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Like the other Romance languages, French is a daughter-language of Latin. Its standard variety
traces back to one of the dialects of Old French, that is, the dialect spoken in the Ile de France,
which has been for centuries the geographical and political center of what is France today.
Old French is one of the earliest attested Romance languages and offers a fascinating eld for
research in historical linguistics: not only are many of its changes attested in texts, but its
linguistic ancestor, Latin, is richly documented as well.
Among these, (Old) French is the result of language contact between several languages
representing different language groups: Celtic (Gaulish), Italic (Latin), and Germanic (e.g.
Frankish, the language of the Franks).
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul between 58 and 51 B.C., but the southern parts of the country
had already been occupied by the Romans since 121 B.C. and therefore had already been
colonized and Romanized. After Caesar's conquest, the Gauls -- speaking a variety of Gaulish
dialects -- came in touch with Latin through contact with colonists, the military, tradesmen, and
administrators. Even before the Roman conquest, Gaul had towns and a well-developed road
system; its Romanization resulted in Latin becoming the predominant language -- a process that
took several centuries.
Without going too much into detail, we mention here two aspects of the process of
Romanization that were very important for the spread of Latin: education, and administration.
State o cials were sent to Gaul to take care of various administrative tasks, among them the
tax system. At rst these state o cials came from Rome and therefore spoke Latin: Latin
became the o cial language of administration. Soon however it became possible for the
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indigenous population to make a career in Roman administration as well, provided they spoke
Latin. Latin therefore became an important means to achieve socio-economic success. In
addition, because of the Roman school system, young generations of Gauls acquired a
systematic knowledge of Latin. Moreover Latin had its own writing system, a rich written
tradition, and represented a civilization that was politically, militarily, culturally, admininstratively,
and economically the most advanced of its time. The socio-economic advantages Latin offered
to those who knew it, and the fundamental willingness of the Gauls to accept it, explain why not
only the Romanization but also the Latinization of Gaul was a success.
As noted, Latin gradually ousted Gaulish, which in fact left relatively few traces in the new
language, mainly lexical: approximately seventy or so Gaulish words survive in French today,
among them lieue 'mile', chemin 'road', charrue 'plow', mouton 'sheep', and others. Most of these
words refer to agriculture and everyday life.
The invasion of the Germanic tribes in the 5th century A.D. marks the end of the Roman Empire
in Western Europe and the beginning of the Frankish rule in the northern part of Gaul (up to the
Loire). Although the Franks were in power, their language did not oust Gallo-Romance. The
Franks did, however, leave a few traces in French, such as words starting with h-aspiré, as in
haricot 'bean', which traces back to a Germanic word. Compare the h-muet in homme 'man'.
Homme goes back to Latin hominem, which lost its initial h sound before the Frankish tribes
occupied Gaul. Another Germanic feature is the existence and predominance of place names in
northern regions France of the type Neuville, Neufchateau, Francheville, and others. In these
formations the adjective precedes the noun, as they do in Germanic today. These structures are
not attested in the south, where place names are found with the reverse order, noun + adjective:
Villeneuve, Chateauneuf, Villefranche, and others.
The Frankish kings made important contributions to the development of France: with the
conversion of Clovis to the Church of Rome (ca. 496 A.D.), the Church became important. The
countryside was christianized; monasteries were founded, and soon became centers of activity
and education. In the 8th century, Charlemagne wanted to re-create the Roman Empire, but in a
Christian version. His reign marks a Renaissance: the civilization of Antiquity and its language
were ideals one set out to realize. It is in the early 9th century that two events mark an important
linguistic phenomenon. In 813 it was decided at the Concily of Tours that sermons would no
longer be delivered in Latin, but rather in the vernacular language. Then in 842 two of
Charlemagne's grandsons, Louis le Germanique and Charles le Chauve, took an oath in French
and German, respectively, in front of their troops in Strassbourg; this proclamation of mutual
support resulted in a written agreement, Les Serments de Strassbourg. These two events re ect
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the awareness of the speakers of the day that (1) the Gallo-Romance they spoke was a
language separate and different from Latin, and (2) Gallo-Romance was a language different
from German. The earliest text in French, therefore, is the Serments de Strassbourg; it marks, in
fact, the political disintegration of centralized power that started at Charlemagne's death.
During the early Middle Ages, contacts among people were rather local in nature and therefore
"vertical": most people lived and died in the region where they were born, and communicated
with others living in the same region independently of their social background. The seigneur, for
example, would communicate with his farmers and soldiers, and so forth. This phenomenon
contributed greatly to the emergence of dialects.
Only later -- starting in the 12th century -- when pilgrimages, crusades, and universities came up
and towns became more important, did contacts become "horizontal," cutting through
geographical boundaries rather than social classes. Gradually the king once again became a
central power. At that point one sees that the dialect of the Ile de France, where the kings
established a xed court, became increasingly important and in fact started the journey that
eventually would lead to its standardisation. The historical background accounts for the fact
that Old French had many local dialects.
2. Dialects
Although this course in Old French is too short to make dialect variation a topic of special
interest, students should know that "Old French" in fact refers to a collection of dialects. Since
some of these dialects share more characteristics than others, it is possible to divide them in
two groups: the dialects spoken in the northern parts of France, to which one refers as language
d'oïl and those spoken in the Southern parts, referred to as langue d'oc. Oc and oïl were markers
of a rmation ('yes') in the respective dialect groups.
La language d'oïl includes the following dialects: the dialects of Picardie (le Picard), Normandy
(le Normand), Ile de France (le Francien), Lorraine (le Lorrain), Anjou (l'Angevin), Poitou (le
Poitevin), Bourgundy (le Bourguignon), and Berry (le Berrichon).
La langue d'oc includes the dialects of the following regions: Provence (le provenc/al), Auvergne
(l'auvergnat), Gascony (le gascon), and Languedoc (le languedocien).
The differences between the dialects are primarily phonological. Lexical differences are also
found, some of which may have grammatical effects. In Old French, negation is expressed with
the negating particle ne, which may be reinforced by an element of nominal origin. The modern
French ne ... pas negation traces back to this situation. Yet in Old French there were many other
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elements used as reinforcer in this context, for example mie 'crumb', point 'dot', goutte 'drop',
and many others. In some regions pas predominated, in others e.g. mie. Eventually pas
supplanted all other varieties and became the unique non-emphatic negating marker.
Similarly, in the history of word order, an important change occurred in the transition from Latin
to French: Latin was a verb- nal language (Subject-Object-Verb, henceforth SOV); in French the
verb from the earliest documents precedes the object (SVO). Old French therefore is an SVO
language but its subordinate clauses are often still verb- nal. In addition, word order in Old
French allows for more variation and it is only later that sequences such as Complement + Verb
+ Subject disappear. The word order patterns observed in Old French remind us of those in
today's German or Dutch. These languages, as well, are shifting from an earlier SOV to an SVO
system.
As noted, Old French had a system of two cases: a subject case (nominative), and an object
case (oblique). Yet the case distinction in nouns is formally marked in masculine nouns only.
Case is more manifest in pronouns where, for the third person singular for example, there is a
distinction between the direct object le/la and the indirect object li.
With a few exceptions, all nouns have number marking (singular vs. plural); and they are either
masculine or feminine.
Case, number, and gender are also manifest in adjectival elements, such as adjectives and
participles. The adjective, for example, agrees with the noun in case, number, and gender.
Another important characteristic of Old French, and an innovation with respect to Latin, is the
use of de nite articles. Old French de nite articles trace back to Latin demonstratives, which in
the history of Latin became more and more frequent and gradually lost their demonstrative
value. The de nite article in Old French primarily had a de ning function. In contrast to modern
uses, the de nite article in Old French is not automatic. Like other nominal elements, de nite
articles are marked for gender, case, and number.
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When the demonstratives lost their demonstrative value, new demonstratives developed: an
element ecce 'behold' was added to the old demonstrative forms, iste and ille. As a result, Old
French had two demonstratives (instead of three in Latin):
Most morphological processes are attested in the verb, which is marked for person, tense,
mood, voice, and aspect:
Tense: Present
Preterite Imperfect
Future
Some of the forms mentioned in this table are analytic (including an auxiliary and a main verb),
while others are "synthetic." In synthetic forms, one verb form embodies the lexical element and
all grammatical categories; cf.:
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An important difference between Old French and later varieties is that the subject pronoun is not
yet compulsory. In fact, it is rather infrequent.
In syntax, word order is predominantly SVO. Other sequences are motivated: SOV, for example, is
typically attested in subordinate clauses; in commands, the imperative verb comes rst.
Subject inversion is very common in Old French: it is triggered when a complement (direct,
indirect, adverbial) is in clause-initial position, creating sequences such as Complement + Verb +
Subject or Complement + Verb + Subject + Object.
In line with the predominance of SVO, other elements follow speci c patterns as well: the
genitive, for example, typically follows the head noun, with or without preposition, cf. e.g.
la fille le roi
'the daughter of the king'
Negation in Old French was characterized by one negating element ne, which precedes the verb.
In addition there are many attestations of so-called "double" negation, as in:
In this example, negation includes an element ne and an element mie. In this construction the
part ne + verb has been inherited from Latin. Adding a second element (mie) was a later
development and not yet compulsory in Old French.
Compared to the modern language, nominal forms of the Old French verb played an important
role: in nitive, participles, and gerunds. Yet, compared to Latin, these elements just play a minor
role. In Old French, absolute constructions -- widespread in Latin -- are limited to speci c verbs
and typically specify the circumstances in which the action of the main verb is carried out, cf.:
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The in nitive in Old French may be nominalized, in which case a de nite article generally is
added; it may function as subject or complement, for example cf.:
The use of an in nitive as complement of a nite verb is less strongly developed than in the
modern language. In modern French the in nitive is automatically used when the subject of the
nite verb and the in nitive are identical. In Old French this is not yet the case. Often a
subjunctive, for example, is used instead, cf.:
Modern French:
Old French:
4. Documents
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A rich literature in Old French, along with many other documents, provide a wealth of texts
covering the period from the 9th century until the end of the 13th century. From the end of the
13th century on, the case system disappears and the dialect of the Ile de France becomes
increasingly important. That is why one no longer speaks of Old French, but rather of Middle
French. Consequently the language of the 14th and 15th centuries is typically referred to as
Middle French.
The texts selected for this course represent the various genres: the Chansons de geste, relating
the exploits of Charlemagne and his nephew Roland; a hagiography, presenting the life of St.
Alexis; a hymn written to praise the virtues of St. Eulalie; two examples of (early) littérature
courtoise, Tristan and Yvain; an historical account of the Fourth Crusade; two texts
representing the littérature bourgeoise, a fable and part of a play; and nally a translation of the
well-known Latin text about St. Brendan, who set out to discover what may have been North
America.
A striking characteristic of Old French texts is their international, European character. Some
texts are based on foreign or international traditions or are translations or revisions of foreign
texts. Moreover, the veneration of some saints is an international phenomenon, and the
component of Irish culture, for example, is strong.
5. Abbreviations
In the Grammar points, several abbreviations have been used; these refer to the following
grammatical concepts:
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Most but not all language courses taught at The University of Texas concern modern languages;
sometimes courses are offered in ancient languages, though more often at the graduate level.
French language courses are taught in the Department of French & Italian
(http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/frenchitalian/) (link opens in a new browser window). Other
online language courses for college credit are offered through the University Extension
(http://www.utexas.edu/ce/uex/online/) (new window).
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In 778, when Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees returning from a campaign in Spain, the
rearguard of his army was attacked and massacred by the local population. Toward the end of
the 11th century, leading up to the First Crusade (1096-1099), this event developed legendary
characteristics and the historical gures were interpreted as Christian heroes whose faith,
loyalty, and courage in the battle against the pagan Saracens is continually praised, as in the
Chanson de Roland.
In this epic two characters stand out: Charlemagne, king of the Franks, and Roland, his nephew
and most prominent adviser and knight, who is the epitome of Christian heroism and sacri ce
and who accepts martyrdom on the battle eld against the enemies of Christianity. The poem
relates the events that lead to the betrayal and massacre as well as the battle itself; it describes
not only the battle, in great detail, but also the deliberations that precede the decisions made by
the main characters.
The text is divided into laisses, stanzas of varying length. For this lesson two laisses have been
selected, numbers I (lines 1-9) and VIII (lines 96-121), which present Charlemagne as one of the
main characters of the work and show his military strength.
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mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- ...
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- ...
eschech -- noun; oblique singular <eschec> booty, loot -- booty
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- its
unt -- verb; third person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- are laden with
si -- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine <son> his -- his
chevaler -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
d'or -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <or> gold -- gold
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
d'argent -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <argent> silver, money,
riches -- silver
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- ...
guarnemenz -- noun; oblique plural <garnement> decorative object -- objects
chers -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <cher> beloved, expensive -- precious
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sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- on
palies -- noun; oblique plural <paile> precious cloth -- precious clothes
blancs -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <blanc> white -- white
siedent -- verb; third person plural present <seoir> sit, be seated -- are seated
cil -- demonstrative; nominative plural masculine <cil> that -- the
cevaler -- noun; nominative plural <chevalier> knight -- knights
as -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + de nite article; oblique plural feminine
<li> the -- ...
tables -- noun; oblique plural <table> game -- games
juent -- verb; third person plural present <joer> play -- play
pur -- preposition; <por> for -- to
els -- personal pronoun; third person plural direct object masculine <il> they -- themselves
esbaneier -- verb; in nitive <esbanir> amuse -- amuse
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
as -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + de nite article; oblique plural feminine
<li> the -- ...
eschecs -- noun; oblique plural <eschecs> chess -- chess
li -- de nite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
plus -- adverb; <plus> more -- most
saive -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <saige, saive> clever, educated -- clever
men
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
li -- de nite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
veill -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <vieil, veil> old -- old men
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
escremissent -- verb; third person plural present <escremir, escrimer> fence -- are
fencing
cil -- demonstrative; nominative plural masculine <cil> that -- the
bacheler -- noun; nominative plural <bacheler, bachelor> young man, young knight
aspirant, page -- pages
leger -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <legier, ligier, loigier> light, supple, light-
hearted -- athletic
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
1 Gender
Whereas the transition from Latin to French is characterized by the loss of the neuter, gender
distribution itself is not fundamentally different in Old French: natural gender prevails for
animate nouns, as in li uem vs. la feme ('the man' - 'the wife'), le filz - la fille ('the son' - 'the
daughter), li tors 'the bull', la vache 'the cow', la jument 'the mare', and so forth. Inanimate
nouns are either masculine or feminine and this so-called grammatical gender is unpredictable,
with a few exceptions. Nouns in -or, for example tend to be feminine (e.g. la dolor 'the pain').
Because of wide-spread agreement patterns, gender marking is found in articles,
demonstratives, possessives, adjectives, and participles.
In Old French only two cases survive of the rich Latin nominal in ection. With Old Occitan, Old
French differs fundamentally in this respect from from most other early Romance languages,
which no longer have case marking on nouns; an important and well-known exception is
Rumanian, where even today two nominal cases survive, a nominative-accusative and a genitive-
dative.
The two cases that are found in Old French are the nominative and the so-called oblique case.
The Old French nominative goes back to the Latin nominative, whereas the oblique case traces
back to the Latin accusative, which assumed many functions from the other cases when they
gradually disappeared in the development from Latin to Romance. Although Old French still
distinguishes between the nominative and the oblique, these cases are not explicitly marked on
all nouns. The majority of masculine nouns have distinct case forms; for feminine nouns the
distinctions are primarily limited to number. It is possible to distinguish various classes.
Sg. Pl.
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The majority of these nouns are feminine and go back to the Latin rst declension in -a; they
therefore end in -e in Old French, by regular phonological development. The class includes
nominalized adjectives and participles as well, cf. force 'strength' from the Latin neuter plural
fortia 'strong things'.
Note that for these nouns there is no formal distinction between cases, because the nominative
is formally identical to the oblique case. The only formal distinction is between singular and
plural.
The majority of Class II nouns are masculine and they have formal marking, represented by the
ending -s, which follows the stem in the nominative singular and the oblique plural.
Sg. Pl.
Nom. murs (from La. murus) 'wall' mur (from La. muri)
reis 'king' rei
Obl. mur (from La. murum) murs (from La. muros)
rei reis
Most of these nouns go back to nouns of the second declension in Latin, which were primarily
masculine nouns as well. When the fourth declension disappeared, these nouns in -us became
second declension nouns. This class of nouns further includes nominalized in nitives (li
mangiers 'the meal') and nominalized participles and adjectives (Latin adj. diurnus 'daily'
became Old French li jorz 'day').
In practice this means that the case ending -s is used for feminine nouns that do not end in -e
and that it lacks in some masculine nouns that do end in -e:
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Sg. Pl.
Words in this class most often in origin belonged to the third declension in Latin, such as amor
'love', mer 'sea', color 'color', dolor 'sorrow', loi 'religion', gent 'people', fin 'end', honor 'honor',
main 'hand', valor 'worth', and others.
In the next class of nouns, the ending -s may or may not follow the stem.
Sg. Pl.
This declension includes nouns such as frere 'brother', gendre 'son-in-law', mestre 'master',
arbre 'tree', ventre 'belly', livre 'book', archevesque 'archbishop', ermite 'hermit', and others.
Hybrid declensions are the result of the on-going breakdown of the case system, which started
in early Latin. The development resulted not only in the loss of cases (compare the six cases of
Latin to the two cases in Old French), but also in the disappearance of entire declensions (see
the ve declensions in Latin). Many nouns therefore moved from one declension to another on
the basis of form or gender. Sometimes form and gender characteristics did not parallel, which
led to declensional inconsistencies. In time the irregularities of declensions Ia and IIa
disappeared, for example when the ending -s of the masculine singular spread, as in livre:
Sg. Pl.
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Nom. li 'the' li
li murs 'the wall' li mur
Obl. le les
le mur les murs
Latin adjectives were divided into two groups or declensions. One included adjectives that
distinguished a masculine, feminine, and neuter form (La. bonus, bona, bonum 'good') and the
other declension -- the oldest one -- included those adjectives that distinguish between a
masculine/feminine and a neuter form (La. fortis [masc./fem.] and forte [neuter] 'strong'). In Old
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French the rst type of adjective follows the pattern of nominal Declension I when the adjective
is feminine, and the pattern of nominal Declension II when the adjective is masculine. Past
participles typically follow these patterns as well.
Sg. Pl.
Sg. Pl.
Adjectives that follow these patterns include, e.g., sains 'holy', bruns 'brown', clers 'clear', fiers
'proud', legiers 'light, souple', tot 'all'.
Adjectives in -e follow the declension patterns of Class I feminine nouns when they are
feminine and those of the Class II masculine nouns when they are masculine.
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Sg. Pl.
Sg. Pl.
Examples of adjectives of this category include e.g. amable 'amiable', foible 'feeble', riche 'rich'.
Adjectives in -re (e.g. povre 'poor') form a special group. The declension for feminine
adjectives is regular, that of masculine adjectives lacks the -s su x in the nominative singular.
Sg. Pl.
Sg. Pl.
Adjectives that follow this pattern include, among others: autre 'other', maigre 'thin', tendre
'tender'.
The archaic adjectival declension in Latin that originally distinguished animate (masc. or fem.,
e.g. fortis 'strong') vs. inanimate (neuter, e.g. forte ) survives in Old French in a declension
pattern that does not include a su x -e for feminine forms:
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Sg. Pl.
Sg. Pl.
Adjectives that are included are: brief 'short', cruel 'cruel', grant 'great', prod 'bold', vert 'green',
fol 'foolish', and others.
5 Case Functions
The nominative primarily is the subject case and is used when addressing people, as in:
li reis tient la citet 'the king (Nom. Sg.) holds the town';
li empereres se fait balz (CdR 96, this lesson) 'the emperor (Nom. Sg.) is happy';
respunt li reis 'the king (Nom. Sg.) replies';
Deus, fet il 'God (Nom. Sg.), he said'.
The oblique case is used for all other functions, among them:
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li empereres est en un grant verger (CdR 103, this lesson) 'the king is in a large orchard
(Obl. Sg.)';
adverbial expressions (e.g. space, time, direction), as in
set anz ad estet en Espaigne (CdR 2, this lesson) 'he has spent seven years (Obl. Pl.) in
Spain'.
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The Chanson describes in detail the last moments of Roland's life and his passing. When
Charlemagne hears the signal, he returns to Spain to nd that most of his men there have been
killed, including Oliver and Roland. He prepares his revenge, which leads to the eventual victory
of Christianity: the traitor is brought to justice, and Sarragossa eventually is taken.
The reader will notice that the fragments tend to be repetitive, which may be explained by the
oral tradition that the Chanson de Geste was part of. The repetitive nature of the text also
underscores the strong emotions that the events trigger in the characters. From a linguistic
perspective, the reader will also notice that in many instances the case markers are not used, or
are used incorrectly, illustrating the gradual disappearance of the case system.
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halt -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <alt, aut, halt> high, strong, important --
high
sunt -- verb; third person plural present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- are
li -- de nite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
pui -- noun; nominative plural <pui> mountain, hill -- mountains
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
la -- de nite article; nominative singular feminine <li> the -- the
voiz -- noun; nominative singular <vois, voiz> noise, word, voice -- sound
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- carries
mult -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- very
lunge -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <lonc, long, loing> long, far -- far
granz -- adjective; oblique plural feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- long
.XXX. -- number; <.XXX.> thirty -- thirty # in Old French, numbers were preceded and
followed by a dot
liwes -- noun; oblique plural <liue, live> mile -- miles away
l'oïrent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he + verb;
third person plural preterite <oir, odir> hear -- they heard...
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- it
respundre -- verb; in nitive <respondre> answer -- resonate
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l'olifan -- de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + noun; oblique singular
<olifant> ivory horn -- the horn
sunet -- verb; third person singular present <suner, soner> sound, utter -- he blows
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- in
dulor -- noun; oblique singular <dolor> pain, suffering -- suffering
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- in
peine -- noun; oblique singular <peine, paine> torment, suffering -- pain
Karles -- proper name; nominative singular <Charles> Charles, Charlemagne -- Charles
l'oït -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he + verb; third
person singular preterite <oir, odir> hear -- heard him
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
ses -- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine <son> his -- his
Franceis -- proper name; nominative plural <Franceis> free, noble, subject of the king of
France -- subjects
l'entendent -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he +
verb; third person plural present <entendre> try, pay attention, understand, hear -- hear
him
ço -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- these words
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- spoke
li -- de nite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
reis -- noun; nominative singular <roi> king -- king
cel -- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine <cil> that -- that
corn -- noun; nominative singular <corn, cor> horn -- horn
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
lunge -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <lonc, long, loing> long, far -- long
aleine -- noun; oblique singular <aleine, alaine> blast, breath -- a breath
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adubez vos -- verb; second person plural imperative <adober> arm oneself + personal
pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- arm yourself
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- and
criez -- verb; second person plural imperative <crier> shout -- shout
vostre -- possessive; second person plural oblique singular feminine <vostre> your -- your
enseigne -- noun; oblique singular <enseigne> war cry -- war cry
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- and
sucurez -- verb; second person plural imperative <secorer> go to the help of -- go to the
help of
vostre -- possessive; second person plural oblique singular feminine <vostre> your -- your
maisnee -- noun; oblique singular <maisniee, maisnie> household, army -- army
gente -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <gent> fair, handsome, beautiful -- fair
asez -- adverb; <asez, assés> many, much, very well -- very well
oez -- verb; second person plural present <oir, odir> hear -- you hear
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
Rollant -- proper name; nominative singular <Rollant> Roland -- Roland
se dementet -- verb; third person singular present <se dementer> lament -- is lamenting
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ço -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- ...
sent -- verb; third person singular present <sentir> smell, feel -- feels
Rollant -- proper name; nominative singular <Rollant> Roland -- Roland
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
la -- de nite article; nominative singular feminine <li> the -- ...
mort -- noun; nominative singular <mort> death -- death
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- him
tresprent -- verb; third person singular present <tresprendre> overcome completely --
overcomes completely
devers -- preposition; <devers, de vers> in the direction of, from the direction of -- from
la -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- his
teste -- noun; oblique singular <teste> head -- head
sur -- preposition; <seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above -- to
le -- de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- his
quer -- noun; oblique singular <cuer, coer, cor> heart -- heart
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object masculine <il> he -- ...
descent -- verb; third person singular present <descendre> descend, dismount -- it
descends
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cleimet -- verb; third person singular present <clamer> call, proclaim, confess -- he
confesses aloud
sa -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- his
culpe -- noun; oblique singular <colpe, corpe, cope> sin, mistake -- sins
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- ...
menut e suvent -- adverb; <menu, menut> quickly + conjunction; <e, et, ed> and +
adverb; <sovent> frequently, often -- tapping his chest quickly and frequently
pur -- preposition; <por> for -- for
ses -- possessive; third person singular oblique plural masculine <son> his -- his
pecchez -- noun; oblique plural <pechié> sin, mistake -- sins
Deu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- to God
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- ...
puroffrid -- verb; third person singular preterite <porofrir> present -- offered
lo -- de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- his
guant -- noun; oblique singular <gant> glove -- glove
AOI -- interjection; <AOI> ... -- ... # unknown element, possibly a war cry, typical of the
Chanson de Roland
morz -- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine <morir> kill, die -- died
est -- verb; third person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- has
Rollant -- proper name; nominative singular <Rollant> Roland -- Roland
Deus -- proper name; nominative singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- ...
ad -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
l'anme -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + noun; oblique singular
<anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody -- his soul
es -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + de nite article; oblique plural masculine
<li> the -- in...
cels -- noun; oblique plural <ciel> heaven -- heaven
li -- de nite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
emperere -- noun; nominative singular <empereor> emperor -- emperor
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in
Rencesvals -- proper name; oblique singular <Rencesvals> Roncevaux -- Roncevaux
parvient -- verb; third person singular present <parvenir> arrive -- arrives
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
6 Case: Nominal Declension, Class III
In addition to the two declension classes discussed in Lesson 1, there is a third group of nouns
in Old French, which is characterized by a varying number of syllables in the individual
paradigms (the so-called imparisyllabic declension). This group of nouns traces back to the
third declension in Latin (e.g. lex, legis), which included imparasyllabic nouns as well. Since the
nominative singular had a number of syllables different from the other cases (e.g. La. imperator
'emperor-Nom.' vs. imperatorem 'emperor-Acc.'), the paradigm is characterized by a shift of
accentuation, which affects the subsequent phonological changes. The following table presents
the Latin forms and their Old French equivalents:
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Sg. Pl.
Nouns included in this class are, for example: cuens, conte 'count', enfes, enfant 'child', niés,
nevo 'nephew', sire, seignor 'lord', traïtre, traïtor 'traitor', and others. These nouns can be
divided in four groups; three of them are:
masculine nouns referring to agents (verb stem + a su x -eor or (i)ere), for example:
chantere, chanteor 'singer', derived from the verb chanter (stem: chant-) 'sing' or buvere,
buveor 'drinker' from the verb bevre (stem: buv-) 'drink';
masculine nouns, often of Germanic origin with a su x -on for cases other than the
nominative. These nouns are primarily nouns of persons or proper names. Examples include:
ber, baron 'baron', lerre, larron 'thief', compaing, compaignon 'companion', Charles,
Charlon 'Charles', Guenes, Ganelon 'Ganelon', and others;
feminine nouns that alternate the nominative singular with the other forms in -ain.
Nominal Declension, Feminine Nouns in -ain
Sg. Pl.
Examples include ante, antain 'aunt', pute, putain 'prostitute', niece, nieçain, 'niece', and
others that are less frequent.
The fourth group in Class III consists of a variety of nouns, such as hom, home 'man', enfes,
enfant 'child', sire, seignor 'lord'. These are all masculine nouns with the exception of suer,
seror 'sister'.
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Like the other declensional groups (Lesson 1), the case distinction gradually disappeared: the
masculine nominative singular ending (-s) spread to nouns that originally did not have it, as sire
> sires (which gives the following paradigm: li sires, le seigneur, li seigneur, les seigneurs).
Moreover, one of the two forms, the nominative or oblique, came to be generalized to the rest of
the paradigm; most commonly it was the oblique form that generalized: e.g. li
gars vs. le
garçon 'boy' became li garçons vs. le garçon (plural: li garçon and les garçons). This process
came to completion in the Middle French period, when the oblique form eventually was the only
form left. In the 13th century, a limited number of (animate) nouns developed double paradigms,
each based on the nominative vs. oblique stem, cf:
Sg. Pl.
Sg. Pl.
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On the basis of the ending of the in nitive, we distinguish four conjugations in Old French: verbs
in -er, -ir, -oir, and in -re. Of these the verbs in -er and most verbs in -ir are so-called regular
verbs. It is accurate to say that as a rule of thumb the verbs in -er, which are most frequent,
trace back to the rst conjugation verbs in Latin (e.g. Latin cantare survives as chanter in Old
French).
There are two types of verb in -ir: those that include an in x -iss- in some forms, and those
that do not. The in x traces back to the Latin in x -isc-, an inchoative marker, which conveys the
notion of 'to begin', as in tepesco 'I become warm', based on tepeo 'I am warm'. Re ecting this
etymological origin, many verbs in -ir are formed on adjectives (OFr. adj. sage 'wise' > v.
assagir 'become wise', adj. riche 'rich' > v. enrichir 'become rich'); others are in origin Germanic
verbs (e.g. rôtir 'roast', choisir 'choose').
Verbs in -oir go back to second conjugation verbs in -ere in Latin (e.g. Latin manere 'stay' vs.
OFr. manoir 'stay'). Verbs in -re trace back to the Latin verbs in -re.
In some verbs, the accent is on the verb ending throughout the entire paradigm; in others, it
shifts to the verb stem for certain forms (1st sg., 2nd sg. and 3rd sg. and pl. present indicative
and present subjunctive, and 2nd sg. imperative). This accounts for an alternation pattern, as in
the verb amer:
amer 'love'
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The Old French verb has two past tenses, an imperfective (which traces back to the Latin
imperfective in -bam, for example cantabam 'I sang') and a preterite (Fr. passe/simple), which
goes back to the Latin perfective form, e.g. cantavi 'I have sung'. Latin cantabam survived as
chantoie in Old French; Latin cantavi survived as chantai in Old French.
The imperfective and preterite forms for the various conjugations in Old French are as follows.
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-ïons chantïons
2nd pers. -oies chantoies -iiez chantiiez
3rd pers. -oit chantoit -oient chantoient
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-ïons partïons
-ïens partïens
2nd pers. -oies partoies -iiez partiiez
-ïez partïez
3rd pers. -oit partoit oient partoient
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The verbs avoir and estre in Old French have two functions: they function as full lexical
elements and as auxiliairies. Avoir is, rst of all, a verb of possession; in addition it is used in a
common impersonal construction (see Grammar Point 10), and it is an important tense auxiliary
(see Grammar Point 9). Estre is a lexical verb conveying existence, a copula, and an auxiliary.
The conjugations of both verbs are as follows:
Participles
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Participles
9 Compound Tenses
While Latin only had one auxiliary, esse, which combined with the perfective particle (e.g.,
laudauts est 'he is in the state resulting from the praising'), French from its earliest stage had
two, estre and avoir, as the following examples show:
Auxiliary estre:
In Old French, estre is not only a tense auxiliary but a passive auxiliary as well, as the following
examples show:
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il s'a vestu
'he has put his clothes on'
With other verbs as well, there is some variation or confusion in the use of auxliaries, cf.:
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Impersonal verbs are found in all early Indo-European languages and, while many early Indo-
European languages had numerous impersonal verbs, their number in most languages
decreased with time.
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que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien (CdR 2401, this lesson) 'where there is no Frenchman nor
pagan"
The use of il in these constructions is rather rare in early times, but spreads in the Middle French
period; eventually the expression became xed, including il as well as i. It survives in Modern
French as il y a 'there is'.
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With the calendar of saints indicating the days of the individual saints, the Church had
introduced their systematic celebration, highlighting their virtuous lives as Christians. Because
of their interceding function, saints often were patrons of certain groups, roles that generally
trace back to events in their lives. St. Nicolas, for example, was patron saint of sailors because --
according to legends -- he had saved sailors at one point in his life; St. Luke, who originally was
believed to be a painter and a physician, was the patron saint of painters and of physicians.
Moreover people generally were named after a saint, for whom they tended to develop special
devotion.
Outside and inside churches and houses were many statues of saints, each with its own
symbols (e.g. St. John the Evangelist with the poisoned cup to which he was condemned).
There was a strong hagiographic tradition as well: an important number of medieval documents
describe saints' lives, often written by contemporaries or based on stories told by them.
The Old French text is a poem of 625 verses, which in all probability was chanted during the
liturgy of the saint's day, July 17.
Son of an important and rich Roman senator, Alexis decides on the eve of his wedding to leave
Rome and live with the poor. Having distributed his possessions among the poor, he lives for
seventeen years in Edessa, spending his days as a beggar. When the locals come to consider
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him a saint, he leaves the town on a ship and eventually ends up in Ostia, a port close to Rome.
In the streets of Rome he encounters his father, who fails to recognize him. Alexis asks to be
taken into the household. His father accepts, and Alexis stays there for another seventeen years
without being recognized by his family, living as a pauper under the staircase. Refusing to reveal
his identity, he sees how his parents and his wife grieve his loss. He patiently undergoes the
physical torments he imposes upon himself and the pestering by his father's men. After
seventeen years he feels that he is about to die and he calls for his servant: he will write a letter
explaining the situation and revealing his indentity. Shortly after his death, the letter is
discovered and Alexis is recognized as a saintly gure.
The fragments below describe how Alexis, after seventeen years, returns to Rome and asks his
father to take him into his house. They also describe how his parents and his wife fail to
recognize him, and spend their time grieving their lost son and husband.
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eist -- verb; third person singular present <issir> go out, come out -- he leaves
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- ...
la -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the
nef -- noun; oblique singular <nef> ship -- ship
e -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
vint -- verb; third person singular preterite <venir> come, go -- went
andreit -- adverb; <endreit> precisely, right, immediately -- directly
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- to
Rome -- proper name; oblique singular <Rome> Rome -- Rome
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n'il -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not + personal pronoun; third person singular nominative
masculine <il> he -- he...
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- not
lur -- personal pronoun; third person plural indirect object <il> they -- them
dist -- verb; third person singular preterite <dire> say, tell -- did... tell
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- and...
il -- personal pronoun; third person plural nominative masculine <il> they -- they
nel -- negation; <ne, nen> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct object
masculine <il> he -- not...
demanderent -- verb; third person plural preterite <demander> ask, ask for -- did... ask
quels -- interrogative; nominative singular masculine <quel> what -- who
hom -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- ...
esteit -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- he was
ne -- negation; <ne, ni> nor, and not -- nor
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- from
quel -- interrogative; oblique singular feminine <quel> what -- what
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- country
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- he
eret -- verb; third person singular imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- came
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
11 Past Tenses: Uses
In the previous lesson it was said that Old French had an imperfect tense (Fr. imparfait, e.g.
chantoie 'I was singing'), a preterite (Fr. passe/ simple or passe/ de/ ni, e.g. chantai 'I sang'),
and a compound past tense, the perfective present (e.g. ai chanté 'I have sung').
The actual uses of these forms will be discussed in the following paragraphs. It is, however,
necessary to include in this discussion the present as well, because that tense is often used as
a so-called historical present.
The student may have noticed in the fragments analyzed so far that the present and the three
past tenses may alternate in any given sentence, as for example:
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The use of tenses was less strict in early medieval texts than it became from the 13th century
onward. Yet even in the early period tense use was not chaotic; there were de nite tendencies:
(a) imperfect:
il nel demanderent
Quels hom esteit ne de quel terre il eret (Al. 239-240, this lesson)
'they did (Pret.) not ask him,
(b) preterite:
refers to (completed) actions in the past that have no link with the present;
is typically found in reference to a sequence of events;
refers to permanent characteristics of persons or objects (later to be replaced by the
imperfect in this use; cf. [a]);
may replace the imperfect.
Examples:
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refers to actions that took place in the past as if they are taking place at the moment of
narration, enhancing the dramatic effects or liveliness of style;
emotional moments in the text often are in the historical present.
Examples:
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Changes in tense use often mark a dramatic moment in the text; cf:
Quant vit sun regne, durement s'en redutet ... (Al. 198, this lesson)
'When he saw (Pret.) his country, he was (Pres.) very worried'
they had (Pret.) no children, which was (Pres.) a great grief to them'
De nite Article
Nom. li li la les
Obl. le, lo les la les
The vowel of singular forms often disappears in front of another vowel (elision); cf.:
As a rule there is no elision in the nominative singular masculine and in the plural:
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In sequences that include a preposition, a de nite article, and a noun starting with a consonant,
the de nite article le and les may combine with the preposition (enclisis); cf:
a + le > al, au
a + les > as, aus, aux
Whereas the use of de nite articles in modern French has become almostautomatic, its use in
medieval French is motivated. Because of inconsistencies, linguists so far have not been able to
pinpoint the precise "rules," but there are de nite tendencies.
The de nite article in Old French is used when the element in question is known either because
it has already been mentioned, or because it is generally known; cf.:
In this example reference is made to the horn about which there has been much discussion
already. Similarly,
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The emperor is Charlemagne, who from the beginning of the document is the main character.
In the following example reference is made to la feste seint Martin, which is generally known in
the Middle Ages:
On the whole there is no de nite article when the noun has generic value, as in:
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Before the 13th century there generally is no article when the noun refers to peoples or groups
of people; cf.:
There are a number of expressions including a verb and a direct object in which the noun does
not combine with an article, such as:
a grant poverte deduit sun grant parage (Al. 248, this lesson)
'in great povery he lives his high social rank'
In an ennumeration a noun may be ommited, leaving the de nite article behind; cf.:
The de nite article combines often with titles and proper names; cf.:
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The imperfect subjunctive is based on the perfective stem, found in the past (perfective)
participle and the preterite as well; cf.:
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From a historical perspective, Old French chantasse traces directly to Latin cantavissem
(cantav-issem), and like the preterite is based on the perfective stem of the verb: chantai for
example traces back to Latin cantavi (cantav-i). The Old French past (or perfective) participle
has the same stem as well, because it is based on the Latin perfective stem. This is especially
clear in Latin verbs like relinquere 'leave', which have -n- in its present stem, but not in the
perfective stem; cf. relinquo 'I leave' vs. reliqui 'I have left', relinquens 'leave-Pres. Part.' vs.
relictus 'leave-Pf. Part.'.
The present and imperfect forms of the subjunctive for the various conjugations are as follows.
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir with in x (fenir, e.g. fenisse 'that I may end') --
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Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir without in x (partir, e.g. parte 'that I may leave') --
Present Subjunctive, Verbs in -re (corre, e.g. corre 'that I may run') --
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir with in x (fenir, e.g. fenisse 'that I ended') --
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-issiens fenissiens
2nd pers. -isses fenisses -issoiz fenissoiz
-iss(i)ez feniss(i)ez
3rd pers. -ist fenist -issent fenissent
Imperfective Subjunctive, Verbs in -ir without in x (partir, e.g. partisse 'that I left') --
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In this example the speaker makes a simple observation of something that is happening. In the
next example the speaker expresses his wish that the event expressed by the verb will take
place; cf:
In Modern French, the use of the subjunctive in main clauses is limited to one or two xed
expressions (e.g. vive la France 'long live France') and to constructions introduced by the particle
que 'that', expressing wishes or orders; cf., for example, que personne ne sorte 'nobody should
go out'.
In Old French, the use of the subjunctive was more widespread. First, the present as well as
imperfect subjunctive were both very much alive. Second, the subjunctive was freely used in
subordinate as well as main clauses and its occurrence was semantically motivated.
In main clauses the subjunctive typically expresses wishes and orders, and may or may not be
combined with the particle que, si, or car:
si m'aît Deus
'God help me'
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The second person subjunctive could also function as an imperative marked for its politeness
(see Grammar Point 16, Lesson 4).
· after verbs expressing the notion of 'thinking', e.g. penser 'think', m'est avis 'it seems to me',
cuider 'think', croire 'believe'; cf.:
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durement s'en redutet..., qued il nel recunuissent (Al. 198-199, this lesson)
'he is very worried that they [might] recognize (Subju.) him'
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According to popular belief, St. Eulalia of Mérida (a.k.a. St. Eulalia of Barcelona) was a saint and
martyr who died in 304 at the age of twelve under Maximian, ruler under Emperor Diocletian. In
304, Christianity was not yet the o cial religion of the Roman Empire.
In 878, bones were identi ed in Barcelona as those of St. Eulalia, which triggered the saint's cult
there and in France as well. In Spain, St. Eulalia was one of the most popular saints. In art she
typically is represented with the martyr's palm, and often a dove ies out of her mouth. Our text
selection will show why she is represented in that way.
The text of this lesson, La Cantilène de Sainte Eulalie, is one of the earliest Old French
documents. Like the previous document, it has a liturgical background and was in fact a hymn
written to praise the Christian virtues of the saint in question. The hymn praises the saint's
stamina: her Christian faith and her love of God remain unshaken in the face of material
temptations, threats of torture, and ultimately physical suffering. Having survived the ames,
she eventually is decapitated and her soul goes straight to heaven. The narrator then invites
readers and listeners to pray that St. Eulalia will intercede on their behalf.
For various scholarly reasons it has been assumed that the text dates from 882 and was written
in the north of France. There is no consensus among scholars whether this text is a poem or,
rather, poetic prose. Earlier Latin texts may have been a source of inspiration for this document.
The reader will notice a relatively high incidence of Latin words in this hymn, which counts only
29 lines (e.g. anima, clementia, post, or Christus). The use of cases is more consistent than we
have noticed in the texts discussed so far.
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The text also has a number of archaisms in word order patterns, cf. the sequence genitive +
noun as in li
Deo inimi, the sequence direct object + verb as in qu'elle Deo raneiet, or the
sequence direct object + in nitive as in volt lo seule lazsier (see also Grammar Point 17). The
syntactic structures are more complex than they have been so far: there are several rather
complex subordinate constructions involving a subjunctive form of the verb, e.g. elle
no'nt
eskoltet les ... conselliers qu'elle Deo raneiet or il li enortet, dont lei nonque chielt,
qued elle fuiet lo nom..., ell'ent aduret lo ... element.
The nothern origin of the text is illustrated by a certain number of features, for example retention
of [k] before [a] as in cose 'thing', but chief 'head' with a palatalized initial consonant.
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voldrent -- verb; third person plural pluperfect <voloir> want -- wanted # very unusual
form which traces back to Latin voluerant 3rd pl. pluperfect 'they had wanted'; had preterite
value in Old French
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- her
veintre -- verb; in nitive <veintre> vanquish, conquer, overcome -- overcome
li -- de nite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
Deo -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- of God
inimi -- noun; nominative plural <enemi> enemy, devil -- enemies
voldrent -- verb; third person plural pluperfect <voloir> want -- they wanted # very
unusual form which traces back to Latin voluerant 3rd pl. pluperfect 'they had wanted'; had
preterite value in Old French
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- her
faire -- verb; in nitive <faire> make -- to make
diaule -- noun; oblique singular <deable, diavle> devil -- the devil
servir -- verb; in nitive <servir> serve -- serve
elle -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he -- she
no'nt -- negation; <non> not + adverb; <ent, end> subsequently -- not...
eskoltet -- verb; third person singular present <escolter> listen to, pay attention to -- does
listen to
les -- de nite article; oblique plural masculine <li> the -- the
mals -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <mal> bad, mean, wretched -- mean
conselliers -- noun; oblique plural <conseillier, conseilleor> counsellor, advisor -- men
who advise
qu'elle -- conjunction; <que> that + personal pronoun; third person singular nominative
feminine <il> he -- that she
Deo -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
raneiet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <renoier, renier> abjure, deny --
abjure
chi -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
maent -- verb; third person singular present <maindre> stay, remain -- lives
sus en -- adverb; <sus, suz> up, above + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- right
up in
ciel -- noun; oblique singular <ciel> heaven -- heaven
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enz -- adverb, reinforcing element; <ens, enz> ... -- ... # reinforces the preposition en
enl -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + de nite article; oblique singular masculine
<li> the -- into the
fou -- noun; oblique singular <feu, fou> re, family -- re
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- her
getterent -- verb; third person plural preterite <geter, giter> throw, reject, utter -- they
threw
com -- conjunction; <com, cum> in order that -- so that
arde -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <ardoir, ardre> burn -- she would
burn
tost -- adverb; <tost> soon, immediately, quickly -- quickly
elle -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative feminine <il> he -- she
colpes -- noun; oblique plural <colpe, corpe, cope> sin, mistake -- sins
non -- negation; <non> not -- no
auret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <avoir, aveir> have, be -- had # very unsual
form which traces back to Latin habuerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'she had had'; had preterite
value in Old French
por -- preposition; <por> for -- for
o -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <o, ou, euc> this -- this reason
nos coist -- negation; <non> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct object
<se> he + verb; third person singular preterite <cuire> cook, burn -- she did not burn
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- to
czo -- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter <ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it -- this
nos -- negation; <non> not + personal pronoun; third person singular direct object <se>
he -- not
voldret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <voloir> want -- did...want # very unusual
form which traces back to Latin voluerat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'he had wanted'; had preterite
value in Old French
concreidre -- verb; in nitive <concreidre> give in -- to give in
li -- de nite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
rex -- noun; nominative singular <regem> king -- king # Latin word rex, regis
pagiens -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <paien> pagan, heathen -- pagan
ad -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- with
une -- inde nite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- a
spede -- noun; oblique singular <espee> sword -- sword
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object feminine <il> he -- ...
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roveret -- verb; third person singular pluperfect <rover> ask, call upon, order -- he ordered
# very unusual form which traces back to Latin rogaverat 3rd sg. pluperfect 'he had
ordered'; had preterite value in Old French
tolir -- verb; in nitive <tolir> take off, cut off -- to (be) cut off
lo -- de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- her
chief -- noun; oblique singular <chief> head -- head
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tuit -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
oram -- verb; rst person plural imperative <orer> pray -- let us pray
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
por -- preposition; <por> for -- for
nos -- personal pronoun; rst person plural direct object <nos> we -- us
degnet -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <daignier> deign -- she will
deign
preier -- verb; in nitive <prier, preier> pray, beg, beseech -- to pray
qued -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
auuisset -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <avoir, aveir> have, be --
may have
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- on
nos -- personal pronoun; rst person plural direct object <nos> we -- us
Christus -- proper name; nominative singular <Christus> Christ -- Christ # Latin word
Christus, Christi
mercit -- noun; oblique singular <merci> grace, mercy, pity -- mercy
post -- preposition; <post> after -- after # Latin word post
la -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- ...
mort -- noun; oblique singular <mort> death -- death
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- to
lui -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- Him
nos -- personal pronoun; rst person plural direct object <nos> we -- us
laist -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <laissier> leave, let, abandon -- may
allow
venir -- verb; in nitive <venir> come, go -- to come
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- through
souue -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his -- His
clementia -- noun; oblique singular <clementiam> grace -- grace # Latin word clementia,
clementiae
Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
16 Imperative
The imperative is a mood that, in direct address, expresses an order, a request, or a suggestion.
The imperative may be negated:
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Verbs in Old French have two imperative forms, the second person singular and the second
person plural, which are used when one addresses the person or persons with whom one is
talking; cf.:
In addition, there is a rst person plural imperative, which rather is an adhortative, e.g. chantons
'let us sing'. Its forms are as follows:
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Verbs with varying stress patterns (e.g. aimer, aim 'I love' [stress on the stem] vs. amons 'we
love' [stress on the ending], see Lesson 2), have similar stress patterns for the imperative forms;
the singular forms have no ending, the plural forms are identical to those of the present
indicative:
The imperative often combines with the particle car, which functions as a reinforcing element:
Rollant, l'olifant car sunez (CdR 1059) 'Roland, blow the horn'
Car chevalchiez, barun! 'Ride, knights!'
In polite expressions the second person subjunctive could have imperative value as well, in main
clauses with or without particle, e.g. car, which here again functions as a reinforcing element;
cf.:
quar me herberges ... (Al. 217, Lesson 3) 'may you lodge me' > 'lodge me'
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Finally, in nitives could function as imperatives as well, especially in negation; they then have
the value of a second person singular imperative; cf.:
In a rmative uses, the in nitive is preceded by de, the de nite article, and or in clause-initial
position. Often the imperative then refers to the rst person plural and has adhortative value; cf.:
17 Word Order
When discussing word order patterns including subjects and direct objects, linguists typically
refer to the order of nominal elements; in the ordering of pronominal elements non-syntactic
factors (e.g. prosodic factors) play an important role.
The well-established case system in Latin allowed for word order variation. Consequently, for
pragmatic reasons or reasons of emphasis, for example, word order in Latin could vary, which
however did not mean than Latin word order was indiscriminately "free". There were clearcut
tendencies, such as:
· the direct object in unmarked sequence preceded the nite verb; cf.:
· the genitive as a rule preceded the head noun in unmarked order; cf.:
Caesaris adventus
Caesar-Gen. approach
'Caesar's approach'
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luce clarior
light-Abl. bright-Comp.
· the subject as topic of the sentence occurred in clause-initial position. As a result the
unmarked word order of nominal elements in Latin was Subject + Direct Object + Verb; cf.:
In the course of history these Latin ordering patterns, which had been inherited from Proto-Indo-
European, were reversed. In Old French, therefore, the direct object follows the nite verb, the
genitive follows the noun, and the referent follows the adjective.
· noun + genitive:
· adjective + referent:
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mains riches de mon pere (Palefroi 407) 'less rich than my father'
plus de .IIII. milliers 'more than four thousand'
chevalier ... plus vieil de lui (Palefroi 658-60) 'a knight older than he'
In general terms it is accurate to say that word order in Old French was well on its way to
developing the patterns that are typical of the modern language, but there was more variety and
many structures still featured archaic characteristics.
The archaic order object + verb, for example, survived for a long time in subordinate clauses,
especially in relative clauses; cf.:
Marsilie ..., ki Deu nen aimet 'Marsilie ..., who does not love God,'
Mahumet sert e Apollin recleimet (CdR 7-8, Lesson 1) 'serves Mahomet and invokes Satan'
Other sequences are attested as well, but in given contexts. When the subordinate clause is
introduced by a relative pronoun in direct object function, the sequence becomes, Complement
+ Subject + Verb, as in:
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A typical construction in Old French is what generally is referred to as subject inversion: when
the clause is introduced by a complement, the subject follows the nite verb. Similarly, when the
clause is introduced by an adverb or an adverbial construction, the subject commonly follows
the nite verb:
18 Demonstratives
Whereas Latin had a demonstrative system based on three elements, French from its earliest
times had a system based on two demonstratives; cf.:
Old French therefore made a distinction between 'this' and 'that'. The forms cist and cil trace
back to Latin iste and ille respectively, to which a reinforcing demonstrative element ecce has
been added: ecce + istum > cist and ecce + illum > cil.
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To some extent the original demonstrative distinctions are still present in the early uses in Old
French: cist 'here' referred to elements within the range (in time and space) of the speaker and
the person spoken to; cil 'that' referred to elements close to a third person.
Cist and cil originally were used both as adjectival and pronominal elements; cf. adjectival uses:
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Pronominal use:
In time, a preference developed by which cist came to be used as an adjectival element, and cil
as a pronominal element. Some of the individual forms of the paradigms underwent this change
rapidly, others survived much longer. Adjectival cels and celes, for example, relatively soon gave
way to cez and ces in that function.
Demonstratives in Old French have deictic function--pointing out elements that are near or
further away--and sometimes de ning function. In these instances they are similar to de nite
articles; cf.:
In order to reinforce the deictic value of demonstratives, speakers started to use the adverbial
particles -ci and -la. The particle was attached to the demonstrative or its noun. Instances are
attested from the 12th century onward.
The demonstrative paradigms in Old French also included "neuter" forms. These forms were not
part of the gender system as such, which was based on the distinction masculine vs. feminine;
they refer to elements that are best translated in English as 'it', being elements of inde nite
gender; cf.:
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Nom. Pl. - -
Obl. Pl. - -
There also existed an isolated neuter form that traces back to Latin ecce + hoc: ce, with a
stressed form ço. Ce, and especially ço, is frequently used in Old French in clause-initial position
in combination with verbs such as dire 'say', croire 'believe', sentir 'feel', voir 'see'; the
construction is followed by a subordinate clause or by direct speech; cf.:
In addition to compound forms, a non-compound form survived as well in Old French: Latin hoc
> Old French o, ou, euc. The form could be used as subject as well as object, often referring to
the preceding clause or sentence; cf.:
It became obsolete by the end of the 12th century, surviving in a few xed epression and
phrases only.
19 Negation
The most important negating element in Old French is the particle ne, nen. It precedes the
( nite) verb, following the inherited pattern from Latin; cf.:
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The negating element often is reinforced by another element that itself generally has no
negating value in origin, cf.:
· nouns (originally) referring to small elements or elements of little value, such as pas 'step',
point 'point', goutte 'drop', mie 'crumb', rien '(some)thing', chose 'thing', and many others.
Whereas ne tends to precede the nite verb, the nominal element follows; cf.:
On the whole this type of negation is slightly stronger than negated clauses with just the
element ne. This emphatic value eroded with time and some of the elements grammaticalized
and came to be combined with ne to form the most common negating device in later French; cf.
il ne mange pas 'he does not eat'.
· adjectives or pronominal elements, such as aucun 'some, someone', or nul 'no one, not any';
cf.:
· adverbs such as mais 'more, ever', onques 'ever', ja 'ever', gueres 'much' and others; cf.:
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The uses of plural un typically have collective value, referring to pairs or to elements that
inherently are collective; cf.:
· Pairs:
· Collective:
The occurrence of inde nite articles is rather limited in Old French, as several examples in the
texts analyzed so far have shown:
Ansembl'ot lui grant masse de ses humes (Al. 214, Lesson 3) 'together with him was a large
group of men'
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· But:
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Tristan was a knight at the court of Marc, king of Cornwall, who also was his uncle and had
raised him. Tristan was the son of King Marc's sister and therefore held an important position
from an Indo-European anthropological perspective. King Marc was one of the vassals of King
Arthur.
Before the actual coup de foudre between Tristan and Iseut takes place, Tristan is sent out on
various di cult missions, which he carries out with great success. At some point the king asks
him to go to Ireland and bring Iseut, his (Marc's) bride, to his court. On board the ship on their
way back to Cornwall, Tristan and Iseut by mistake drink a love potion that the king and Iseut
were supposed to drink on the evening of their wedding. As a result Tristan and Iseut are caught
in a passionate and overwhelming love that they cannot ght.
There are several texts that relate the story of Tristan and Iseut. Among the best known are the
text by Béroul, and a more re ned version by Thomas. The texts of both Béroul and Thomas are
fragmentary, but Béroul's stories relate the early stages. Thanks to translations in other
languages (German, Old Norse, English), we are able to reconstruct the entire story.
The text selected for this lesson is a passage from Béroul's Tristan and is dated around 1170 (#
142-175). After the marriage between Marc and Iseut, the affair between Tristan and Iseut
continues despite treason, primitive life in a forest, reconciliation with king Marc, Tristan's
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marriage to another woman, and illness. Eventually Tristan, deceived by his wife, commits
suicide, and Iseut dies on top of his body.
In this text Tristan and Iseut are secretly meeting in an orchard; but the king, who has been
noti ed and suspects an illicit relation, is listening in. Tristan and Iseut are aware of his
presence but do not show it. Tristan has just asked Iseut to intercede with the king on his behalf.
The text presents an example of spoken medieval French. It includes relatively many personal
pronouns and hypothetical se contructions followed by conditionals.
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par foi -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of + noun; oblique singular <foi, fei>
faith, honor -- sincerely
sire -- noun; nominative singular <seignor> lord -- lord
grant -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
tort -- noun; oblique singular <tort> mistake -- a mistake
avez -- verb; second person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- you make
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- to
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- about
tel -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <tel> such -- such
chose -- noun; oblique singular <chose, cose> thing, affair, creature -- matter
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- to
moi -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
parlez -- verb; second person plural present <parler> speak, talk -- talk
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- about
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- you
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- him
mete a raison -- verb; rst person singular subjunctive present
<metre, mectre, mettre> put + preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + noun;
oblique singular <raison> reason, speech, word -- talk to
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- ...
s'ire -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his + noun;
oblique singular <ire> anger, distress -- his distress
face -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <faire> make -- he forgets
pardon -- noun; oblique singular <pardon> grace, permission -- ...
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tote -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <tot> all, every, completely -- completely
sui -- verb; rst person singular present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- I am
sole -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <sol> alone -- alone
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- in
ceste -- demonstrative; oblique singular feminine <cest, cist> this -- this
terre -- noun; oblique singular <terre> land, country, earth -- country
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- he
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- for you
a -- verb; third person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
fait -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- made
chambres -- noun; oblique plural <chambre> chamber, territory, royal apartment -- his
private apartments
veer -- verb; in nitive <veer> refuse, forbid -- forbidden teritory
por -- preposition; <por> for -- because of
moi -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
s'il -- conjunction; <se> if + personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine
<il> he -- if he
or -- adverb; <or> now -- now
m'en -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I + pronoun;
inanimate <en> of it -- me... about it
ot -- verb; third person singular present <oir, odir> hear -- he hears
parler -- verb; in nitive <parler> speak, talk -- talk
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- very well
me -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
porroit -- verb; third person singular conditional <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able -- he
could
tenir -- verb; in nitive <tenir> hold, keep, seize, consider -- consider
por -- preposition; <por> for -- ...
fole -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <fol> crazy -- crazy
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par foi -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of + noun; oblique singular <foi, fei>
faith, honor -- sincerely
ja n'en -- adverb; <ja> ever + negation; <ne, nen> not + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it --
not... about it
dirai -- verb; rst person singular future <dire> say, tell -- I will say
parole -- noun; oblique singular <parole> word, speech -- a word
et si -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and + conjunction; <si> yet -- but
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- you
dirai -- verb; rst person singular future <dire> say, tell -- I will tell
une -- inde nite article; oblique singular feminine <un> a -- one
rien -- noun; oblique singular <rien, ren> thing, creature, person -- thing
si -- conjunction; <si> and, and thus -- and
vuel -- verb; rst person singular present <voloir> want -- I want
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- ...
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative <vos> you -- you
le -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine <il> he -- this
saciés -- verb; second person plural subjunctive present <savoir> know -- to know
bien -- adverb; <bien> well, many, much, really -- very well
së -- conjunction; <se> if -- if
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- he
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural indirect object <vos> you -- you
pardounot -- verb; third person singular preterite <pardoner> forgive, pardon -- forgave
beau -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <bel> dear, beloved, handsome -- dear
sire -- noun; nominative singular <seignor> lord -- lord
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- through
Deu -- proper name; oblique singular <Dieu, Deu> God -- God
son -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular masculine <son> his -- his
mautalent -- noun; oblique singular <maltalent> anger -- anger
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
s'ire -- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine <son> his + noun;
oblique singular <ire> anger, distress -- his distress
j'en -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I + pronoun;
inanimate <en> of it -- I... about it
seroie -- verb; rst person singular conditional <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- would be
joiose -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <joieus> full of joy -- full of joy
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
lie -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <lié, liet> happy, joyful -- happy
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vois m'en -- verb; rst person singular present <aler> go + personal pronoun; rst person
singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- I am leaving
imais -- conjunction; <mais, mes> but -- but
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- no
prendrai -- verb; rst person singular future <prendre> take, take hold of, seize -- I will
get
some -- noun; oblique singular <som, some> sleep -- sleep
grant -- adjective; oblique singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
poor -- noun; oblique singular <paor, peor> fear -- fear
ai -- verb; rst person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I have
quë -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
aucun -- inde nite adjective; nominative singular masculine <aucun> some -- some
home -- noun; nominative singular <home, ome> man -- man
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- ...
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural direct object <vos> you -- you
ait -- verb; third person singular subjunctive present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- has
ci -- adverb; <ci> here -- here
veü -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <veoir> see -- seen
venir -- verb; in nitive <venir> come, go -- coming
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s'un -- conjunction; <se> if + inde nite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a -- if...
one
mot -- noun; oblique singular <mot> word -- word
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- ...
puet -- verb; third person singular present <pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able -- can
li -- de nite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
rois -- noun; nominative singular <roi> king -- king
oïr -- verb; in nitive <oir, odir> hear -- hear
que -- conjunction; <que> that -- that
nos -- personal pronoun; rst person plural nominative <nos> we -- we
fuson -- verb; rst person plural subjunctive imperfective <estre, iestre, aistre> be --
have
ça -- adverb; <ça, çai> here, hither -- here
asemblé -- verb; perfective participle nominative plural masculine
<assembler, assanler> call together, assemble, meet -- met
il -- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine <il> he -- he
me -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- me
feroit -- verb; third person singular conditional <faire> make -- would make
ardoir -- verb; in nitive <ardoir, ardre> burn -- burn
en -- preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- at
ré -- noun; oblique singular <ré, rei, rez> stake -- the stake
ne -- negation; <ne, nen> not -- no
seret -- verb; third person singular conditional <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- it would be
pas -- negation; <pas> not -- ...
mervelle -- noun; nominative singular <merveille> what is surprising, wonder -- surprise
grant -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <grant> great, large, tall -- great
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
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21 Possession
Possession in Old French noun phrases is expressed primarily by the oblique case, with or
without a preposition:
· Without preposition:
· With preposition:
The distribution of these constructions depends on semantic and syntactic criteria. From a
semantic perspective, the construction with de combines with all types of nouns, animate and
non-animate. The preposition a / ad only combines with nouns that are animate, whereas the
construction without preposition only occurs in combination with nouns that refer to humans or
animals that behave like humans (cf. the whale above). The possessor most commonly is
referred to by a noun that moreover, as a rule, has no or only a few complements; generally the
noun is singular, cf.:
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The various syntactic relations underlying the noun - (preposition) - noun sequences (e.g.
subjective vs. objective genitive 'the love of father' vs. 'the love for father') may affect the choice
of the construction, but discussion of the details would go too far in the context of this course.
Yet the reverse order is attested, especially in formulaic expressions (e.g. la Dieu merci), in
expressions including autrui (e.g. l'autrui joie 'the joy of another person') and in early texts
(e.g. li Deo inimi Eul. 3). With time the sequence 'element in possession' + 'possessor' only
spread, with the exception of a few lexicalized items. Among the prepositional expressions
there are very few instances in which the possessor comes rst.
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The Old French endings trace back to present tense forms (future) as well as imperfect tense
forms (past future and conditional). The paradigms are as follows:
Future, Conjugation
The future forms refer to actions that take place in the future. The forms in -roie typically refer
to actions that may take place in the future -- likely or unlikely -- and therefore they often occur in
hypothetical sentences introduced by se 'if'.
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Imperfect voloie
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puez peüs
Imperfect pooie
Future porrai
Conditional porroie
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Imperfect aloie
Future irai
Conditional iroie
The most widespread formation is analytic and includes an adverb followed by the adjective
proper, cf.:
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other adverbs
Among these forms, the comparative of superiority is by far the most common form.
Yet a few synthetic comparatives from Latin survive in Old French; these are very common, cf.:
The following series of adjectives have a synthetic comparative form only in the oblique case;
these forms typically occur in the early texts:
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The declension of the comparative forms follows that of the third class of nouns, cf.:
Superlatives generally are not marked, and the interpretation therefore depends on the context,
cf.:
Very rarely one may nd a superlative that is formally marked: a de nite article then combines
with the comparative adjective proper (synthetic or analytic). These formations spread in later
times, cf.:
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Yet if there is no analytic formation of superlatives, there are a number of synthetic formations
that convey so-called absolute superlative value:
· Several synthetic Latin superlatives have survived in Old French, cf.: pesme 'very bad' (< La.
pessimum), merme 'very small'(< minimum), malisme 'very bad', proismes 'very close'(< La.
proximum), and others.
Superlatives in -isme
Adjective Superlative
· Finally, there is a range of adverbs that convey superlative value in combination with adjectives
'very, most', cf.: molt, tres, mais, tant, mut par and others, e.g.:
25 Adjectives: Comparison
Whereas Latin had two types of comparison, Old French only has an analytic construction. In
Latin the comparison was either a case construction or a so-called particle construction.
In the case construction the ablative marks the element that is being compared, cf.:
luce clarior
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With the loss of synthetic froms in Latin -- case, comparative, verb forms -- the comparison in
Old French has become analytic and includes either a particle or a preposition.
The particle construction (of which the Latin quam construction was a forerunner) is the most
widespread type of comparison, cf.:
Constructions with a preposition--which trace back to the original case construction in Latin--
typically include a pronominal element or a number, cf.:
The prepositional construction is also attested with a nominal referent when it functions simply
as a subject, cf.:
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With time the particle construction spread and came to be used exclusively in comparisons,
with the exception of numbers (e.g. modern French il y a plus de vingt étudiants 'there are more
than twenty students'). (See Italian for a much more common use of the prepositional
construction today).
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2. Mutual admiration: of beauty and wisdom in the lady; of military qualities in the knight. Both
need to be polite, elegant, and well-educated (reading, writing, music). They therefore
typically represent the higher levels of society;
3. Veneration of the lady. A source of inspiration, the lady represents a distant love which is
almost inaccessible to the knight. The knight carries an object with him that reminds him of
her (e.g. glove, curl of hair) and the lady is allowed to ask for rather extreme services, which
will prove the knight's love and devotion;
4. Compensation. When the knight has proven his qualities and his willingness to follow up on
her capricious requests, the lady may accept his love, which in fact will take the form of a
friendship rather than a passionate love affair.
These ideals are expressed in poetry as well as prose. One of the best known novelists of this
period is Chrétien de Troyes, who between 1165 and 1190 wrote several novels that continue
the setting of the Celtic novels but combine it with the new ideals: re ned love stories involving
magic and the world of King Arthur. King Arthur -- reminding the French of Charlemagne -- was
popular in France because of his role as the leader of Celtic resistance under the Anglo-Saxons.
The novels were based on and related the legends of King Arthur, Lancelot, and the Cycle of the
Grail.
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The text selected for this lesson has been taken from Chrétien de Troyes' novel Yvain ou le
chevalier au lion (2560-2580; 2600-2615). Yvain is a knight who discovers a magical fountain in
a forest and is attacked by the nobleman who guards it. Having killed his opponent, Yvain hides
in the dead man's castle and falls in love with his widow, whom he subsequently marries. Then
King Arthur passes by and Yvain decides to escort him on great adventures. He asks his lady to
allow him to follow the king in his pursuit of glory. He is granted permission to go away for a
year, but he has to be back exactly one year later. When Yvain returns too late, his lady refuses to
receive him and Yvain has to carry out a series of new tasks to win back her love.
In the text selected here, Yvain asks his lady to allow him to follow King Arthur and his lady
replies, specifying her conditions.
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se -- conjunction; <se> if -- if
vos -- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative <vos> you -- you
volez -- verb; second person plural present <voloir> want -- want
m'amor -- possessive; rst person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my + noun;
oblique singular <amor> love -- my love
avoir -- verb; in nitive <avoir, aveir> have, be -- to have
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
de rien nule -- preposition; <de> of, from + noun; oblique singular <rien, ren> thing,
creature, person + adjective; oblique singular feminine <nul> no, not any -- in any way
m'avez chiere -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I +
verb; second person plural present <avoir, aveir> have, be + adjective; oblique singular
feminine <cher> beloved, expensive -- you cherish me
pansez -- verb; second person plural imperative <penser> think, pay attention -- make
sure
de -- particle; <de> to -- to
tost -- adverb; <tost> soon, immediately, quickly -- in time
venir -- verb; in nitive <venir> come, go -- come
arriere -- adverb; <arriere, arrere, arire> back -- back
a tot le moins -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on + adverb; <tot> entirely +
de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the + adverb; <meins, mains, moins>
less, fewer -- at the very least
jusqu'a -- preposition; <jusqu'a> as far as, up to -- within
un -- inde nite article; oblique singular masculine <un> a -- one
an -- noun; oblique singular <an> year -- year
huit -- numeral; <huit> eight -- eight
jorz -- noun; oblique plural <jorn, jor> day -- days
aprés -- preposition; <apres> after, afterwards -- after
la Saint Johan -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the + adjective; oblique
singular masculine <saint> holy + proper name; oblique singular <Johan> John -- the
feast of St. John
c'ui an cest jor -- demonstrative; neuter <ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it + adverb;
<ui, ue, oi> today + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of + demonstrative; oblique
singular masculine <cest, cist> this + noun; oblique singular <jorn, jor> day -- of which
this very day
sont -- verb; third person plural present <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- we celebrate
les -- de nite article; nominative plural masculine <li> the -- the
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huitaves -- noun; nominative plural <huitaves> octave -- octave # period of eight days
following an important Christian holiday
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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Grammar
26 Adverbs of Manner
Most adverbs in Latin were either fossilized case forms or morphologically marked. Magis
'more', plus 'more' and nimis 'too much', for example, were fossilized accusative neuters. Among
adverbs of manner the most productive formation was based on a process of derivation
whereby a su x -e or -(i)ter was added to an adjectival base: -e was used for adjectives of
Declension I/II and -(i)ter for adjectives of Declension III, cf.:
Adjective Adverb
In the later periods of Latin and in its popular varieties the -(i)ter derivation spread at the
expense of -e, cf.:
Moreover two new strategies developed, prepositional phrases and adjective + noun
combinations:
· prepositional phrases
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in commune 'generally'
in totum 'entirely'
Among these varieties the mente combinations survived in the Romance languages, with the
exception of Rumanian.
26.1. Several adjectives are used as adverbs without any speci c morphological marker:
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When adjectives are used as adverbs, they can still show agreement with the noun: this pattern
is typical of tot, cf.:
26.2. A su x -tre(s), which traces back to the -(i)ter su x of Vulgar and Late Latin is added to a
base. In Old French the su x combines with adjectives as well as nouns, cf.:
Since mente originally was a feminine noun, the adjective in the French formation takes the
feminine form as well:
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Some adjectives have both the -ment formation and may be used as an adverb without
morphological change:
In Old French the formation may also include nouns and adverbs as its base:
The derivation on the basis of Class I/II adjectives is not problematic because the formation of
the feminine is provided in the paradigm (e.g. dur masc. > dure fem. > durement adv.). Class III
adjectives do not include a feminine form in -e but instead all adjectives end in a consonant (cf.
Grammar Point 4): e.g. fort 'strong'. Derivation with these adjectives as base therefore results in
a number of phonetic assimilations, cf.:
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· consonant assimilation
· -l- vocalization
· loss of -l-
26.4. A su x -s may be added to adverbs, prepositions, and nouns to form a new adverb:
This process is possibly based on analogy with the high number of Latin adverbs in -s that
survived in Old French and were very widespread: e.g. mais 'more' < La. magis, plus 'more' < La.
plus, fors 'except' < La. foris. The process accounts for the etymology of several formations as
well:
26.5. Adverbial formations based on prepositional phrases survive in Old French, cf.:
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The formation is especially productive when including the preposition a + a plural noun in -on,
cf.:
a tastons 'gropingly'
a genouillons 'on one's knees'
Personal Pronouns
Masc. Fem.
Dir. Obj. me te le la
Dir. Obj. (str.) moi toi lui li / lié
Indir. Obj. me te li li
Indir. Obj. (str.) moi toi lui li / lié
Masc. Fem.
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Like the de nite article (see Grammar Point 14), personal pronouns may undergo processes of
elision and enclisis:
Elision:
· strong forms, such as moi and toi, followed by en or i may undergo elision.
Enclisis:
The unstressed forms of the paradigm may be attached to other elements in the clause,
especially je, ne, se, si, que, en:
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28.2. Subject pronouns are late in Indo-European. The nite verb expressed person and number,
and early uses of subject pronouns were marked, having emphatic function. In Old French as
well, subject pronouns are not obligatory. Accordingly the nite verb in Old French as a rule may
occur without explicit subject, be it nominal or pronominal:
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The explicit subject can be absent even when there is a change of subject, cf.:
The absence of subject pronouns traditionally has been accounted for by the rather explicit verb
ending. The texts analyzed so far show that in some the use of pronominal subjects is more
frequent than elsewhere. The Chanson de Rolland has relatively few subject pronouns, and when
they occur their use is emphatic. The text of Lesson 5, a passionate dialogue in which persons
take position, has relatively many instances. The use of subject pronouns in Old French
therefore often marks a certain emphasis, cf. the following example, where the use of the
subject pronouns is contrastive:
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The following example illustrates emphatic use of the subject pronoun in combination with left
dislocation:
As a result the subject pronoun is inherently stressed and therefore can occur at various
locations in the clause, not only in proximity to the verb: cf.:
Instead of subject pronouns Old French may use nouns such as cors 'body', cf.:
Cors can also be used as a reinforcing element especially when it combines with a personal
pronoun, cf.:
vs.
With time the use of subject pronouns increased. One of the important differences between Old
and Middle French is the dramatic increase in use of subject pronouns. It is important to point
out that subject pronouns in Old French are said to be "deleted" when in postposition to the verb:
there are many more instances of preverbal than postverbal pronominal subjects. It may be,
however, that the spread of subject pronouns as pointed out manifested itself preverbally rst,
and postverbally only later.
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The use of subject pronouns with impersonal verbs is late. If subject pronouns are commonly
used with nite verbs in Middle French, there is no regular use of pronominal subjects with
impersonal verbs before 16th century French. E.g:
28.3. Unstressed pronominal forms are verb bound: they are in proximity to the verb, either
preceding or following it. Stressed forms are characterized by a much less strict use. They
typically occur at the beginning of the clause, function as objects of prepositions, combine with
in nitives, and are used with emphasis:
With an in nitive:
With a preposition:
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28.4. Third person direct object pronouns may be omitted in Old French when co-occurring with
an indirect object in the same clause, cf.:
It can also be omitted when the direct object is governed by different verbs; in these instances it
will be omitted with the second verb.
29 Possessives: Forms
There are two series of possessives in Old French: stressed, and unstressed. The unstressed
possessives are used only as adjectival elements; the stressed forms may be used both as
pronominal and adjectival elements. As adjectival elements, possessives agree with the head
noun in case, number, and gender. As pronominal elements they agree with the noun they
replace.
Nom. Pl. mi ti si
Obl. Pl. mes tes ses
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Nom. Sg. ma ta sa
Obl. Sg. ma ta sa
The feminine forms ma, ta, and sa regularly undergo elision when preceding a vowel-initial noun,
cf.:
The stressed possessives trace back to La. meum, tuum, and suum. While meum gave mien, the
Old French tuen and suen from the 13th century became tien and sien, in analogy with mien.
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With the replacement of tu- and su- by ti- and si- respectively, in analogy with mien (13th
century), the declensional pattern of mien spread as well:
30 Possessives: Uses
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Unstressed possessives are used only as adjectival elements. The stressed form, when used as
an adjective, as a rule combines with a de nite article, a demonstrative, or an inde nite article
as well, cf.:
i metrai un mien filz (CdR 149) 'I will put a son of mine there'
cest mien anel (Yv. 2603, this lesson) 'this ring of mine'
The stressed possessive, when used as a pronoun, generally combines with a de nite article,
cf.:
Many instances in Old French include a preposition + personal pronoun instead of a possessive,
cf.:
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Although Crusades primarily had an ideological motivation -- liberating the places of pilgrimage
and safeguarding pilgims -- political, personal, and socio-economical reasons soon became
important as well. During the Fourth Crusade the original aim, the liberation of Jerusalem, was
completely forgotten when political pro t and personal greed came to prevail.
The expedition was used by the doge of Venice to reinforce his political power. It established the
political hegemony of Venice over the Mediterranean, and ensured its important commercial
privileges. The abuse of power of the doge was based on the primordial role Venice played in
the transportation of troops. The Crusade never made it beyond Constantinople, which was
sacked; there one of the Crusaders, Baudoin of Flanders, was made emperor of the Latin
Empire. The Empire would last until 1261.
Two participants in the Fourth Crusade have left lengthy reports about the events: one is written
by a poor knight from Picardie, Robert de Clari, who was a simple warrior. The title of his work is
L'histoire de ceux qui conquirent Constantinople.
The other source is the Histoire de la conquête de Constantinople, written between 1207 and
1213 by one of the leaders of the Crusade, Geoffroi de Villehardouin, who originally came from
Champagne. Villehardouin relates the historical events in a sober style, but his report may not
be completely impartial.
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The reader will notice Villehardouin's sober style, with its simplicity and lack of arti cial effects.
Because of its plainness, many assume that Villehardouin's language was rather close to the
spoken language of the day.
The text has an example of a vigesimal numeral: a numeral based on counting in twenties,
rather than in tens. The element in question is the number VI with XX in superscript, meaning six
times twenty, six-vingts 'one hundred and twenty'. Vigesimals appeared in the various Indo-
European languages in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Whereas the (inherited)
counting system was decimal in early Old French (e.g. huitante 'eighty'), vigesimal numbers
emerged and spread starting in the 12th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries their number
decreased, and modern quatre-vingts and soixante-dix (a so-called semi-vigesimal) are residues
of a phenomenon that was widespread in Old and Middle French (see References in Lesson 10).
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Lesson Text
Or conte li livres une grant mervoille:
que Reniers de Trit, qui ere a Finepople,
bien .IX. jornees loing de Costantinople,
et avoit bien .VIXX. chevaliers avec lui,
que Reniers ses fils le guerpi, et Giles ses freres,
et Jakes de Bondine, qui ere ses niers,
et Achars de Vercli, qui avoit sa file. Et li tolirent bien .XXX. de ses chevaliers,
et s'en cuidoient venir en Costantinople,
et l'avoient laissié en si grant peril com voz oez. Si troverent la terre revellee
encontre els,
et furent desconfit, si les pristrent li Grieu,
qui, puis les rendirent le roi de Blakie,
qui puis aprés lor fist les testes trencier. Et sachiez que mult furent petit plaint de
la gent,
por ce que il avoient si mespris vers celui
qu'i ne deüssent mie faire. Et quant li autre chevalier Renier de Trit virent ce,
qui si prés ne li estoient mie,
cum cil qui en doterent mains la honte,
si le guerpirent, bien .LXXX. chevalier tuit ensemble,
et s'en alerent per une autre voie. Et Reniers de Trit remest entre les Griex a pou
de gent:
que il n'avoit mie plus de .XV. chevaliers a Phynepople et a Stanemac,
qui ere uns chastiaux mult fort que il tenoit,
ou il fu puis longuement assis.
Translation
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Grammar
31 Interrogatives: Forms and Uses
Questions in Old French can be marked by intonation, cf.:
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'he suspects you strongly because of me and I would talk about it?'
In addition a series of interrogative elements are used. The Old French interrogative pronoun
qui, ki traces back to Latin quis 'who' (fem. quae, and neuter quod). The paradigm in Old
French is as follows:
Masc/Fem. Neuter
Examples:
· que direct object animate and neuter nominative and direct object, cf.:
· cui functions as a strong direct object (e.g. with a preposition) and as indirect object, cf.:
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This example also shows that qui and cui often are confused.
As the strong form of the neuter interrogative, quoi may be used in isolation (quoi? 'what?'), but
it typically combines with prepositions, cf.:
In addition, Old French has an interrogative element quant meaning 'how much, how many':
And an element quel 'which, what', which has the following paradigm:
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NB: -l- may vocalize before -s, which will give: queus
Examples:
The reader will have noticed that interrogative elements tend to occur in clause-initial position
and therefore trigger subject inversion when they do not convey subject function, cf.:
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Masc/Fem. Neuter
· dont, originally an adverb of place and often used as an interrogative or relative, meaning 'from
where, whence'. It may also refer to animate nouns, 'of whose'.
· ou, originally a relative and interrogative. It refers to animate and inanimate nouns, meaning
'where, in which, in whom'.
32.1. Function of qui as impersonal. On the whole the uses of the relative pronoun correspond
to the regular functions of the cases. Yet there are a few important phenomena. One of them is
the use of subject qui conveying generalizing value, often tending toward 'if one ...', 'whoever'.
Cf.:
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'if one keeps it all to one's self, one will lose it all'
32.2. Cui is used in Old French primarily as indirect object, but is also found in the function of a
direct object, a genitive, or a prepositional complement.
32.3. Regular use of relative pronouns includes the occurrence of an antecedent, cf.:
The physical distance between the antecendent and the relative pronoun may be rather lengthy:
32.4. Deletion of relative pronoun. The relative pronoun is quite often deleted after a negation,
cf.:
33 On
While Latin nouns that survived in Old French originally were accusatives, a few nominatives
made it into (Old) French as well, cf. the difference between modern sire and seigneur, which
trace back to the nominative and accusative respectively. Similarly two forms of the Latin noun
homo survive, one goes back to the nominative, one is the former accusative, cf. La. homo,
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which survives as on 'one', and La. hominem which survives as modern French homme 'man'. We
therefore observe that in the history of Old French the nominative form homo survived and
grammaticalized into a pronoun; the accusative form survived as a regular noun and did not
undergo a process of grammaticalization.
The fact that Old French (l')on is a grammaticalized personal pronoun does not mean that the
original element no longer is used as noun. The noun in question had the following declension
pattern:
Declension of (l')ome
Sg. Pl.
(l') uem
Nominative singular forms, with or without de nite article, occur with the generalizing meaning
of 'one' from early texts onward, cf.:
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The nominal origin of the element is re ected in the occurrence of the de nite article. Since the
element refers to an undetermined person or undetermined persons, on may be rendered by in
translations by 'one', general 'they', or passive constructions.
In the glosses instances of (l')on have been identi ed as third person personal pronouns
because the grammaticalization process has reached that stage in Old French.
34 Agreement
In Old French we nd several processes of agreement:
· Agreement between subject and nite verb. When there are several subjects in a clause, the
verb agrees with the subject that is closest, cf.:
For collective subjects there is variation: sometimes the nite verb is singular sometimes it is
plural:
· Agreement between noun and adjective. The patterns in Old French are not different from
those in Indo-European. A remarkable phenomenon is the declension of adjectives that are used
as adverbs (see Grammar Point 26), but continue to be marked for agreement, cf.:
· Agreement between nouns and their determiners: there is agreement marking for case,
number, and gender, cf.:
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· Agreement between noun and perfective participle. Agreement patterns depend on the
auxiliary used in these contexts. A perfective participle that combines with the auxiliary estre
'be' will agree in case, number and gender with the subject of the clause, cf.:
When the perfective participle combines with the auxiliary avoir 'have', it may agree in case,
number and gender with the direct object, independently of its relative position to the participle,
cf.:
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When the direct object is masculine, agreement is especially manifest when the participle
follows, cf.:
Conversely when the direct object -- masculine or feminine -- follows the participle, there may be
no agreement:
The perfective participle may also agree with the direct object of an in nitive or with a direct
object that is not explicit in the clause. Neuter elements (pronouns) do not feature agreement.
Along these same lines, there is no agreement in compound tenses including impersonal verbs.
35 Brace Constructions
In a so-called brace construction, the nite verb and the perfective participle are separated by
the direct object, cf.:
In Grammar Point 17 it was noted that if word order in Old French already had strong SVO
characteristics, there still are several archaic features, cf. for example the occurrence of SOV in
subordinate clauses. Another archaism is the ordering of the direct object between the auxiliary
and the perfective participle, as in:
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This type of construction goes back to the original Latin construction in which a lexical verb
'have' combined with a direct object determined by a perfective participle, cf.:
It would go too far to discuss the development of habeo into a Romance auxiliary, but it is clear
that when habeo changed position, a so-called brace construction emerged, cf.:
In Old French:
At later stages:
The brace construction survived in Old French for a long time: instances are still found in the
17th century. Yet in the Old French documents, one observed a gradual decline in occurrence.
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The literary audience was broader and less re ned than that of the littérature courtoise. The
texts, mainly narratives in a rather loose style, were more openly joyful. Narrative texts can be
divided into religious works (e.g. Les Miracles de la Vierge) and comic texts featuring animals.
There was also a growing production of plays, religious and comic (see Lesson 9). The animal
texts are either short narratives that t the long-lasting tradition of fables (fabliaux), or longer
texts, among them the Roman de Renart. The fabliaux are meant to make people laugh, but they
also present wise lessons, based on critical observations of mankind. The characters are
animals, presenting the characteristics of their species in combination with typically human
behavior. In fact, the fabliaux present a disguised form of social satire and criticism. All groups
in society are represented. The texts also offer a lively description of everyday medieval life and
society.
The Roman de Renart (late 12th and early 13th centuries) is a series of poems relating the
adventures of the fox Renart.
The fabliaux continue a long tradition that is rooted in the East (India), and came to Greece (e.g.
Aesop) and Rome (e.g. Phaedrus). A manuscript of the Latin fables allegedly of Phaedrus made
it into the Middle Ages and was translated around 1180 by the well-known author Marie de
France, with the title Isopet. In the 13th century the word Isopet refers to any collection of fables.
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The text for this lesson is the fable Du Renart et du Corbet (Isopet 1.15). Isopet I is a 13th
century collection of fables by an unknown author. The fable selected here is part of a long
tradition and, with La Fontaine in the 17th century, became one of the best known stories in
French literature. It is a story of animals criticizing man's greed for glory. The main characters
are the Raven, who is vain, and the Fox, who is the incarnation of slyness and deception. Another
character is mentioned, Hersen, who in the Roman de Renart is the wife of the wolf Ysengrin,
Renart's opponent. Hersen spends her life spinning and represents simple life without claims to
fame.
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se -- conjunction; <se> if -- if
aussi -- adverb; <aussi> also, likewise -- as well
chantissiez -- verb; second person plural subjunctive imperfective <chanter> sing -- you
sang
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- by
saint -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <saint> holy -- St.
Pere -- noun; oblique singular <Perre> Peter -- Peter
je -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
cuit -- verb; rst person singular present <cuidier> think -- think
qu'en -- conjunction; <que> that + preposition; <en> in, into, on, on top of -- that in
tout -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- entire
le -- de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the -- the
bois -- noun; oblique singular <bos, bois> forest, tree -- forest
n'eüst -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective
<avoir, aveir> have, be -- there would be no
oisel -- noun; oblique singular <oisel> bird -- bird
qui -- relative pronoun; subject <qui> who -- who
tant -- adverb; <tant> so, so much -- that much
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- ...
tous -- adjective; oblique plural masculine <tot> all, every, completely -- all
pleüst -- verb; third person singular subjunctive imperfective <plaire> please -- pleases
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mout -- adverb, adjective; <molt, mult, mout> many, much, very -- very
en -- pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- about it
fu -- verb; third person singular preterite <estre, iestre, aistre> be -- was
dolent -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <dolent> sorrowful, wetched -- sorry
le -- de nite article; nominative singular masculine <li> the -- the
Corbiau -- proper name; nominative singular <Corbiau> Raven -- Raven
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- because of
honte -- noun; oblique singular <honte> shame, disgrace -- shame
li -- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object masculine <il> he -- ...
croist -- verb; third person singular present <croistre, creistre> grow -- increases
son -- possessive; third person singular nominative singular masculine <son> his -- his
diau -- noun; nominative singular <dol, duel> suffering, grief -- grief
La moralité :
Qui vaine gloire quiert et chace,
Sa perte et sa honte pourchace.
Fausse honneur, ce poués entendre,
Maint grand anuy souvent engendre.
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Lesson Text
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Translation
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The lesson:
Whoever looks and hunts for vain glory,
Pursues his fall and his disgrace.
False honor, this you can understand,
Often causes very great pain.
Grammar
36 Passive
While Latin had a fully developed passive paradigm -- an innovation, from an Indo-European
perspective -- Old French had analytic forms to express passive voice, cf.:
The passive was not a common structure in Old French, as the texts analyzed in this course
illustrate: so far only three passive constructions have been attested.
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The prepositions par and a are found as well in this function, albeit not very frequently.
se craindre 'fear
se demorer 'remain'
se feindre 'feign'
se pasmer 'faint'
se monter 'ascend'
se partir 'leave'
s'apoier 'learn'
Several of these verbs exist in non-proniminal form as well, cf. for example demorer 'remain',
monter 'ascend, mount', feindre 'behave in a cowardly way', perir 'perish', partir 'leave', morir
'die'.
Not all pronominal verbs of today go back to a re exive form in the Middle Ages:
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In compound tenses the auxiliary is estre, although instances with avoir are attested as well,
cf.:
il s'a vestu
'he has put his clothes on'
For practical reasons, pronominal verbs have not all been identi ed in the glosses of this course
as a separate category. The pronominal element has been identi ed as a pronoun, with the
appropriate case indication, or the verb has been given as se + in nitive (e.g. se pasmer).
38 Nominal Forms of the Verb
Old French has several so-called nominal forms of the verb: while these forms are part of a
given verbal paradigm, they express nominal characteristics, such as gender, case, and number,
and assume nominal functions. In Old French, the nominal forms of the verb include the
perfective participle, the present participle, the gerund, and the in nitive.
· the perfective participle is based on the perfective stem, cf. for example:
chanter chantet
fenir fenit
partir parti
corre coru
faire fait
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venir venu
metre mis
· the present participle is based on the present stem, cf. for example:
chanter chantant
finir fenissant
partir partant
corre corant
faire fesant / faisant
venir venant
metre met(t)ant
Formally the declension of present participles follows the patterns of class III adjectives, cf.:
Masculine Feminine
· gerunds are formally identical to present participles, but in contrast to these forms, gerunds
are invariable.
· in nitives, e.g. chanter 'sing', fenir 'end', partir 'leave', remanoir 'stay', corre 'run'. In nitives
may convey case (see Grammar Point 39) as expressed in the de nite article and the case
ending.
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The use of a preposition could lead to article enclisis, e.g. du doner 'of the fact of giving'.
39 Nominal Forms of the Verb: Uses
39.1. The in nitive in Old French may function as a noun assuming the function of subject, direct
object, or complement in a prepositional phrase, cf.:
· subject:
· object:
· complement of preposition:
· temporal value:
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au redrecier
'at his getting up'
· expressing manner:
The nominal characteristics of the in nitive are manifest not only in its combining with a de nite
article, but also in case endings (for forms, see Grammar Point 38), cf.:
For example:
Determiners other than de nite articles combine with the in nitive as well, cf.:
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Direct objects of in nitives may take either the form of an accusative (verbal syntax) or a
genitive (nominal syntax), cf.:
The accusative in this context re ects verbal syntax, showing that the in nitive is considered a
fully verbal element. The genitive re ects nominal syntax, showing that the in nitive is
considered a nominal element.
Nominal uses of the in nitive survived until the 16th century; today's language has several
fossilized forms, cf. le dîner, le déjeuner 'lunch', le devoir 'task', and others.
39.2. The forms in -ant in Old French functioned as present participles and as gerunds, but the
distinction between both types of use is not always clear. The form in -ant is commonly
attested in prepositional phrases, expressing adverbial value. The phrase may include a
possessive:
The prepositional phrase may also include a noun conveying an underlying direct object or
subject, cf.:
· subject:
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'at cockcrow'
· direct object:
a la porte ouvrant
'at the opening of the door'
Forms in -ant and in nitives may show overlap in some of the prepositional uses, cf.:
By contrast, forms in -ant alone combine with a nite form of the verb to indicate progressive
action or to specify the circumstances in which the action conveyed by the main verb is carried
out, cf.:
que Carles diet ... qu'il fut mort cunquerant (CdR 2362-2363)
'that Charles will say that he died a conqueror'
Forms in -ant in combination with forms of the verb aler or estre speci cally convey action in
progress, cf.:
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40 Absolute Constructions
Absolute constructions in Old French are residues of a much wider (occurrence and use)
phenomenon in earlier times. An absolute construction is a combination of a noun and a
participle; both elements agree in number, case and gender and are syntactically completley
independent from the other elements in the clause. The noun typically conveys the underlying
subject or the direct object of the participle. Latin absolutes typically had the ablative form and
they conveyed a wide range of meanings, such as temporal, causal, or conditional value. Cf.:
These constructions survive in Old French--mostly in the oblique case--but their use is rather
limited. They often include nouns referring to clothes, bodyparts, and general equipment. They
are slightly fossilized and descriptive, cf.:
Their fossilized nature is especially manifest in xed expressions, such as helmes laciez
'helmets fastened', espee çainte 'sword girded', and others.
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The Virgin Mary played a most important role in the Middle Ages as a person who would
intercede on behalf of sinful Christians, even during their lives. Regretting sin was the primary
condition for salvation.
Some of the stories of these plays became very popular indeed, and are found in other forms of
art as well. The story of Theophile, for example, which had Greek origins, is represented in the
tympan on the north side of Notre Dame cathedral in Paris.
The fragment selected here presents Theophile petitioning Mary for help. After a rst rejection,
Mary decides to save him and to wrest the agreement from the Devil.
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THEOPHILES
Ha, Dame ! aiez de moi merci !
C'est li chetis
Theophiles, li entrepris
Que maufé ont loié et pris.
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Or vieng proier
A vous, Dame, et merci crier,
Que ne gart l'eure qu'asproier
Me viengne cil
Qui m'as mis a si grant escil.
Tu me tenis ja por ton fil,
Roîne bele !
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Nostre Dame -- possessive; rst person plural nominative singular feminine <nostre>
our + noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Our Lady
parole -- verb; third person singular present <parler> speak, talk -- speaks
je -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
n'ai cure de -- negation; <ne, nen> not + verb; rst person singular present
<avoir, aveir> have, be + noun; oblique singular <cure> care, anxiety + preposition;
<de> of, from -- do not care about
ta -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular feminine <ton> your -- your
favele -- noun; oblique singular <favele> story, lie -- story
va t'en -- verb; second person singular imperative <aler> go + personal pronoun; second
person singular direct object <tu> you + pronoun; inanimate <en> of it -- go away
is -- verb; second person singular imperative <issir> go out, come out -- go out
fors -- adverb; <fors> out, outside -- ...
de -- preposition; <de> of, from -- of
ma -- possessive; rst person singular oblique singular feminine <mon> my -- my
chapele -- noun; oblique singular <chapele> chapel -- chapel
THEOPHILE PAROLE
Dame, je n'ose
Flors d'aiglentier et lis et rose
En qui li Filz Dieu se repose,
Que ferai gié ?
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NOSTRE DAME
Theophile, je t'ai seü
Ça en arriere a moi eü.
Saches de voir,
Ta chartre te ferai ravoir
Que tu baillas par nonsavoir.
Ja la vois querre.
Nostre Dame -- possessive; rst person plural nominative singular feminine <nostre>
our + noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Our Lady
Theophile -- proper name; nominative singular <Theophile> Theophile -- Theophile
je -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
t'ai -- personal pronoun; second person singular direct object <tu> you + verb; rst person
singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have... you
seü -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <savoir> know -- known
ça en arriere -- adverb; <ça en arriere> formerly, until now -- in the past when
a -- preposition; <a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on -- at
moi -- personal pronoun; rst person singular direct object <jo, jou, jeu> I -- my service
eü -- verb; rst person preterite <avoir, aveir> have, be -- I had
saches -- verb; second person singular subjunctive present <savoir> know -- know
de voir -- preposition; <de> of, from + adjective; oblique singular masculine <voir> true
-- for sure
ta -- possessive; second person singular oblique singular feminine <ton> your -- your
chartre -- noun; oblique singular <chartre> letter, agreement -- agreement
te -- personal pronoun; second person singular direct object <tu> you -- you
ferai -- verb; rst person singular future <faire> make -- I shall make
ravoir -- verb; in nitive <ravoir> have back -- have back
que -- relative pronoun; object <qui> that -- which
tu -- personal pronoun; second person singular nominative <tu> you -- you
baillas -- verb; second person singular preterite <baillier> own, receive, give -- gave away
par -- preposition; <par> through, by, by reason of -- by
nonsavoir -- noun; oblique singular <nonsavoir> ignorance -- ignorance
ja -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
la -- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object feminine <il> he -- it
vois -- verb; rst person singular present <aler> go -- go
querre -- verb; in nitive <quere, querre> look for, want, ask -- look for
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rent -- verb; second person singular imperative <rendre> give, return -- give back
la -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- the
chartre -- noun; oblique singular <chartre> letter, agreement -- agreement
que -- relative pronoun; object <qui> that -- that
du -- preposition; <de> of, from + de nite article; oblique singular masculine <li> the --
from the
clerc -- noun; oblique singular <clerc, clerge> clerk -- clerk
as -- verb; second person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- you got
quar -- conjunction; <quar, car> for, because -- because
tu -- personal pronoun; second person singular nominative <tu> you -- you
as -- verb; second person singular present <avoir, aveir> have, be -- have
fet -- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine <faire> make -- done
trop -- adverb; <trop> too much, extremely, excessively -- too much
vilain cas -- adjective; oblique singular masculine <vilain> ugly, bad + noun; oblique
singular <cas> fall, event, affair -- harm
SATHAN PAROLE
Je la vous randre !
J'aim miex assez que l'en me pende ! ...
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NOSTRE DAME
Et je te foulerai la pance.
Nostre Dame -- possessive; rst person plural nominative singular feminine <nostre>
our + noun; nominative singular <dame> lady, dame -- Our Lady
et -- conjunction; <e, et, ed> and -- and
je -- personal pronoun; rst person singular nominative <jo, jou, jeu> I -- I
te -- personal pronoun; second person singular indirect object <tu> you -- ...
foulerai -- verb; rst person singular future <foler> harm -- trample
la -- de nite article; oblique singular feminine <li> the -- your
pance -- noun; oblique singular <pance> stomach, belly -- belly
Lesson Text
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Translation
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THEOPHILE:
Dear Lady! Have mercy on me!
It is the miserable
Theophile, the unhappy one
Whom devils have tied and taken hold of.
Now I come to pray
To you, Lady, and to beg for mercy,
So that he will not look for the moment that
He will come to torment me, he
Who has put me in such great misery.
You considered me already as your son,
Beloved queen!
THEOPHILE SPEAKS:
Lady, I do not dare.
Flowering wild rose and lily and rose,
In whom the Son of God rests,
What shall I do?
I feel I am badly committed
Towards the furious devil
I do not know what to do :
I will never stop begging!
Virgin, noble maiden,
Honored Lady,
My soul will be devoured completely,
When staying in hell
With Cain.
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OUR LADY:
Theophile I have known you
In the past when I had you at my service.
Know for sure,
I will make you have your agreement back
Which you gave away by ignorance.
I go look for it.
SATAN SPEAKS:
Me give it back to you!
I would very much prefer that they hang me! ...
OUR LADY:
And I will trample your belly.
Grammar
41 Inde nite Elements
There are a number of inde nite elements in Old French, nouns, pronominal elements, adjectival
elements.
· Inde nite nouns. Among inde nite nouns, chose (cose) and rien (ren) are the most important
and most common. Chose traces back to Latin causam 'cause, business', whereas rien
originated in Latin rem 'thing, business'. In Old French, both chose and rien mean 'thing,
something, (some) business, person'. The difference between the two elements resides in the
occurrence of rien in negated contexts, meaning 'nothing'; cf.:
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It is this negated use that rien preserved into the modern period, cf.:
· Pronominal and adjectival elements. There is a group of quantifying (quant, tant) and
qualifying (tel) elements. As nominal elements, they have declensional paradigms.
Masculine Feminine
The student will have noticed that the declension of this element follows the patterns of Class I
and Class II adjectives. The group includes tant 'so much, so many' and alquant (auquant)
'certain ones, several', which appear only in the plural.
Masculine Feminine
· Various lexical quali ers. In addition there is a series of inde nites that qualify nouns,
adjectives, verbs or adverbs: molt 'many, much', poi (pou, peu) 'a little, little', tot 'all, entirely'; cf.:
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42 Adverbs
In Lesson 6 adverbs of manner were already discussed. In fact manner adverbs are the most
"regular" among the adverbs in Old French. The other adverbs have a variety of etymological
backgrounds. Some trace back to preposition, others to particles, and so forth.
· Adverbs of time. Time reference in Old French is conveyed by a group of adverbs, cf.:
Present
maintenant 'now'
(h)ui 'today'
encui 'today'
endementres 'during'
anuit 'tonight'
Future
main 'tomorrow'
demain 'tomorrow'
tantost 'shortly'
tost 'soon'
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adès 'soon'
todis 'always'
Past
lors 'then'
(h)ier 'yesterday'
onques 'never'
piece a
segment of time have-3sg. pres.
· Adverbs of place. Location in space is referred to with a variety of adverbs, among them:
Here
ici, ci 'here'
ça 'here, hither'
In here
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There
la 'there'
ça 'there'
i 'there, thither'
Place where
ou 'where'
en 'thence, away'
Inside
enz 'inside'
Outside
hors 'outside'
Above
Under
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Down
jus 'down'
43 Prepositions
Prepositions in Old French trace back to a variety of elements: prepositions in Latin, adverbs,
participle, and nouns.
· Latin origin. Prepositions going back to Latin prepositions may be either compound forms or
non-compound forms:
In spoken Latin many prepositions were combined to form new prepositions, several of which
subsequently surivive in (Old) French; see, for example:
dans 'in'
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· Nouns. The prepositions chez 'at' and lez 'beside' originally were nouns. Chez traces back to
Latin casa 'hous', whereas lez originates in La. latus 'side'.
· Participles. In the later stages of Old French, participles came to be used as prepositions as
well; mostly present participles, cf.:
Present participles:
suivant 'following'
moyennant 'through'
durant 'during'
pendant 'during'
Perfective participles:
· Intention, cf.:
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· Numerals. Numerals in Old French are decimal, continuing a long tradition in Indo-European.
During the Middle Ages, vigesimals emerge in various languages in Western Europe, among
them Old French. They are also attested in other Medieval Romance languages as well as
Germanic and Celtic languages. They are used speci cally in combination with elements that
typically are counted: agricultural products, coins, measures, and so forth. From the 16th and
17th centuries vigesimals became less frequent again. Numerals like quatre-vingts in modern
French therefore are residues of a much wider use (see Grammar Point 48 in Lesson 10 for
references).
· Time. As pointed out in Lesson 3, the calendar of the Church determined life in the Middle Ages
to a great extent. The year, for example, is organized around important Christian holidays or
around important days in the liturgy of the Church. These special days are used in reference to
time, cf.:
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Reference is systematic as is the structure of the Church calendar. Epiphany, for example, is set
on the Twelfth Night following Christmas (i.e. on January 6); Easter is set on the rst Sunday
following the rst full moon after March 21; Lent is set during the forty days preceding Easter;
Pentecost (cf. Gk. pentekostos ' ftieth') is celebrated on the 50th day after Easter and is
preceded ten days before by Ascension.
Hour indication in Medieval texts is quite relative, and follows Roman habits. The 24-hour day
itself is divided into two important parts, the daylight part and the night part, each of twelve
hours. The twelve hours divide each of these segments. Consequently, the length of the
individual hours varies according to season. An hour at night in summer, for example, is much
shorter than an hour at day in summer or an hour at night in winter. In addition, Old French had
several adverbs indicating moments of the day; several of them are related to prayer habits in
monasteries, cf.:
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midi 'midday'
· Distance/length. Distance and length are measured in a way not found in a metrical system:
the measuring unit varies with the type of length and the object, and there is no consistent
correlation between the individual units (as there is between a centiment, a decimeter, a meter, a
kilometer, and so forth). The safest strategy for the student/reader is to check the individual
instances of distance indication that are encountered. A few measures are relatively frequent:
pouz 'a thumb', approx. 2.7 cm. (there are twelve pouz in one pié)
lieue 'a Gallic mile', approx. 4-5 km. (roughly three sea miles)
The absolute value of these measures often varies with the region.
· Monetary system. The monetary system, which during the Middle Ages reaches isolated parts
of the countryside as well, has strong local characteristics. While the o cial monetary system
based on pounds (Fr. livres) becomes increasingly important for commercial and tax reasons,
local systems continues to be used as well. The pound includes 20 shillings, each of twelve
pennies, and goes back to Charlemagne's reform of the monetary system.
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The Irish in the (early) Middle Ages were well-known for their marine skills, and they had the
habit of traveling regularly from one island to another. That the Navigatio may have more to it
than just imagination became clear in 1976 and 1977, when an expedition proved that it is
possible to cross the Atlantic Ocean and reach North America while taking a northerly route in
Irish skin boats (see references below). During their journey in the 1970s, the crew regularly
came across phenomena that could be identi ed as the ordeals described in the text of the
Navigatio. If the adventures related in the Navigatio indeed re ect stories of Irish people
travelling to North America, then the Irish discovered that continent long before Columbus, or
even the Vikings.
The Latin text, which also had a Germanic version, was translated into Old French no later than
the second half of the 13th century.
The fragment chosen here relates the beginnings of Brendan's odyssey. Brendan is head of a
monastery at Clonfert when he receives a visit from another monk, St. Barind. St. Barind tells
him that he has been visiting his godson, Mernoc, who had left him to live as an anchorite and
has founded a new monastery on an island. Mernoc invites St. Barind to travel to the "Promised
Land," which is described as rich in owers and fruits and providing plenty of food. Hearing
about these possibilities, Brendan selects a group of monks and decides to seek the "Promised
Land" himself.
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Dont commencha a dire sains Barintes a saint Brandain d'une isle et dist:
Mes fils Mernoc pourueeres des poures ihu crist
se departi de devant mi et iestres curieus.
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Lesson Text
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Grammar
46 Grammars and Dictionaries
Anglade, Joseph. 1965. Grammaire élémentaire de l'ancien français. Paris: Colin.
Buridant, Claude. 2000. Grammaire nouvelle de l'ancien français. Paris: Sedes.
Bonnard, J. and Am. Salmon. 1971. Lexique de l'ancien français. Paris: Champion.
Foulet, Lucien. 1930. Petite syntaxe de l'ancien français. Paris: Champion.
Grandsaignes d'Hauterive, R. 1947. Dictionnaire d'ancien français. Paris: Larousse.
Greimas, Algirdas. 1979. Dictionnaire de l'ancien français. Paris: Larousse.
Hindley, Alan, Frederick W. Langley, and Brian J. Levy. 2000. Old French - English Dictionary.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kibler, William. 1984. An Introduction to Old French. New York: Modern Language Association
of America.
Raynaud de Lage, Guy. 1975. Introduction a l'ancien français. 9e éd. Paris: Sedes.
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Roques, Mario. 1970. Recueil général des lexiques français du moyen âge. 12e - 15e siècles.
Paris: Champion.
Tobler, Adolf and Erhard Lommatzsch. 1925-1989. Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch. Berlin:
Weidmann and Wiesbaden: Steiner.
47 Sources
Bastin, Julia, ed. 1929. Recueil général des Isopets. Vol. 1. Paris: Société des anciens textes
français.
Bastin, Julia, ed. 1930. Recueil général des Isopets. Vol. 2. Paris: Société des anciens textes
français.
Frank, Grace, ed. 1949. Ruteboef. Le miracle de Théophile. Paris: Champion.
Moignet, Gérard, ed. 1969. La Chanson de Roland. Paris: Bordas.
Morawski, Joseph. 1925. Proverbes français antérieurs au 15e siècle. Paris: Champion.
Roques, Mario. 17978. Les Romans de Chrétien de Troyes. IV. Le Chevalier au Lion (Yvain).
Paris: Champion.
Storey, Christopher. 1968. La Vie de Saint Alexis. Genève: Droz.
Wahlund, Carl. 1974. Die altfranzösische Prosaübersetzung von Brendans Meerfahrt. Genève:
Slatkine.
48 Linguistic Analyses
Bauer, Brigitte L.M. 2003. "The Adverbial Formation in -mente in Vulgar and Late Latin. A
Problem in Grammaticalization." Latin Vulgaire et Latin Tardif. VI. Actes du 6me colloque
international sur le latin vulgaire et tardif. Heikki Solin, Martti Leiwo, and Hilla Halla-aho, eds.
Hildesheim: Olm. Pp. 439-457.
Bauer, Brigitte L.M. 2004. "Vigesimal Numerals in Romance: An Indo-European Perspective."
Indo-European Language and Culture in Historical Perspective: Essays in Memory of Edgar C.
Polomé. Bridget Drinka, ed. General Linguistics 41, pp. 21-46.
Buridant, Claude. 2000. Grammaire nouvelle de l'ancien français. Paris: Sedes.
Foulet, Lucien. 1930. Petite syntaxe de l'ancien français. Paris: Champion.
Marchello-Nizia, Christiane. 1995. L'évolution du françaiss. Ordre des mots, démonstratifs,
accent tonique. Paris: Colin.
Moignet, Gérard. 1973. Grammaire de l'ancien français. Paris: Klincksieck.
Pope, M.K. 1934. From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman.
Phonology and Morphology. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
49 Medieval Culture
Duby, Georges. 1967. L'an mil. Paris: Julliard.
Duby, Georges. 1976. Le temps des cathédrales. L'art et la société, 980-1420. Paris: Gallimard.
https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol_printable/ofrol 259/260
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Duby, Georges. 1981. The Age of the Cathedrals. Art and Society, 980-1420. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Gimpel, Jean. 1975. La révolution industrielle du moyen âge. Paris: Seuil.
Huizinga, Johan. 1975 (1919). Herfsttij der middeleeuwen. Studie over levens- en
gedachtevormen der veertiende en vijftiende eeuw in Frankrijk en de Nederlanden. Haarlem:
Willink.
Huizinga, Johan. 1997 (1919). The Autumn of the Middle Ages. Translation by Rodney J.
Payton and Ulrich Mammitzsch. Original title: Herfsttij der middeleeuwen (see above).
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Huizinga, Johan. 2002. L'automne du moyen âge. Transl. by J. Bastin. Original title: Herfsttij
der middeleeuwen (see above). Paris: Payot.
Mâle, Emile. 1947. L'art religieux du XIIe siècle en France. Etude sur les origines de
l'iconographie du moyen âge. Paris: Colin.
Mâle, Emile. 1948. L'art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France. Etude sur l'iconographie du moyen
âge et sur ses sources d'inspiration. Paris: Colin.
Pernoud, Régine. 1977. Pour en nir avec le moyen age. Paris: Seuil.
Pernoud, Régine. 1980. La femme au temps des cathédrales. Paris: Stock.
Réau, Louis. 1955-1959. L'iconographie de l'art chrétien. 6 vols. Paris: Presses univeristaires
de France.
Tuchman, Barbara W. 1979. A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century. London:
MacMillan.
Severin, Tim. 1979. The Brendan Voyage. New York, NY: Avon.
50 Handbooks, Literature
Castex, P.-G. and P. Surer. 1967. Manuel des études littéraires françaises. Moyen Age. Paris:
Hachette.
Lagarde, André and Laurent Michaud. 1963. Moyen age. Les grands auteurs français du
programme. Paris: Bordas.
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