opened.
You can give your document a consistent look by applying styles from
the Home tab.
A new style can be created from the formatting you’ve applied to text
or a paragraph by clicking New Style in the Styles pane.
You can use the Navigation pane to quickly scroll to a location in your
document.
Format text into columns by clicking Layout > Columns.
To control column layout, you can use a column break to end a
column and move text to the next.
A section break can be continuous or next page and is inserted by
clicking Layout > Breaks.
Discover More: Formatting

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1. List the steps to apply bold and italic formatting to a word.

2. Click the _______ command to format a paragraph to be aligned on
both left and right sides.
3. The _______ tab stop is best used for aligning dollar values.
4. A/an _______ list is used for showing an order of importance.
5. After applying numerous character formats to a column of text you
decide you would like the next column to have the same formatting.
What is the most efficient way to format the next column?
6. The two most basic elements of page layout are _______ size and
_______.
7. A/an _______ appears at the top of every page.
8. What are the two ways to insert page numbers in a document?
9. What can you use to scroll to a heading in your document quickly?
10. Which type of break allows a document to have multiple page
formats?

Discover More: Formatting
1. Select the word and click Bold and then Italic on the Home tab or on
the mini toolbar.
2. Justified
3. decimal
4. numbered
5. Double-click a formatted word in the column and then click Format
Painter. Next, press and hold the Alt key while dragging to select the
unformatted column.

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6. page, orientation
7. header
8. Click Insert > Page Number, click Top of Page or Bottom of Page,
and then select a layout. Or, to add a page number to an existing
header or footer, position the insertion point in the header or footer,
then on the Header & Footer Tools Design tab click Page Number >
Current Position and click a layout.
9. Navigation pane
10. Section break
4.3 Identify how to compose documents with images,

shapes, and graphics
Images and Graphics
READING ASSIGNMENT
Images, shapes, and other graphics make a document more visually

interesting. They can also help you explain and enhance your content and
give your document more impact.
Adding Pictures
A well-placed photo may be what your document needs to attract interest.

To insert a photo, click Pictures on the Insert tab, which displays a dialog
box where you can navigate to the photo’s location on your computer,
network, or cloud storage device.
You can perform many actions on photos and other inserted graphics,

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including sizing and rotating, cropping, and repositioning. You can also
apply many different styles and effects to a graphic, which can be further
customized by changing the theme.
Sizing and Rotating
An Image of the circles

on the edges of the
photo box are the
handles. The Layout
Options icon appears
next to the top right
corner.
The circles on the

edges of the photo box
are the handles. The
Layout Options icon
appears next to the top
right corner.
When you insert a photo, the Picture Tools Format tab is added to the
Ribbon and the image displays handles. Drag any handle to size the

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image, or press and hold the Shift key while dragging a corner handle to
size the image proportionally (that is, without distortion). You can also size
the image to exact dimensions with the Height and Width boxes in the
Size group on the Picture Tools Format tab. You can rotate the image by
dragging the top circular handle, or use the Rotate command on the
Picture Tools Layout tab. When a picture is selected an icon appears to
its right that opens an image Layout Options menu.
Cropping an Image
An Image of (A) shows the crop

handles; (B) shows the image
being cropped.
(A) shows the crop handles; (B)

shows the image being
cropped.
Often, you’ll want to exclude a portion of a photo. For example, you may
want to focus on the head and shoulders of a full body image. To do this,
you crop the photo to remove unwanted areas. First, click Crop on the
Picture Tools Format tab, which displays heavy crop handles around your
photo. Next, drag the crop handles to focus on just the area you want to
display. The hidden area will appear shaded. Click anywhere outside the
photo to remove the crop handles and hide the unwanted parts.

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Positioning an Image
When you insert a photo, it’s placed at the insertion point and is therefore
in a paragraph where paragraph formats can be applied. You can center
your image by applying the Center format to the paragraph. Similarly, you
can align a photo using indents or tabs and tab stops.
To drag a graphic freely around the page, or have text wrap snugly around
it, you need to change the text wrap. To do this, first select the image, and
then on the Picture Tools Format tab, click Wrap Text > Square. You can
now drag the image anywhere on the page and text will flow and align to fit
around the graphic. Other options in the Wrap Text command work
similarly. If you don’t want your image to move freely, click Wrap Text > In
Line with Text. These options are also available in the Layout Options
menu. You can also use options in the Position or Align commands to
quickly move an image to a specific location on your page.
Including an image within a paragraph can be useful in many job

scenarios. Take the following two for example:
If describing an upcoming event, you can

Describe the dress code, and have the text wrap around a photo
of people wearing the desired attire to avoid confusion
Give directions to the venue, and include a picture of the exterior

of the building so guests can identify it as they approach
Include a biography of a guest speaker, and insert a photo so

that guests know who to expect

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If creating a company newsletter, you can
Write a summary of recent company performance with a graphic
containing specific performance achievements
Place an image with a list of important dates within the text.
Separating the dates from the rest of the text will draw the eyes
to them.
Include employee photos, such as in an employee of the month
section
Layout Tab Options
Numerous styles, borders, effects, and layouts are available on the Picture
Tools Format tab. You can preview results by pointing to commands.
An Image of the Picture Tools Format Options
The Picture Tools Format Options
Using Clip Art
An Image of the Online Pictures

Box

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The Online Pictures Box
When you want to include a general purpose image, you can use clip art
from the Internet. To choose from available clip art, click the Online
Pictures command on the Insert tab to display a dialog box with a search
box. Type a word or short phrase in the box to bring up Internet search
results with images that match your search text. Clip art from the Internet is
protected by copyright through a Creative Commons license, which allows
you to use images for free for non-commercial use. To better understand
the license, click the Creative Commons link in the dialog box to display a
website with more information.
WordArt
An Image of Inserting Wordart
Inserting WordArt
WordArt is a feature that converts text to a graphic element. If you want to

create vertical text or text with shadows or outlines, then WordArt is the
tool to use. Create a WordArt image by clicking Insert > WordArt and
selecting a style. This displays a WordArt text box, which looks similar to
the box that surrounds a picture. Replace the default text in a WordArt
object by typing. If your text doesn’t fit, simply drag one of the handles to

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resize the image, or select the text and change the font size. A WordArt
graphic moves freely and can be dragged anywhere in a document.
An Image of Using
WordArt Styles
Using WordArt Styles
WordArt is highly customizable, with options to curve text, produce

shadows and outlines, and many other effects. Use the WordArt Styles
group on the Drawing Tools Format tab. As with other graphics, WordArt
formats depend on the selected theme. Changing a theme changes the
options in the WordArt gallery.

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Adding Shapes to a Document
Shapes such as stars, arrows, and callouts have many uses in a

document. For example, you can use a callout near an image to add a
phrase, or you can add an arrow to indicate a process. To add a shape,
click Shapes on the Insert tab and then choose a shape. After you click
the shape, your pointer changes to a large crosshairs. Drag the crosshairs
anywhere in the document to produce the shape. After drawing the shape,
you can drag it to any location in the document or drag a handle on the
selected shape to resize it.
Text Boxes
Text boxes can be placed anywhere on a page much like a graphic. They
can also be sized, shaded, and have borders and other graphics elements.
They contain text that’s formatted like any other text but is separate from
the rest of the document. Text boxes are useful for elements such as a
newsletter masthead or for pull quotes and sidebars. To insert a text box,
click Text Box from the Insert tab.
SmartArt
An Image of the SmartArt Dialog Box

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The SmartArt Dialog Box
SmartArt graphics convey information about a hierarchy, process, or other

type of relationship. They provide a visual element along with text.
SmartArt can be useful in business reports, marketing plans, science
papers, and other documents that can make use of a graphic
representation of an idea or structure. Click Insert > SmartArt to display a
SmartArt dialog box. From here, click a graphic to display a description.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
You can add photos and graphics from your computer into a
document with the Insert > Pictures command.
To size a graphic, select it to display handles and then drag a handle.
An image can be rotated to any degree by dragging the top circular
handle of a selected image.
If you want to remove portions of an image, click Picture Tools Format
> Crop and drag the crop handles.

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An image can be positioned in line with text as part of a paragraph, or
you can click Picture Tools Layout > Wrap Text and then drag the
image freely around the page.
Clip art is protected by the Creative Commons license and can be
used as a general purpose image for non-commercial use.
If you want to have vertical text or text with graphic features, then click
Insert > WordArt.
WordArt is highly customizable with options that depend on the
selected theme.
You can add numerous shapes to a document with Insert > Shapes.
Discover More: Images, Shapes, and Graphics
1. Name three actions you can perform on an inserted image.

2. To size an image, drag a/an _______.
3. When you crop an image, what happens?
4. Is it possible for you to add three small clip art images and then
position them at tab stops? Explain.
5. The _______ tab includes formats for image styles, borders, effects,
and layouts.
6. _______ is a general purpose image that’s free for non-commercial
use.
7. To give text an outline, you can use which command?

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Discover More: Images, Shapes, and Graphics
1. Any three of the following: sizing, rotating, cropping, positioning,

applying styles, changing effects, adding borders
2. handle
3. When you crop an image, you hide portions of it.
4. Yes, you can add three clip art images and position them at tab stops
by inserting the images into the same paragraph and then pressing
Tab after each one. You can do this because images can be inserted
in a paragraph and have paragraph formats applied.
5. Layout
6. Clip art
7. WordArt
4.4 Explain how to create an Excel document

Getting Started With Excel
READING ASSIGNMENT
Microsoft Excel 2016 is a spreadsheet application that is used to store,

analyze, and present data. It can be used for budgets, payroll, inventory,
sales figures, and much more. The instructions to start Excel will vary
depending on your installation. However, you will most likely need to click
the Excel 2016 icon in the Taskbar at the bottom of the screen or double-
click the icon on the Desktop, similar to the way you started Word.
Excel makes entering and editing data easy and efficient with features such

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as AutoCorrect, AutoComplete, and the spelling command to help keep
your data accurate. Other features, such as Cut, Copy, Paste, and moving
cells, help you organize your data without having to retype it.
After entering your data, you’ll want to apply appropriate formatting.

Spreadsheets must convey organized thinking in an understandable way to
be useful. Making sure the numbers are correct is priority, but how those
numbers are presented will determine if a reader can make sense of your
data.
The Excel Window
An image of the screen you
The screen you'll see after starting Excel.
After starting Excel, the first thing you will see is a Start screen with links to
recently opened documents on the left. On the right of the screen are links
you use to create a new blank workbook or to create a spreadsheet based
on a template.
An Image of an Excel Window with a Blank Workbook

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An Image of an Excel Window with a Blank Workbook
Click Blank workbook to display the Excel window with a new

spreadsheet. A workbook refers to the entire Excel file, which contains one
or more worksheets. The Excel window displays a single worksheet, also
called a sheet, which is the Excel term for a spreadsheet.
The Excel interface has many of the same features as the Word window.
Some features specific to the Excel window include the following:
Columns run vertically and are identified with letters.
Rows run horizontally and are identified with numbers.
A cell is the intersection of a row and column and has a cell name,
such as A1. The name of the selected cell is displayed above the
sheet in the Name box. The cell name is also called the cell reference.
The active cell is also called the selected cell. It has a bold border and
is where the data you type will appear.

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The Formula bar is displayed above the column letters and displays
the contents of a cell.
Scroll bars are located along the right side of the window and below
the worksheet. You use them to bring unseen cells into view.
The Sheet tab is displayed at the bottom of a worksheet. Click the

New Sheet button when you need to add an additional sheet to the
workbook.
Excel is a popular data storage and presentation program in many

workplace settings. Because of its versatility, it can be used to store and
retrieve data in a number of ways. Here are two professions where Excel
might be used daily:
A veterinary assistant can

Use Excel to track client appointments, admissions, information
(breed, coat color, gender), treatments/medications, and
payments.
Recall specific combinations of data from this information. For
example, the veterinary assistant could see how many dogs
received heartworm medication in the months of January through
April to see how much medication should be on the next order, or
how many unspayed or unneutered cats were admitted to see if a
mailer should be sent out reminding owners to have pets spayed
and neutered.
A guest services agent can
Track room or restaurant reservations made online or over the

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phone; log room occupants with their room numbers; track room
vacancies; list nearby restaurants, services, or attractions as part
of a concierge service; list client charges as paid or unpaid; and
record client feedback on services.
See during which month the hotel had the most reservations to
be prepared for the next year. Data can also be collected on
when families booked rooms versus individuals or couples; when
and how often clients used the concierge, restaurant, or room
service options; or which amenities clients found satisfactory or
unsatisfactory.
Working With Input Devices
The input devices you’ll most likely use with Excel are the keyboard and
mouse or touch pad. You use the mouse or touch pad to point to
commands and cells, to click commands and cells, and to drag cells.
The keyboard is used to enter data into your worksheet. The data you type
appears in the active cell. Along with keys for typing data, the keyboard
has keys for selecting a cell and communicating with Excel, including
The Tab key moves to the next cell in a row.
The Enter key moves to the cell in a column.
The arrow keys select the next cell in the direction of the arrow.
Ctrl+arrow selects the last cell with data.
The Home key selects the cell at the beginning of a row. Ctrl+Home

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and Ctrl+End move the insertion point to the first or last cell of data.
The Delete key is used to remove the active cell contents.
The Page Up and Page Down keys are used to scroll a sheet within
the window.
The Esc key’s function will vary depending on the action, but is
commonly used to cancel the current operation.
TELL ME HOW
The Microsoft Excel 2016 application has many features. You can use the
Tell Me box to help you understand these features. Explore the features of
Excel by typing questions or phrases related to document creation into the
Tell Me box. Click the Get Help on option at the bottom of the menu to
learn more.
Planning Your Worksheet
An Image of a Work Schedule
A Work Schedule
A worksheet is rows and columns of data; therefore, it’s important to

develop a plan based on this structure. To avoid needing to make changes

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later, you should decide beforehand which data belongs in rows and which
will be better in columns. In most cases, columns are for groups and rows
are for singular items. For example, a work schedule will probably be best
organized with employees in rows and those working on a given day
grouped into columns.
Entering Data Into a Worksheet
When you’ve gathered the information you want to organize, it’s time to
enter data into your spreadsheet. In addition to the actual data, you should
enter labels, which identify the purpose of the worksheet, columns, and
rows. Labels are text used for descriptions and aren’t used in calculations.
Data can also be text, but more often data are in the form of values or
dates and times. A value is numeric and can be used in calculations. Date
and time can also be used in calculations and is a code that represents a
date, a time, or both.
It’s important to use labels to define rows, columns, and cells in your
worksheets. The information you enter might make sense to you when you
enter it, but you might forget which values were which over time or as more
information is entered. Additionally, you’ll rarely be the only person to use
the worksheet, so labelling rows and columns will help others make
sense of your data.
An Image of the Cancel and

Enter buttons and the Formula
bar appear above the cells.

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The Cancel and Enter buttons
and the Formula bar appear
above the cells.
To enter information into a cell, click a cell to make it the active cell, and
then type your label or data. When typing, the contents appear in the
Formula bar and the Cancel and Enter buttons are active.
CELL NAME VS. CELL CONTENTS
A cell name refers to the column and row of the cell’s location. This is also
called a cell reference. The cell contents are what a cell contains, such as
data or a label. You can compare a cell to a mailbox with an address and a
storage area.
Changing Cell Width and Height
An Image of the Truncated cells

appear as pound signs.
Truncated cells appear as

pound signs.
There will be times when the data you type is longer than the current cell
width. When this happens, the data extends into the next cell if it doesn’t
contain data. However, if the next cell contains data, then long values are
truncated, or shortened. When you type a numeric value that’s too large for

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a cell, the cell displays #####.
An Image of How to Change the

column width by dragging the
column boundary.
Change the column width by

dragging the column boundary.
You can display data entirely by changing the column width for the cell.
You do this by dragging a column boundary at the top of the sheet. A
boundary is simply the line between columns or rows. When pointing to a
column boundary, your pointer changes to a double-headed arrow.
An Image of how a long title in

column A causes the data to
display across several cells.
A long title in column A causes

the data to display across
several cells.
You can also size a column to best fit the data it contains by double-
clicking a column boundary. This formatted sheet has best fit column

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widths for columns B, C, and D. Note that if you try to best fit column A, the
long title will cause a very wide column A.
Similarly, you can change a row height by double-clicking a boundary or by

dragging.
Autocomplete and Autocorrect
An Image of an
Example of
AutoComplete
An Example of
AutoComplete
When you type data, Excel makes a best guess at what you’re trying to
enter. If the cells in the same column have entries similar to what you are
typing, Excel tries to complete the entry for you.
DOUBLE-CHECK DATA ENTRY
Always double-check data entry for unwanted AutoComplete and

AutoCorrect changes.

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You can press Tab or Enter to accept the suggested text or continue
typing for a different entry.
When you type labels and other text, Excel uses the AutoCorrect feature to
automatically change obvious misspellings such as “thier” for “their.”
Checking Spelling
Excel doesn’t automatically flag misspelled words as you type. For

professional results, you should always check the spelling in a worksheet
before sending it off or printing it. You can check the whole sheet at once
with the Spelling command on the Review tab, which displays a dialog
box allowing you to correct unrecognized words.
Editing Cell Contents
Corrections and updates are common with spreadsheets. To change the

data in a cell, simply select the cell and type a new entry to replace the
current one. If you want to edit an entry, select the cell and press F2 to
place the insertion point in the cell. You can also select a cell and then click
in the Formula bar to display the insertion point there. When the insertion
point is displayed in your data, you can use the Backspace key and arrow
keys to correct just a portion of the entry.
To remove data from a cell, click the cell to make it active and then press
Delete. To remove a recent entry, click Undo on the Quick Access
Toolbar to reverse the last action.
Inserting and Deleting Rows and Columns
When you need to expand a worksheet, right-click the column letter that’s

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to the right of where the new column should appear, and then click Insert.
You can also click a column header to select the entire column and then
click Insert on the Home tab.
Rows are inserted similarly. Right-clicking on a row number and selecting

Insert will create a row above the selected row. You can also use the
Insert command on the Home tab to add a row.
Delete a column or row by right-clicking the column letter or row number

and clicking Delete. Be careful that this is what you want to do—the entire
column or row and all of its data will be removed. To reverse this action,
click Undo on the Quick Access Toolbar.
Moving and Copying Cells
You can also make edits to a spreadsheet by copying and moving cells. To
move or duplicate cell contents:
1. Select the cell to be moved or duplicated.
2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Cut to move data or
Copy to duplicate it. A moving, dashed border will appear.
3. Select the cell to receive the data.
4. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste. If data was
cut, then the previously selected cell will be blank. Copying a cell
keeps the data in the original cell.
When you move or duplicate data with Cut and Copy, it’s placed on the

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Clipboard. To see Clipboard items, click the dialog box launcher in the
Clipboard group on the Home tab to display the Clipboard task pane. You
can place any one of the Clipboard items into the selected cell by clicking
the item in the task pane. Or, if you no longer want an item to be on the
Clipboard, point to the item, click the arrow, and then click Delete.
An Image of how Excel warns

you if you
Excel warns you if you're about

to move a cell onto one that
already has data in it.
Cells can also be moved by dragging them to a new location. First point to
the cell border until the cursor changes to a four-headed arrow, then drag
the cell to a new location. If you try to place the cell at a location that
already has data, a warning pops up.
Click OK if you want to replace the contents, or Cancel to leave the cell in
the previous location.
Page Layout Features
You have many options on the Page Layout tab for controlling how your
worksheet is printed, including
Click Margins to change the space around the worksheet when

printed. By making margins smaller, you can get more rows and

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columns on a page.
You can change the Orientation to landscape to print more columns

on a page (but fewer rows).
Click Breaks and then Insert Page Break to insert a break above the
selected cell. When you determine where one page ends and the next
begins, you can provide more useful printouts
In the Page Setup group, click the dialog box launcher and then click
the Header/Footer tab for options to add information to be printed at
the top or bottom of each printed page. Headers and footers are
especially helpful with worksheets that print on multiple pages.
Scale to Fit options are used to format your worksheet to fit on a

designated number of pages.
Click the Gridlines Print option to make data more readable on a

printout. Without this option selected, a printout doesn’t include the
cell borders. The Headings Print option works similarly to add column
letters and row numbers to a printout.
Formatting Cell Contents
Your worksheet isn’t the place to experiment with numerous fonts and
styles, but you should make titles larger, and bold or colored labels might
be more eye-catching. Visually, your spreadsheet will be easier to read if
everything is aligned properly. For example, numbers should be right-
aligned, headings should align with their data or at least be centered above

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data, and labels that are considerably longer than their data should be
rotated or wrapped within a cell.
Selecting Cells
An Image of what happens

when you select more than one
cell at a time, Excel highlights
the range of cells in your
selection.
When you select more than one

cell at a time, Excel highlights
the range of cells in your
selection.
The first step to change the look of a cell is to select the cell to be
formatted. You can select several cells at once to apply formats faster.
When cells are selected together, they form a range. To select cells, drag
from one to another.
For ranges that extend beyond the window, click the first cell in the range,
scroll until the last cell is visible, and hold the Shift key while clicking the
last cell in the range. If you want to use the keyboard to select a range,
select the first cell of the range, hold the Shift key, and press the arrow
keys until the last cell in the range is reached.

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To select all the cells in a row or column, click the row number or column
letter.
Fonts and Alignment
An Image of the Font and Alignment groups on the Home

tab allow customization of how your cells look.
The Font and Alignment groups on the Home tab allow

customization of how your cells look.
Changing the font in a worksheet should be based on readability or

company standards. Aside from the worksheet title, which may need to be
in a font that reflects the company logo, other labels will be easier to read
in a sans serif font, such as Calibri or Arial.
Bold and italic words are useful for drawing the reader’s eye to the
information. Some styles, such as underline, are usually not a good choice
because the style competes with the cell border and is also associated with
hyperlinks. Color can also be used for cell data, but should be used with
thought to how it will print.
Cell alignment can be left, center, or right. Since numbers are right-aligned
in a cell by default, your column labels for the numbers will be best right-

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aligned or centered.
To apply font or alignment formats, first select the cells to format and then
use commands in the Font group and Alignment group on the Home tab.
Adding Borders
An Image of change a
cell border using the
Border command on the
Home tab.
Change a cell border

using the Border

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command on the Home
tab.
Your spreadsheet is about presenting data in cells, so Excel has many cell-
border options. Applying solid borders to all sides of cells containing data
makes printouts easier to read. Other border formats, such as Bottom
Double Border, are useful for specific purposes like totals. To change a cell
border, select the cells to format and then click the arrow in the Border
command on the Home tab to display choices.
Wrapping and Rotating Text
When you have long labels, you can end up with columns that are much
too wide and affect the readability of your worksheet. Before you consider
formatting options, carefully think about the label. Can it be just as
descriptive with fewer words? Shorter labels are easier to read. Should the
data be divided into more columns? For example, a First and Last Name
column is probably not a good idea. A cell should contain a single data
item.
An image of how you can rotate

words that are too long for your
cells.
You can rotate words that are

too long for your cells.
But if a long label is needed, you can either wrap the text in a cell or rotate
it with Wrap Text and Orientation commands in the Alignment group on

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the Home tab. The cells below display both formats.
Merging Cells
Your worksheet is more descriptive with a title centered at the top.

Centering data across many cells is accomplished by using merged cells,
which are cells that have been combined into one larger cell. To combine
two or more cells, first select the cells to merge and then click Merge &
Center on the Home tab. To reverse the merge, select the merged cell,
click the arrow in the Merge & Center command, and then click Unmerge
Cells.
Themes and Cell Styles
You can change the overall look of your worksheet in one step with options
in the Themes group on the Page Layout tab. A theme is a named set of
colors, fonts, and effects. You may even be asked to use a specific theme
for your company.
An Image of Themed Cell Styles

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Themed Cell Styles
A theme has several cell styles associated with it. A cell style is used to
apply several formats at once to a selected cell or cell range. Cell styles
are applied with options in the Styles group on the Home tab. You can
click the More button at the end of the group to expand the list to see the
Themed Cell Styles.
If you click a themed cell style, it will be applied to the selected cell or cell
range. Later, if you change the theme, color, font, or effect from the Page
Layout tab, any cells with applied styles will automatically be updated to
match.
Adding Graphics
A company logo or other related graphic can be used on your worksheet to

give it a better overall presentation. You can do this with commands on the
Insert tab. It doesn’t matter which cell is selected when you insert a
graphic because images are by default freely moving objects.
To insert an image from your computer, click Pictures on the Insert tab
and then navigate to the image you want. For a general purpose image,
you can click Online Pictures on the Insert tab to display a dialog box
where you can search for a clip art image online.
Clip art from the Internet is protected by copyright through a Creative

Commons license. A link to this license is available in the Insert Pictures
dialog box.
An image of a handle allows

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you rotate the image.
An image of a handle allows

you rotate the image.
After you insert an image, you can select it and change its size or rotate it
by dragging a handle.
To move the image, drag it to a new location. When a picture is selected,

the Picture Tools Format tab is added to the Ribbon. You can use this tab
to change picture styles, borders, and effects.
Formatting Numeric Data
An Image of Apply a
format to an empty cell
using the Number
Format list on the Home
tab.

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Apply a format to an
empty cell using the
Number Format list on
the Home tab.
Your worksheet will be easier to understand if you format numeric data

appropriately. For example, a number for the items in stock can’t have a
decimal portion and dollar amounts should display a dollar sign. Taking
care to make sure data are displayed correctly gives your worksheet
credibility.
You can apply numeric formats after data are entered, but formatting
empty cells before you type the data can help improve accuracy. To apply

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a format, select a cell or range of cells and use commands in the Number
Format list on the Home tab.
The Number group also contains Increase Decimal and Decrease

Decimal for easily changing the decimal places for a value. You can see
all available number formats by clicking the Number Format dialog box
launcher.
CELL VALUES VS. CELL FORMATS
Formats applied to a cell determine how a value is displayed, but they

don’t change the stored value. For example, if you enter 123.456 into a cell
and then format it to display two decimal places, you’ll see 123.46. If you
want to know the value stored in a cell, select the cell and look at the
Formula bar. This is important because when running formulas, which
you’ll learn about later in this lesson, the calculations will use the non-
rounded numbers, which might show different results than if the rounded
numbers were used.
Conditional Formatting
Effective use of color can make it possible to quickly evaluate data. When
a cell displays a color format based on a value, it has a conditional format.
To apply conditional formatting, select the cell or cell range to format and
then click Conditional Formatting on the Home tab to display a menu.
Conditional formatting is based on rules that range from simple to complex.
The Highlight Cells Rules provide some simple but effective formatting.
When you click one of the Highlight Cells Rules, a dialog box is displayed.

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Type a value, select a color format from the list, and then select OK. When
the cell contains a value less than the one you specified, the cell color
appears.
Using themed cells and conditional formatting can be a great way to

visually represent data. Two of the default Themed Cell Styles are “Bad,”
which had red text on a light red fill, and “Good,” which has green text on a
light green fill. These styles are commonly used in business when
displaying money values, such as from sales, purchases, expenditures,
and other transfers. Good, as the name suggests, represents a positive
total—money earned for the company—while Bad represents a negative
total—money lost. Before even reading the data on a spreadsheet,
someone could tell how the company is performing simply by seeing the
number of Good and Bad cells.
Using Quick Analysis
You can also quickly add conditional formatting with the Quick Analysis
button, which appears when you select a range of data. Click Quick
Analysis in the lower-right corner of the range to display options.
You can point to an option to preview the results. Click any option to apply
it to the selected range. When the Quick Analysis formats aren’t what
you’re looking for, use the Conditional Formatting command on the
Home tab.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points

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Excel 2016 has a window with many features to help you organize
data.
When you start Excel, you’ll see the Start screen with links to
spreadsheets and a link to create a blank workbook.
To help you perform an action quickly, the Quick Access Toolbar is
located in the upper-left of the Excel window.
When you use Excel, you’ll be executing commands from the Ribbon,
which is divided into tabs.
The File tab is different from other Ribbon tabs because it displays a
screen where you can open, save, print, share, and close a workbook.
You can use the Tell Me box to learn more about the commands and
features of Excel.
A workbook is columns that run vertically and rows that run
horizontally.
Columns are labeled with letters, and rows are labeled with numbers.
You can enter data into the active cell, also called the selected cell,
which has a bold border.
The formula bar shows the contents of a cell.
You click the New Sheet button when you want to add a sheet to a
workbook.
ScreenTips display information about a command or feature.
The input devices you will probably use are the keyboard and mouse
or touch pad.
The Tab and Enter keys are used to move from one cell to another.
When you type data, it appears in the selected cell.
You use the mouse to point, click, and drag.
Develop a plan for your data based on the rows and columns structure
of a spreadsheet.

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A worksheet typically contains labels as well as data.
Labels describe cell data, while data can be text, numbers, dates, or
times.
Click a cell to make it active.
The typed data appear in the active cell, also called the selected cell.
When you type data, press Tab to move to the next cell in a row, or
Enter to move to the next cell in a column.
A cell name refers to the column and row of the cell’s location.
If a cell doesn’t display its contents entirely, you can drag the cell
boundary to increase the width of the entire column.
You can size a column to best fit data by double-clicking the
boundary.
Excel uses the AutoComplete and AutoCorrect features to help with
data entry.
To check the spelling of the entire worksheet, click Spelling on the
Review tab.
To change the data in a cell, click the cell and then type a new entry.
If you want to edit exiting data in a cell, click the cell and press F2 or
click on the Formula bar to place the insertion point.
To remove cell contents, make a cell active and then press Delete.
You can duplicate or move a cell’s contents with the Cut, Copy, and
Paste commands.
You can drag a cell to a new location.
The Page Layout tab has many features for controlling how a
worksheet is printed.
You can use commands on the Home tab to change the font, style,
alignment, wrap, and orientation of your cell data.
More than one cell can be selected at a time by dragging and

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highlighting a range of cells.
You can format faster when you first select a range of cells.
Cell borders can be used to distinguish one cell from another for
easier to read printouts.
You can use Merge & Center to combine cells to create a larger cell
for titles and labels.
Themes on the Page Layout tab are used to change several formats
at once on your worksheet.
You can use cell styles on the Home tab to apply predefined cell
formats.
If you want to add a company logo or graphic, click Pictures or Online
Pictures on the Insert tab.
You can size or rotate an image with its handles.
Numbers should be formatted appropriately using commands in the
Number Format list on the Home tab.
Conditional Formatting on the Home tab makes use of color to help
you evaluate data.
The Quick Analysis button can also be used to apply conditional
formatting.
Discover More: Creating an Excel Document
1. What is the difference between a workbook and a worksheet?

2. What is a cell? How is it identified?
3. What is another name for cell reference?
4. The _______ cell is where typed data appears.

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5. Press the _______ arrow key to select the cell above the current
active cell.
6. In addition to data, your worksheet should include _______ to identify
the purpose of the worksheet, columns, and rows.
7. Press the _______ key to move to the next cell in the row.
8. What does it mean when you see ##### in a cell?
9. Name one way to widen a column.
10. What is the difference between duplicating a cell and moving one?
11. When several cells are selected together, they’re referred to as a cell
_______.
12. You want dollar values less than $0 to appear in red. To achieve this
you need to use _______ formatting.
13. What are two formatting options to consider with long labels?
14. List two reasons you might add an image to a worksheet.
15. Why is it a good idea to apply numeric formats before you enter data?
16. List two uses for conditional formatting.

Discover More: Creating an Excel Document
1. A workbook is an Excel file; a worksheet is one sheet of the

workbook.
2. A cell is the intersection of a row and column in a worksheet. You
identify it by a row number and column letter.
3. Cell name
4. active
5. up

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6. labels
7. Tab
8. The cell isn’t wide enough to display the numeric data it contains.
9. Widen a column by dragging a boundary.
10. When you duplicate a cell, you copy its contents to a new cell. When
you move a cell, its contents are removed from the current location
and moved to another.
11. range
12. conditional
13. Wrap text and orientation
14. You might add an image to a worksheet to include your company logo
or to provide the picture of the product related to the data.
15. When you enter data into a cell that has already been formatted, you
can check your numbers against what you’re expecting for better
accuracy.
16. Conditional formatting can be used to make you aware of data that are
outside the typical range for a set of numbers. You can also use
conditional formatting to reveal numbers that are duplicates in a
column.
4.5 Recognize how to use Excel to analyze data

Formulas, Functions and Charts
READING ASSIGNMENT
The power of a spreadsheet comes from its ability to generate data using

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formulas and functions that calculate values. Formulas become even more
meaningful when the results are based on data from your worksheet. For
example, when you want to know the total of the expenses in your budget
worksheet, you use a function in a formula to add the expenses and
display the total.
Data is often easier to understand when it's presented in a chart. You can
use charts to demonstrate a trend, show an area of growth or decline, and
support your overall analysis. Charts are often used in conjunction with
data to draw a conclusion because the numbers alone don’t provide the
picture needed to fully understand a situation.
Excel tables are another way to analyze related data. Tables include
commands for searching, sorting, and filtering data.
Using Formulas
A formula is a mathematical statement that calculates a value. To create a

formula in your worksheet, you must begin with an equals sign (=). For
example, if you type “=25+2” in a cell, it will display “27.”
The following symbols represent operators:
Exponentiation ^
Multiplication *
Division /
Addition +
Subtraction -

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The exponentiation symbol raises a number to a power, as in 32. To
perform this calculation in Excel, you use the formula =3^2 to display 9.
Formulas are evaluated using the mathematical order of operations, which

states that exponentiation is calculated first, followed by multiplication and
division, and then addition and subtraction. The following formulas
demonstrate the order of operations:
Formula Value
=3*4+2 14
=10*2^2 40
=8+6/3-1 9
To change the order of operations, you can put parentheses around

calculations to be performed first.
Formula Value
=3*(4+2) 18
=(10*2)^2 400
=(8+6)/(3-1) 7
Displaying Formulas
When you enter a formula into a cell, the result of the calculation is
displayed. To review or edit the actual formula, click the cell and use the
Formula bar to access the actual cell contents. This can be inconvenient
when reviewing an entire worksheet. To see all the formulas in a

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spreadsheet at once, click Show Formulas on the Formulas tab or press
Ctrl+`.
When formulas are displayed, column widths are automatically adjusted to

display a formula entirely. Clicking Show Formulas again reverts back to
original formatting.
Error Checking
An image that shows dividing

by 0 causes this error to appear
in the cell.
Dividing by 0 causes this error

to appear in the cell.
Excel checks a formula when you enter it. When a formula can’t be
calculated, an error is displayed and a green triangle is added to the upper-
left corner of the cell. For example, the formula =4/0 displays #DIV/0!. This
displays because numbers can’t be divided by 0. You can select the cell
with the error and click Error Checking to display a description of the error
and a list of options.

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You can click Show Calculation Steps to display a dialog box that
examines the formula.
If errors are displayed in your worksheet, but the Error Checking menu isn’t
available, you can click Error Checking on the Formulas tab to check all
the cells in your worksheet.
Using Cell References
An image of Cell C1 shows a

value based on cells A1 and
B1.
Cell C1 shows a value based

on cells A1 and B1.
When you want to make calculations based on the data in your

spreadsheet, you include a cell reference in your formula rather than the
actual number. For example, in the image, cell C1 displays a value based
on numbers in cells A1 and B1.
By using cell references in formulas, your spreadsheet becomes easier to

update. If you change a value in a cell referenced in a formula, the formula
automatically recalculates.
Although you can type the cell name in a formula to create the cell
reference, you can avoid typing errors by selecting the cell instead. To do
this, you type a formula up to the point where the cell name appears and

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then click on the cell to be used in the calculation. You can also use the
arrow key to select the cell.
You will almost always want to use cell references in worksheet formulas
rather than actual numbers. It’s much easier to have the calculation results
change automatically when values are entered than to manually update
each formula with the correct numbers. Whether your values are sales
figures, age ranges, horsepower, voltage, or grades, your data will likely
change over time, and formulas with cell references make sure your
spreadsheet stays up to date and accurate.
You can’t create a formula in a cell that you want to reference because this
will cause a circular reference error: the formula can’t be calculated until
the cell has a value, but the cell can’t have a value until the formula is
entered.
Displaying Formulas With Cell References
An image of double-clicking a
cell displays the formula and
highlights the referenced cells
in that formula.
Double-clicking a cell displays

the formula and highlights the
referenced cells in that formula.

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When you click Show Formulas on the Formulas tab, you can select a
cell with a formula to outline the cells referenced in the formula. If you want
to examine just one formula, double-click the cell to display the formula
and outline referenced cells.
Copying Formulas
An image of dragging this point

down fills the cells with the
formula in the selected cell.
Dragging this point down fills

the cells with the formula in the
selected cell.
Often you want to copy the formula you’ve created to the next cell in a row
or column. For this, you can use Copy and Paste, but when copying to
adjacent cells, you can also use the Fill Handle, a point in the lower-right
corner of the active cell that you can drag to include other cells, on a
selected cell.
An Image of After dragging the

Fill Handle, the selected cells all
have the same formula.

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After dragging the Fill Handle,
the selected cells all have the
same formula.
To do this, select the cell with the formula you want to copy, and then drag
its Fill Handle to copy the formula to a range of cells.
When a formula is copied, cell references automatically change relative to

the new row or column. For example, in the spreadsheet above, the
formula in cell C2 is =B2*A2. When copied to the cells below, it changes to
=B3*A3 and =B4*A4, respectively. When cell references can change in this
way, they are called relative cell references.
Absolute and Mixed Cell References
An image of the selected cell
The selected cell's formula

refers to absolute cells, shown
with dollar signs in front of the

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cell reference.
If you want a cell reference in a formula to remain the same when you
copy it to another cell, then you will need to make it an absolute cell
reference, which is a cell reference that doesn’t change if a formula is
copied to other cells. For example, the formula refers to a tax rate in cell
B2.
The cell reference has dollar signs in front of the column letter and row
number to indicate that neither should change when you copy the formula
to another cell. You create an absolute reference by pressing F4 after you
type or click on the cell to be referenced.
In some cases, you may need a mixed cell reference in your formula,
where either the column or row doesn’t change when copied. In this case,
you can press F4 until the appropriate reference appears.
Using Functions in Formulas
You might be thinking about all the work needed to create something as
simple as a formula that sums the values in five cells. From what you’ve
learned so far, the formula might look like =A1+A2+A3+A4+A5. That’s a
long formula for a simple calculation! But Excel is a spreadsheet
application with many features for analyzing data, so it includes built-in
functions for use in formulas.
A function is a named set of operations that take one or more values and
produce a single output. For example, the SUM function accepts a cell
range and returns the sum of the values in those cells, as in =SUM(A1:A5).
With this simple formula, you can calculate the sum of the values in cells

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A1 through A5.
Functions are always used as part of a formula and usually require data,
called arguments, inside parentheses after the function name. The SUM
function, for example, requires a cell range or a set of cell names
separated by commas. When you need to specify a cell range in a function,
use a colon between the first cell and the last.
An image of the blue outline

shows the range in the formula
in cell C9.
The blue outline shows the

range in the formula in cell C9.
To add a cell range to a function, type the function up to the point where
the cell range is needed, and then drag from the first cell in the range to
the last before typing the closing parenthesis. To help you, Excel displays a
colored outline showing the range.
If you want to edit the range after you’ve entered the formula, click the cell
with the formula, and then drag the cell outline or delete the range and
select a new one.

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Commonly Used Functions
Commonly used Excel functions include
An image of the Totals tab

gives you a quick way to create
totals. Pointing to a total allows
you to preview the results.
The Totals tab gives you a

quick way to create totals.
Pointing to a total allows you to
preview the results.
SUM adds the values in a range and returns the sum.
AVERAGE adds the values in a range and then divides the total by
the number of values.
COUNT returns the number of cells in a range that contain values.
MAX returns the maximum value in a range of cells.
MIN returns the minimum value in a range of cells.
In many cases you’ll need to create the formula with one of these functions

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to make the calculation you need. However, the Totals tab in the Quick
Analysis gallery is another option for creating totals.
The IF Function
Another commonly used function is IF, which displays a value based on a

comparison. For example, if you want to display STUDY when the grade
average in cell G7 is below 85 or GREAT otherwise, use =IF(G7<85,
“STUDY”, “GREAT”).
The IF function takes the general form IF(comparison, value if true, value if
false) and can use the following logical operators in the comparison:
Equal to =
Less Than <
Greater than >
Less than or equal to <=
Greater than or equal
>=
to
Not equal to <>
FINANCIAL SPREADSHEETS
Excel has hundreds of built-in functions, many of which are used in

financial calculations for mortgages, loan payments, depreciation, accrued
interest, and other complex calculations. You can search for these
functions in Excel’s Help menu or the Show Me box to see what each
does.

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Sorting Data
An image of the Sort &

Filter option allows you
to quickly and easily
rearrange rows.
The Sort & Filter option

allows you to quickly
and easily rearrange
rows.
Your spreadsheet should present data in an organized way. One way to

make sure information is presented in a logical format is to order rows of
data by sorting, organizing by using a set parameter. You can sort in
ascending order from low to high or descending order from high to low. If
the data you are basing the sort on is a date or time, then an ascending
sort puts rows into chronological order.
You sort your worksheet by first selecting the rows to be sorted. Drag from
one row number to the last in the range to be sorted and then on the Home
tab click Sort & Filter for options.

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An image of this dialog box pops up when you select
Custom Sort.
This dialog box pops up when you select Custom Sort.
Click From Smallest to Largest for ascending order or From Largest to

Smallest for descending order. These commands automatically base the
sort on the data in column A. Click Custom Sort to display a dialog box
where you can select a different column to base the sort on.
Chart Terminology
An image of a pie chart as it appears in an Excel

worksheet.

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This is how a pie chart appears in an Excel worksheet.
A chart, sometimes called a graph, visually represents a range of data. A

pie chart displays data as a percentage of a whole.
A chart is a graphic with many elements. Pie charts include
A chart title, which corresponds to the title of the data series column
Slices, or chunks of the chart that are sized relative to the values in
the data series
A legend labelling the components of the chart based on the category

labels in the first column of data
A chart area that provides the boundaries of the graphic
A Chart Elements button with quick access to elements that can be

added or removed

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A Chart Styles button for selecting a style and color scheme for the
chart
A Chart Filters button for adding and removing categories, series title,
and category titles, and for editing the data source
A pie chart has only one data series, but other chart types can
include multiple columns of values.
Column charts are useful for comparing differences in value by using

vertical bars sized relative to the values in the data series.
multiple columns of values.
Bar charts are useful for comparing differences in value by using

horizontal bars sized relative to the values in the data series.
Line charts connect data values with a line to show how data changes
over time.
Area charts are used to demonstrate the total value across a trend.
With the rise of the Internet as the main information-gathering tool, people
became accustomed to getting information in smaller and smaller chunks.
Often, a social news website will publish an article with just a graphic and
one paragraph explaining that graphic. Charts in presentations serve the
same purpose as these news graphics: they’re a way to present the
information in a condensed and easy-to-understand format without needing
to dig through the details of the data. In your career, there may be times

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when your supervisor asks for a report, and he or she will likely be
expecting a chart to summarize the information. If you simply hand in a
bunch of numbers, you might spend hours breaking them down when a
chart would have done the same in minutes.
Creating and Customizing a Chart
An image of this dialog box shows charts that Excel

recommends using.
This dialog box shows charts that Excel recommends

using.
The easiest way to create a chart is to first select the data you want in your
chart. Your selection should include column titles and row labels so that
Excel can automatically include this information. Next, click

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Recommended Charts on the Insert tab to display a dialog box.
Click through recommended charts on the left of the dialog box to see a
preview, or click the All Charts tab and click charts there to see additional
previews. After finding a chart that is close to what you want, click the
preview and then click OK. The chart is placed on the worksheet where
you can customize it.
Because the chart is a graphic, there are many ways to customize it. For
example, in a pie chart, you can drag a slice away from the others to
create an exploding pie chart. To make any changes, you must select a
chart. A selected chart displays handles and the Chart Elements, Chart
Styles, and Chart Filters buttons and the Ribbon displays the Chart
Tools Design tab and the Chart Tools Format tab. These tabs contain
numerous options for further formatting your chart.
Moving, Sizing, Deleting, and Changing a Chart
Because a chart is a graphic, you can move it to another area of the

worksheet by dragging. In some cases, your workbook will be better
organized if you place your chart on a separate worksheet. To move a
chart to its own worksheet, select the chart and then click Move Chart on
the Chart Tools Design tab. In the displayed dialog box, click New Sheet
and then OK. You can access the chart by clicking the appropriate sheet
tab below the worksheet.
To size a selected chart, drag a handle. Pressing the Delete key removes
the chart from the worksheet. If the chart is on its own sheet, right-click the
sheet tab and click Delete to remove the chart and any data on that sheet.

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To change the actual chart type, select the chart and click Change Chart
Type on the Chart Tools Design tab to display a dialog box for selecting a
new chart.
Quick Analysis Charts and Sparklines
An image of you can also

create charts by clicking the
Quick Analysis button and then
selecting the Charts tab.
You can also create charts by

clicking the Quick Analysis
button and then selecting the
Charts tab.
Another option for creating charts is to use the Quick Analysis button,
which is displayed when you select a range of numeric data. The Charts
tab has several options, or you can click More Charts to display the Insert
Charts dialog box.
An image of sparklines can easily show data trends.
Sparklines can easily show data trends.

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Sparklines are tiny charts inside single cells. They are useful for showing a
data trend.
An Image of Sparklines are also

available from the Quick
Analysis button.
Sparklines are also available

from the Quick Analysis button.
In the Sparklines tab of the Quick Analysis button, you can point to a
Sparkline to see a preview and then click an option to insert the chart into
the selected cell.
You’ll probably want to change the cell width to better accommodate the
Sparkline chart. Sparklines can be customized with commands on the
Sparklines Tools Design tab, which is added to the Ribbon by selecting a
cell with a Sparkline.
When you want to remove a Sparkline chart, right-click the cell with the
chart and click Delete or click Clear > Clear All on the Home tab.
Printing a Chart
You may need to change the worksheet margins or drag a chart below
data in order to print it on a page. To determine how a chart will look, click
Print on the File tab for a preview.

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Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
You can add formulas to your worksheet to make calculations.

A formula must begin with an “=.”
You must create your formulas with an order of operations in mind.
To see your formulas in cells instead of the calculated value, click
Show Formulas on the Formulas tab.
When a formula can’t be calculated, you can display a description of
the error with the Error Checking menu.
You can use cell references instead of values in your formulas to use
data from your worksheet to calculate a value.
Press the F4 key to change a cell reference in the formula you’re
creating from relative to absolute.
Functions can be included as part of a formula to make calculations.
Common functions include SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, MIN, MAX, and
IF.
The Quick Analysis button can also be used to add formulas to a
worksheet.
The IF function displays a value based on a comparison.
To organize the rows in your spreadsheet based on the value in a
column, click Sort & Filter on the Home tab and then select a sort
option.
A chart is a graphic that contains many elements.
A selected chart displays the Chart Elements, Chart Styles, and Chart
Filters buttons for editing.
To create a chart, select the data you want in the chart and then click

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Recommended Charts on the Insert tab.
You can also create a chart with the Quick Analysis button, which is
displayed when a range is selected.
Sparklines can be created in individual cells with commands in the
Quick Analysis button.
When a chart is selected, the Chart Tools Design tab and Chart Tools
Format tab are on the Ribbon.
You can drag a chart to move it on a worksheet.
If you want a chart on a separate sheet, click Move Chart on the
Design tab.
You delete a selected chart by pressing the Delete key.
To change your chart to a different type, click Change Chart Type on
the Chart Tools Design tab.
If you want to see how a chart will print, click Print on the File tab.
Discover More: Analyzing Data
1. If a cell displaying #DIV/0! contains the formula =C2/D9, what must be

the value of cell D9?
2. If a cell displaying 6 contains the formula =D3*2, what is displayed
when the value in cell D3 is changed to 10?
3. If you want to copy the formula in cell J3 to cells J4 and J5, which
method is fastest?
4. How will the cell reference $G$14 be treated when you copy the
formula to a cell in the next row?
5. Write a formula that uses a function to determine the total value of

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cells C4 through C17.
6. Which formula can you use to determine how many cells in a range
have values?
7. List three examples of ways in which you might sort data.
8. Which chart should you use to show what percentage of a pizza each
ingredient makes up?
9. If you want to show a warming trend over 20 years, which chart type is
best?
10. Give an example of when you would use a column chart.
11. Explain how to change the size of a chart.
12. Is it possible to have a chart on a separate worksheet? Explain.

Discover More: Analyzing Data
1. Cell D9 must contain a 0.

2. When you change the value in cell D3 to 10, the display in the cell
changes to 20.
3. You should drag the Fill handle to quickly copy the formula to adjacent
cells.
4. The cell reference won’t change because the dollar signs indicate an
absolute cell reference.
5. =SUM(C4:C17)
6. You use the COUNT functions to determine how many cells in a range
have values.
7. You might sort data to arrange names in alphabetical order, to
arrange times in chronological order, or to arrange test grades in order
from highest to lowest.
8. You should use a pie chart to show what percentage of a pizza each

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ingredient makes up.
9. You can use a line chart to show changes over time.
10. You might use a column chart to represent quarterly sales data for
different years so that you can see how figures from a previous year
compare to current figures.
11. Change the size of a chart by selecting it and dragging a handle.
12. Yes, it’s possible to have a chart on a separate worksheet by using
the Move Chart command on the Chart Tools Design tab.
4.6 Describe how to create an integrated document

Integrating Data Between Word and Excel
READING ASSIGNMENT
An integrated document includes information created in one Office

application used in a different Office application. For example, you can
include a range of cells or a chart from an Excel workbook file in a Word
document file. One way to add existing spreadsheet data to a Word
document is by pasting it into the document. This method allows you to
quickly and easily transfer data while reducing the possibility of errors from
retyping and reformatting data.
You can also share information between documents with an application

object. An application object retains source formats and can be edited with
the source application. This type of data integration uses object linking and
embedding (OLE). When an integrated document is created this way, it is
sometimes called a compound document because more than one

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application interface is available.
Copy and Paste From Excel to Word
The following is a list of steps to copy and paste from an Excel workbook
into a Word document.
1. Display the source file, which is the file containing the information you
want to copy. In this case, display the Excel file with the data or chart
to be copied.
2. Select the cell range to copy. Or, click the chart area of a chart to
select it for copying.
3. Click Copy on the Home tab.
4. Display the destination file, the file in which the copied information is
to be pasted. In this case, display the Word file that’s intended to
contain the data.
5. Place the insertion point at the appropriate position.
6. Click Paste on the Home tab.
Paste Options
When you paste text and graphics, a Paste Options button displays in the
lower-right corner of the pasted item. The paste options vary depending on
the type of data you paste, but they generally allow you to

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Keep the source formatting
Use the destination theme
Paste as a picture
Paste as text only
Perform a combination of formatting and linking or embedding
When you choose to use source formatting or destination themes, Excel

data is converted to a Word table. Additionally, if you choose to link a
pasted cell range, then it becomes a shortcut to the source file. Linked data
is also automatically updated in your Word document if there are changes
to the source spreadsheet. This is useful when you create documents such
as weekly progress reports that should reflect changes.
Pasted charts will be linked by default, but you can choose to embed the
data. Embedded data becomes part of your destination file and remains
static even if the source data changes. You will typically use embedded
data when you do not want your data to change, as in a spring marketing
report that should reflect data from a certain time period.
Editing Embedded and Linked Data
An Image of a Linked Chart

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A Linked Chart
When you embed or link pasted data, you make it possible to edit the data
with the source application. However, edits to embedded data are reflected
only in the destination file, while edits to linked data are made to both the
destination and source files.
For example, a linked chart might look similar to the one shown.
An image of chart tools design tab
Chart Tools Design Tab>Edit Data

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You can size the chart by dragging the handles. When you want to edit the
contents, click Edit Data > Edit Data on the Chart Tools Design tab.
An Image of Excel Spreadsheet in Word
Excel Spreadsheet in Word
When you edit data, the linked Excel spreadsheet file is displayed.
You can size the spreadsheet to reveal more rows and columns to make
editing data easier. After making changes, simply click the Close box to
remove it.
You use the same process to edit an embedded chart, keeping in mind that
you’re editing a copy of that data that’s stored in Word. There will be no
changes made to a file outside of the Word document.
An Image of Edit Linked Object Command

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Edit Linked Object Command
To edit a linked spreadsheet range, right-click the range and then click a
command from the Linked Worksheet Object menu.
Both Edit Link and Open Link display a spreadsheet window with your
pasted data. If you want to manage how links are handled, click Links.
Copy and Paste from Word to Excel
When developing a spreadsheet, you may need to compile data from

several different sources, including a Word document. Or, in some cases,
you may want to analyze data from a Word table with functions and charts
that are available only in Excel. In either case, you can copy and paste
Word data to an Excel spreadsheet. To copy text to a spreadsheet, you
should first format it as a Word table or as text separated by tabs (called
tab delimited). When text is tab delimited, each line will correspond to a
row in the spreadsheet, and each tab indicates a new cell.

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The steps to copy and paste from a Word document to an Excel
spreadsheet are
1. Display the source file. In this case, display the Word file with the table
or text to be copied.
2. Select the text to copy. Or click the Table Move Handle to select the
entire table.
4. Display the destination file. In this case, display the Excel file that is to
contain the data.
5. Click the cell that will be the upper-left cell of the data merge.
6. Click Paste on the Home tab.
You can also display the Clipboard task pane to paste copied data into a
worksheet. Pasted text displays a Paste Options button in the lower-right
cell. These options allow you to keep the source formatting or match the
destination formatting.
Embedding an Excel Worksheet Object to a Word Document
An Image of an Excel Spreadsheet Object in a Word

Document

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An Excel Spreadsheet Object in a Word Document
An Excel object has all the computing power of a spreadsheet and may
offer a more effective way to display data and calculations in a Word
document than the linked items discussed in Assignment 1. The easiest
way to insert an Excel worksheet object is to click Table > Excel
Spreadsheet on Word’s Insert tab, which embeds a new spreadsheet
object at the insertion point. When the spreadsheet object is active, the
Excel Formula bar, Ribbon, and other spreadsheet features are displayed.
Clicking anywhere outside the object returns you to the Word application
window.
An Image of the Worksheet

Object Context Menu

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The Worksheet Object Context
Menu
When you want to change the number of rows and columns displayed by
the embedded Excel object, drag a size handle on the active object. To
change the size of the object itself, click outside the Excel object to return
to the Word document, and then drag a size handle.
To edit a spreadsheet object, double-click the object to activate the Excel

features. You can also right-click the object and then click Worksheet
Object > Edit to activate the sheet. For more extensive changes, you may
find it easier to open the object in a spreadsheet window, where you can
make edits, and then close the window to update the document. To do this,
right-click the object and then click Worksheet Object > Open.
Linking an Excel Worksheet Object to a Word Document
If you have an existing Excel worksheet, you can choose to link it to your
document instead of embedding it. When you do this, any changes made
to the linked spreadsheet file outside the document will automatically be
reflected in your Word document.

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Follow these steps to insert an Excel object in a Word document.
1. Display the source Excel file.
2. Select the cell range.
4. Display the destination Word file and then place the insertion point at
the appropriate position.
5. On the Home tab, click the arrow in the Paste command and then
click Paste Special.
6. Click Microsoft Excel Worksheet Object.
7. Click Paste to embed the spreadsheet data in an Excel object, or

Paste Link to create an Excel object that is a shortcut to the source
file, and then click OK.
An Image of the Create from File Dialog Box

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The Create from File Dialog Box
You can also insert an existing object by clicking Object on the Insert tab
and then clicking the Create from File tab.
From here, click Browse to display a dialog box for locating the existing
spreadsheet. Click Link to file to insert the entire worksheet and make it a
shortcut to the source file. Otherwise a copy of the existing file will be
embedded in your document. This method doesn’t require you to open the
source file and copy data. However, linking data this way displays the
entire worksheet with no option of reducing the number of displayed rows
and columns.
You edit linked spreadsheet data in a way similar to embedded

spreadsheet data. Simply double-click the object to open an Excel window,
or right-click the object and then click Linked Worksheet Object > Edit
Link. After editing the source file, you may need to right-click the pasted
object and click Update Link to make the source changes appear in the
destination document.

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Embedding a New Excel Chart Object into Word
An Image of the Insert Chart Dialog Box
The Insert Chart Dialog Box
Sometimes you may want to illustrate a point in your Word document with
a simple chart. Click Chart on the Insert tab, and then select the chart type
from the dialog box. A new chart object displays default data and an Excel
spreadsheet.
An Image of a New Chart Object

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A New Chart Object
To enter your own data for the chart, simply delete the existing data in the
worksheet object and type your own. The spreadsheet isn’t part of your
Word document and can be closed after entering your data. If you need to
edit the chart data after closing the spreadsheet, right-click the chart and
then click Edit Data > Edit Data.
An active chart object displays Excel features in the Word window,

including the Chart Tools Design tab, which allows you to customize your
new chart. To return to the Word document, close the spreadsheet and
click anywhere outside of the chart. If you need to edit the chart, click it to
make it active and then use the Chart Tools Design and Format tabs.
An Image of the Chart Tools Design Tab
The Chart Tools Design Tab

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Although you can insert an existing Excel chart into a Word document with
the Object command, you’ll have a better outcome if you copy and paste
an existing chart from an Excel worksheet to your Word document. You
can then choose to embed or link the pasted chart by using the Paste
Options button.
Adding a Word Document Object to an Excel Worksheet
An Image of an Embedded Word Object
An Embedded Word Object
Sometimes you may need to include a lengthy explanation in an Excel

spreadsheet. To do this without being limited to cell sizes and restrictions,
add a Word object to a spreadsheet. This allows you to type, format, and
present your text using all the options available in Word. Word objects
aren’t bound to a cell range. You can drag them anywhere on the
spreadsheet. Click Object on the Insert tab and then select Microsoft
Word. You may also add a Word object from an existing file by selecting
the Microsoft Word option on the Create from File tab in the Object
dialog box.

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When the Word object is active, the Word window features are displayed.
Clicking anywhere outside the object will return to the Excel application
window. Double-click the Word object to activate it again for editing. You
can also access it by right-clicking the object and then clicking Worksheet
Object > Open.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
An integrated document is created by including information from two

or more Microsoft Office applications.
Use Copy and Paste to transfer information between a document and
a workbook.
Pasted text and graphics display a Paste Options button to display
options for linking and embedding the pasted information.
You can apply formats used in the destination or keep the source
formatting intact.
Linked data updates in the destination file when changes are made to
the source file.
Embedded data becomes part of the destination file and doesn’t
change, even if the source changes.
When copying data from a Word document to an Excel worksheet,
first format the Word data as a table or as text separated by tabs.
When you include an application object in a document, you’re using
OLE to create an integrated document.
An integrated document with application objects is sometimes called a

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compound document.
Insert an Excel worksheet object by clicking Table > Excel
Spreadsheet on the Insert tab.
Click anywhere outside an active object to return to the source
document application interface.
Make your object active again for editing by double-clicking the object
or by right-clicking the object and clicking Worksheet Object > Edit or
> Open.
Link an existing object by clicking Object on the Insert tab. In the
dialog box, click Link to File on the Create from File tab.
To insert a chart object into a Word document, click Chart on the
Insert tab and then modify the sample data.
When an embedded chart is active, use the Chart Tools Design and
Format tabs to edit the chart.
To edit embedded chart data, right-click the chart and then click Edit
Data > Edit Data.
Insert a Word object into an Excel spreadsheet by clicking Object on
the Insert tab.
To edit a Word object, right-click the object and then click Worksheet
Object > Open.
Discover More: Integrated Documents
1. What is the difference between a source document and a destination

document?
2. If you copy a paragraph from a Word document and paste it into a

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different Word document, have you created an integrated document?
3. Which type of paste option should you use if you want a pasted chart
to change when edits are made to the spreadsheet from which it
came?
4. Where can you view copied information before it’s pasted?
5. How should you format Word text if you want to copy it to a
spreadsheet?
6. If you want to update spreadsheet data embedded in a Word
document, do you open an Excel spreadsheet file or a Word
document? Explain.
7. If you add a Word object to an Excel spreadsheet, will it be placed in a
range of cells? Explain.

Discover More: Integrated Documents
1. A source document provides the information you want to copy, while

the destination document is where you want the information to appear.
2. No, you need to paste information from a different application for a
document to be considered an integrated document.
3. You should paste a chart as linked data if you want it to reflect
changes made to the spreadsheet.
4. Open the Clipboard task pane to see recently copied information.
5. Format Word text as a table or separated by tabs before copying it to
an Excel spreadsheet.
6. You must open the Word document containing the embedded
spreadsheet data because that’s the only place where the data exists.

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7. No, a Word object is a freely moving object and it isn’t bound to any
cell or range of cells in a spreadsheet.
4.7 Describe how to create a mail merge document

Mail Merge Using Excel Data
READING ASSIGNMENT
Mail merge is a process used to create form letters. For example, instead
of a letter starting out “Dear Customer,” you can use mail merge to
personalize the letter with a customer’s actual name. The process involves
inserting merge fields in a Word document where information from a data
source, a file containing a collection of organized data, is to be placed.
Creating an Excel Data Source
Because a data source is a collection of organized data, an Excel

spreadsheet is an ideal format. Your spreadsheet data source should
include column labels in the first row and then appropriately formatted data
in each column. For example, a column containing ZIP codes should be
formatted as text because leading zeros in a numeric field will be lost when
merged into a Word document. (For example, a ZIP code of 00501 will
show as 501).
If you don’t yet have your merge data in an Excel spreadsheet, you must
create the Excel file before you begin the mail merge process. The
columns of a spreadsheet data source are the fields that you use to
personalize your mail merge document. A file that exclusively stores

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information for a mail merge is often called a mailing list.
Mail merge data can be extensive, with hundreds or even thousands of

rows of data. Your data source will be more manageable if you use a
spreadsheet table that can be sorted, searched, and filtered easily. Table
headers and formatting, especially, will help keep your data organized.
For a new data source, you should format your table before entering data.
To do this, type the headers and then select the headers and the empty
row below. Next, click Table on the Insert tab. When you enter data into
your new table, press the Tab key to move from field to field. When you
reach the last column in the table, pressing Tab automatically adds a new
row, extending your table.
Commonly, names and addresses will be provided as tab delimited text (a

.txt file) or as comma seperated values (a .csv file). When you’re faced with
using data from one of these file types for your mail merge, you must first
import the information to Excel to create an acceptable data source. To do
this, on the Data tab click From Text. After selecting the file, you’ll be
guided through a series of prompts from the Text Import Wizard.
Creating a Mail Merge Document Using an Excel Data

Source
In Word, the Mailings tab is organized left to right to take you through the
mail merge process from start to finish. When using an Excel worksheet as
your data source, use the following steps in the mail merge process:
1. Click Start Mail Merge to select your document type.

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2. Click Select Recipients > Use an Existing List to use an Excel
spreadsheet as your data source. (Remember, you must create the
spreadsheet file before you start the mail merge process.)
3. Type the content for your document, clicking Address Block,

Greeting Line, or Insert Merge Field where personalized content is
needed.
4. Click Preview Results to review your document with actual field

values.
5. Click Finish & Merge to edit, print, or email individual documents.
When using Address Block or Greeting Line to insert information, you may
need to click Match Fields first to match your field names to required
fields. You can also click Match Fields in the Insert Address Block and
Insert Greeting Line dialog boxes. To limit the mail merge to selected
recipients, click Edit Recipient List on the Mailings tab. Limit the
recipients by using the check boxes in the list.
Updating Your Mail Merge Document
When field names or values are updated in your data source, you’ll need to
open your mail merge document and preview results to see how changes
may have affected your document. When you open your mail merge
document, you’ll get a warning dialog box about connecting to the data
source. Click Yes to allow the document to access the data source.
If you changed a column header in your data source, click Match Fields on

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the Mailings tab to be sure that field names are still matched up as
expected. To review documents for the modified recipients only, use Edit
Recipient List on the Mailings tab before previewing.
Key Points
READING ASSIGNMENT
Key Points
For mail merge documents, use an Excel spreadsheet with column

headings and organized data as the data source.
Organize rows of spreadsheet data by formatting it as a table (clicking
Table on the Insert tab).
To create a mail merge document, use the commands on the Mailings
tab.
The first step in creating a mail merge document is to click Start Mail
Merge on the Mailings tab.
To use an Excel spreadsheet as a mail merge data source, click
Select Recipients > Use an Existing List on the Mailings tab.
To see merge letters as they’ll appear when printed, click Preview
Results.
The Finish & Merge command on the Mailings tab is used to edit,
print, or email individual documents.
Use Match Fields on the Mailings tab if your field names don’t match
required fields in the Address Block and Greeting Line merge field
options.
To limit mail merge documents to select individuals, click Edit
Recipient List on the Mailings tab.

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Discover More: Creating a Mail Merge Document
1. Do data source and mailing list refer to the same thing? Explain.
2. Why might you want to use an Excel spreadsheet as a data source
rather than type a new list directly into Word?
3. Why does an Excel spreadsheet make a good data source?
4. Why would a table be a good way of organizing rows of information
used in a mailing list?
5. Name at least one reason to use the Edit Recipient List command.

Discover More: Creating a Mail Merge Document
1. Yes, when discussing mail merge, data source and mailing list refer to
the same type of file.
2. You’ll find it convenient to use an existing Excel spreadsheet that
already contains your mailing list rather than having to retype all the
data into a new list in Word. You may also want to create the new list
in Excel because you’ll have more flexibility when you need to make
edits to data.
3. An Excel spreadsheet can be a good data source because it
organizes data into rows and columns by design.
4. A table is a good way to format rows of information because you can
filter data if you need to update certain items, you can search for a row
you may need to delete, and you can sort your rows on any field to
make it easier to comprehend the data.
5. You might want to send mail merge letters to only those customers

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who live in a certain ZIP code, or you might want to request an order
from only a few suppliers instead of all of them.
Lesson 4 Review
Self-Check
1. You're a volunteer at a local charity and they have asked you to create a
flyer for a fundraiser. They want to send it out to their large donor list. You
can't be sure that all recipients will have Microsoft Word available to them.
How should you save the file?
a. Using the Save As command to save the file as a Word template
(*.dotx)
b. Using the Save As command to save the file in portable document
format (*.pdf)
c. Using the Save As command to save the file as a Word 97-2003
document (*.doc)
d. Using the Save As command to save the file as a web page (*.html)
2. You work in the Human Resources department of a small company. You
just typed up the new personal time off policy in Word and want to email it
to your boss for comment and approval. How should you attach it?
a. Using the Share, Email command and Send as PDF
b. Using the Share, Email command and Send as Attachment
c. Using the Share, Email command and Send as XPS
d. Using the Share, Email command and Send as Internet FAX
3. You're typing up a document and come across the word sentient. You

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don't believe the readers of the document will know the meaning of the
word and you would like to substitute another word that's more common.
What Word feature would you use to assist you in selecting a different
word?
a. Thesaurus
b. Spelling and Grammar
c. AutoCorrect
d. Find and Replace
4. _______ is a typeface that has a small stroke or line at the end of the
letter, which draws the letters of a word together for easier reading.
a. Sans serif
b. Script
c. Serif
d. Body text
5. Which of the following is a paragraph format?
a. Typeface
b. Alignment
c. Font size
d. Font style
6. You're working on a document and have applied several character and
paragraph formats to the first paragraph. You want to apply these same
formats quickly to several other paragraphs in your document. Which of the
following is the best way to accomplish this?
a. The Format Painter
b. The Font dialog box
c. The Font mini toolbar
d. The Clipboard
7. You've inserted an image in your Word document. You grab the handle

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with your mouse pointer and drag to enlarge the image. Regardless of how
carefully you drag, the image isn't sizing proportionally and is becoming
distorted. How can you resolve this issue?
a. Press and hold the Ctrl key while dragging a corner handle.
b. Make sure you're dragging a corner handle.
c. Press and hold the Shift key while dragging a corner handle.
d. Use the Height and Width boxes in the Size group on the Picture
Tools Format tab to enter the exact dimensions.
8. You're on the Board of Directors for the local youth soccer league. You
would like to create an organizational chart showing the various board
members, the committees each member chairs, and the parent volunteers
on each committee. Which feature in Word would you use?
a. WordArt
b. Text boxes
c. SmartArt
d. Tables
9. You've inserted a photograph of a landscape in your document. You
want to adjust the image so that it displays only a large tree in the photo.
How would you accomplish this task?
a. Select the image, then on the Picture Tools Format tab, click Wrap
Text > Square.
b. Select the image, then in the Picture Styles box, click Picture Effects >
Presets and select the desired shape.
c. Select the image, click Crop on the Picture Tools Format tab, drag the
crop handles to focus on just the area you want to display.
d. Select the image, then, in the Size box, adjust the Height and Width
measurements.
10. In an Excel worksheet, how do you identify the active cell?

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a. Your mouse pointer will be over it
b. It appears with a bold border around it
c. Your cursor will be blinking in it
d. You must start typing to view the active cell.
11. In Excel, which of the following data types is used for description
purposes only and not for calculations?
a. Labels
b. Dates
c. Values
d. Formulas
12. You've created a spreadsheet to hold information about your
company's inventory. You entered the stock # 1455609999, but the
spreadsheet displays #######. What is wrong?
a. The number value is too long for the column width.
b. The cell is formatted to hold text and not numeric data.
c. You entered the number incorrectly. The value isn't recognized by the
system.
d. The value needs to be displayed across multiple cells instead of just
one.
13. Which of the following is the correct mathematical order of operations?
a. Multiplication and division are calculated first, followed by
exponentiation, and then addition and subtraction.
b. Addition and subtraction are calculated first, followed by multiplication
and division, and then exponentiation.
c. Exponentiation is calculated first, followed by multiplication and
division, and then addition and subtraction.
d. Exponentiation is calculated first, followed by addition and subtraction,
and then multiplication and division.

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14. A/an _______ cell reference is a cell reference that doesn’t change if a
formula is copied to other cells.
a. non-variable
b. absolute
c. relative
d. mixed
15. You have an inventory chart in Excel that you would like to include in a
Word budget document. You want to make sure that any changes made to
the Excel chart are reflected in both the original Excel file and the Word
document. What paste function should you use?
a. Embedded data
b. Linked data
c. Keep source formatting
d. Use the destination theme
16. You have a sales chart in Excel that you want to include in a third
quarter report created in Word. You want to make sure that the data in the
chart continues to show only the third quarter results in the Word document
after the Excel sales data is updated with fourth quarter information. What
paste function should you use?
a. Linked data
b. Inserted data
c. Embedded data
d. Object link
17. What is the best way to include a lengthy explanation in an Excel
spreadsheet?
a. Use the Paste Special command to copy character and paragraph
formatting from a Word document.
b. Use the Cell Merge feature to create a larger cell to contain the text.

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c. Add a Word object to the spreadsheet.
d. Use the Drawing tools to insert a text box.
18. You have a special offer letter in Word that you would like to customize
with individual customers' names and addresses. You use the mail merge
feature to pull the information from a
a. customer directory.
b. destination file.
c. data source.
d. form letter.
19. You're a teacher and you've created a form letter in Word that you
send to the parents of the students in your class at the beginning of each
year. The letter pulls parents' names and addresses, along with the
children's names, from an Excel file you get from the main office. The
original creator of the Excel file used a column labeled Father
Name and another labeled Mother Name. Over the summer, a new person
took over and updated the file. Parent names are now located in columns
titled Parent 1 and Parent 2. What do you need to do to make your form
letter work with the updated Excel file?
a. Unlink the mail merge from the original file and relink it to the updated
Excel file.
b. Create a new form letter in Word and use the mail merge feature to
link it to the updated Excel file.
c. There's nothing you need to do to make your original form letter work
correctly with the updated Excel file.
d. On the Mailings tab, click Match Fields; verify and fix any incorrectly
matched fields.
20. Commonly for a mail merge, names and addresses will be provided as
tab delimited text. What type of file is this?

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a. .csv file
b. .txt file
c. .xlsx file
d. .tdt file
1. Using the Save As command to save the file in portable document

format (*.pdf)
Explanation: If you want to give a copy of a Word file to someone who
doesn’t have Word installed, or who has an older version, you can
save a copy as a PDF file. PDF stands for portable document format.
This format maintains the formatting and layout of your file, but can’t
be easily changed. The Reader program for PDF files is free.
2. Using the Share, Email command and Send as Attachment

Explanation: When you email a Word document as an attachment, it
provides the email recipient with a copy of the actual Word file. This
option allows the recipient to make changes to the document.
3. Thesaurus
Explanation: The thesaurus is a tool for finding words that are close in
meaning. To use the thesaurus, right-click a word in the document
and then click Synonyms to display a menu of related words. If you
see a word that you like better than the current one, click it to replace
the current word.

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4. Serif
Explanation: Typefaces are classified as serif and sans serif. A serif is
the small stroke or line at the ends of a letter, which draw the letters of
a word together for easier reading. A sans serif font doesn’t have the
strokes.
5. Alignment
Explanation: Paragraph formats affect an entire paragraph, not just
selected characters within a paragraph. When you change a
paragraph format, you change the way text aligns within a document
or how much space appears before, after, or between lines of a
paragraph.
6. The Format Painter

Explanation: When you’ve spent time getting all the formats just right
for a paragraph, you may end up with several tab stops, indents, or
character formats. You’ll find it convenient to copy and paste formats
when you need to apply the same formatting elsewhere in the
document. For this, you can use Format Painter in the Clipboard
group on the Home tab.
7. Press and hold the Shift key while dragging a corner handle.
Explanation: When you insert a photo, the Picture Tools Format tab is

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added to the Ribbon and the image displays handles. Drag any handle
to size the image, or press and hold the Shift key while dragging a
corner handle to size the image proportionally (that is, without
distortion).
8. SmartArt
Explanation: SmartArt graphics convey information about a hierarchy,
process, or other type of relationship. They provide a visual element
along with text. SmartArt can be useful in business reports, marketing
plans, science papers, and other documents that can make use of a
graphic representation of an idea or structure.
9. Select the image, click Crop on the Picture Tools Format tab, drag the
crop handles to focus on just the area you want to display.
Explanation: If you want to exclude a portion of a photo, you crop the
photo to remove unwanted areas. First, select the image and click
Crop on the Picture Tools Format tab, which displays heavy crop
handles around your photo. Next, drag the crop handles to focus on
just the area you want to display. The hidden area will appear shaded.
Click anywhere outside the photo to remove the crop handles and
hide the unwanted parts.
10. It appears with a bold border around it

Explanation: The active cell is also called the selected cell. It has a
bold border and is where the data you type will appear.

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11. Labels
Explanation: Labels identify the purpose of the worksheet, columns,
and rows. Labels are text used for descriptions and aren’t used in
calculations.
12. The number value is too long for the column width.
Explanation: When the data you type is longer than the current cell
width, the data extends into the next cell if that cell doesn’t contain
data. However, if the next cell contains data, then long values are
shortened. When you type a numeric value that’s too large for a cell,
the cell displays #####.
13. Exponentiation is calculated first, followed by multiplication and

division, and then addition and subtraction.
Explanation: Formulas are evaluated using the mathematical order of
operations, which states that exponentiation is calculated first,
followed by multiplication and division, and then addition and
subtraction.
14. absolute
Explanation: If you want a cell reference in a formula to remain the
same when you copy it to another cell, then you need to make it an
absolute cell reference, which is a cell reference that doesn’t change
if a formula is copied to other cells.
15. Linked data

Explanation: Linked data is automatically updated in your Word
document if there are changes to the source spreadsheet.
16. Embedded data

Explanation: Edits to data in the source file aren't updated in
embedded data in the destination file. Edits made to linked data are
updated in both the source and destination files.
17. Add a Word object to the spreadsheet.

Explanation: When you need to include a lengthy explanation in an
Excel spreadsheet, add a Word object to the spreadsheet. Text in the
Word object isn't limited to cell sizes and restrictions, as Word objects
aren’t bound to a cell range. You can also type, format, and present
your text using all the options available in Word.
18. data source.

Explanation: Mail merge is a process used to create form letters. The
process involves inserting merge fields in a Word document where
information from a data source, a file containing a collection of
organized data, is to be placed.
19. On the Mailings tab, click Match Fields; verify and fix any incorrectly
matched fields.
Explanation: If you change a column header in your data source, click
Match Fields on the Mailings tab to be sure that field names are still
matched up as expected.
20. .txt file

Explanation: Commonly, names and addresses will be provided as tab
delimited text (a .txt file) or as comma separated values (a .csv file).
Flash Cards
1. Term: Quick Access Toolbar
Definition: Located at the top of the Word or Excel window, it contains
shortcuts to commonly used commands
2. Term: Ribbon
Definition: Contains commands organized into tabs and then grouped
within those tabs
3. Term: Integrated Document

Definition: Information created in one Office application is used in a
different Office application.
4. Term: Rulers
Definition: Located along the left and top of the Word document area,
they show the size of the paper and can be used to alter text and graphic
alignment
5. Term: Scroll Bars

Definition: Located along the right side of the window and below the
document; you drag them to bring unseen parts of the document into view.
6. Term: ScreenTips
Definition: Small boxes that pop up when you hover the mouse over a
command on the Ribbon or other features on the document window.
They display information about a feature, including keyboard shortcuts for
executing the feature without having to remove your hands from the
keyboard.
7. Term: Form Letters

Definition: A document created by inserting merge fields in a Word
document where information from a data source (a file containing a
collection of organized data) is to be placed
8. Term: Hard Disk

Definition: The computer’s storage
9. Term: USB Flash Drive

Definition: A portable storage device that can be plugged into the USB
port on a computer and is easily moved from computer to computer
10. Term: Cloud Drive

Definition: Online storage that’s available to you from any computer,
tablet, phone, or other device with Internet access
11. Term: Hyperlinks

Definition: A clickable link in a document that allows the reader to click
and go directly to the URL of a webpage or compose an email addressed
to the link address
12. Term: AutoCorrect

Definition: A feature that automatically corrects the spelling and
capitalization of common words
13. Term: Thesaurus

Definition: A tool for finding words that are close in meaning
14. Term: Style

Definition: A named set of formats
15. Term: WordArt

Definition: A feature that converts text to a graphic element
16. Term: Workbook

Definition: The entire Excel file, which contains one or more worksheets
17. Term: Cell

Definition: The intersection of a row and column where data is entered;
has a cell name, such as A1
18. Term: Formula Bar
Definition: Located above the column letters and displaying the contents
of a cell
19. Term: Theme

Definition: A named set of colors, fonts, and effects
20. Term: Function

Definition: A named set of operations that take one or more values and
produce a single output
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Course Medical Office Procedures

This course is designed to help you develop professional relationships in

Apply knowledge of basic arithmetic skills to complete math related tasks

Medical Office Procedures : Basic Math for

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 1

This lesson is a review of basic

1.1 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

Business Math and Whole Numbers

You’ve probably learned a great deal of mathematics during your lifetime.

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 2

An image of the top of a man's

You encounter whole numbers

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 3

As a child, you learned how to count using whole numbers—one, two,

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 . . .

Place Value of Digits

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 4

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Example: What is the position and value of 7 in each of the following

Numeral Position Place Value

Adding Whole Numbers

Adding is the process of combining numbers, called addends, to derive an

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 6

An image of calculating the distance from New York City to Philadelphia to

To calculate the distance from New York City to Philadelphia to

Preparing Numbers for Addition

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Here’s how you would set up these numbers for addition:

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 8

Checking Your Addition

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 9

The sum is the same for all three arrangements of numbers.

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 10

Calculator Applications: Addition

At regular points in this study unit, you’ll be learning how to use a

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 11

An image of important keys of a standard

Standard Format of a Basic Handheld

HINTS FOR USING CALCULATORS

Enter each number carefully and accurately.

Subtracting Whole Numbers

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 12

The result of subtraction is the difference. The symbol for subtraction is –,

As we just mentioned, subtraction is the opposite of addition. To show you

Preparing Numbers for Subtraction

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 13

Set up the problem. Begin your subtraction with the ones

Sometimes, when you’re subtracting in a column, you’ll discover that the

To find the answer, you must subtract 3,562 from 4,550.

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 14

Checking Your Subtraction

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If you have to borrow when subtracting, always show the process of

HINTS FOR USING CALCULATORS

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 16

Multiplying Whole Numbers

Multiplication is simply a shorthand method of making repeated additions.

Just as the numbers in an addition or subtraction problem have names, so

To learn to multiply efficiently, you must become familiar with the

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 17

An image of a multiplication table, 0-15 times 0-15.

Copyright Penn Foster, Inc. 2018 Page 18

Set up the problem with the number having the larger

The answer is 156. There will be 156 personal days taken.