A

Dissertation Report
on

EFFECT OF CLIMATIC PARAMETERS ON

CLASSROOM DESIGN

In Partial fulfillment of requirement for Fourth year

Bachelors of Architecture (B.ARCH) 2017-2018
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune

Submitted by
Khatmode Archana Pramod

Under the guidance of

Prof. Shailaja Bhagwat (Guide)

ABMSP’S
Anantrao Pawar College of Architecture, Pune
APRIL 2018.

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 Akhil Bhartiya Maratha Sikshan Parishad’s
Anantrao Pawar College of Architecture, Pune
Savitribai Phule Pune University, India
2017-2018

Approved by Council of Architecture, New Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra, Affiliated to

Savitiribai Phule Pune University
Savitribai Phule Pune University Identification No. PU/PN/Arch/462/2014, DTE CODE 6837

DATE:

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ms. Khatmode archana is the bonafied student of this college studying
in B.Arch. course during the academic year 2017-2018 Fourth Year second semester.
Her Dissertation topic registered for Corse is” EFFECT OF CLIMATIC PARAMETERS
ON CLASSROOM DESIGN ". Her dissertation and progress are satisfactory and to the
best of my knowledge, She is appearing for Fourth year B.Arch. examination in April 2018.
This college is affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University and approved by council of
Architecture, New Delhi and all India council of Technical education, New Delhi.

Prof.Shilpa Ingawle Dr. Rajendra Koli

Dissertation Co-ordinator Principal

Prof. Shailaja Bhagwat External Examiner

Internal Guide Sign and Date

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 DECLARATION

This work has not been previously submitted for a Degree or Diploma in any university. To
the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis on Minor/Major contains no material
previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the
report itself. I have given due credit to the sources and have acknowledged them
appropriately.

PLACE: PARVATI, PUNE

DATE: KHATMODE ARCHANA PRAMOD

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Title: Effect of Climatic Parameters on Classroom Design for Institutional Building

ABSTRACT:
The importance of climate on building design requires the necessity of a comprehensive
study and research in this field. The fact that educational buildings are places where the
majority of us spend most of our formative years, their design plays an important part in
improving the education level and well-being of society. A number of changes have been
made to the traditional design of these buildings in the last few decades and the old education
system, where the teacher solely acts as an informer and the children as receivers, is by and
large outdated. Architects have to find creative ways of mixing public and private spaces and
variations in between those, without the limitations of the closed, rectangular class room.
Classroom environment is very important for students. The designer or architect should
design with consideration of climate and have full knowledge of prevailing climatic and
weather conditions of the area under design.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research is made possible due to the help and support of everyone including my
teachers, parents, brother, family, friends, and in essence all sentient beings.

First and foremost, I would like to thank our Principal, Prof. KOLI for his support and
encouragement.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude towards my guide, Professor
Shailaja Bhagwat for her expertise and highly valuable guidance and support throughout the
course of the study.
She gave a meaningful direction to my vague ideas and concepts. The influence of her ideas
and thoughts are manifested in this research.

I would also like to thank Prof. Shilpa Ingawle for their valuable guidance and insights
regarding various aspects and presentation of this research and also the entire faculty and
staff of A.P. College of Architecture, who have played a part in completing my research.

Alongside I must thank all the people who took part in surveys, and have helped me reach my
findings.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 10
1.1 BACKGROUND:- ............................................................................................................ 10
1.2 AIM: .................................................................................................................................. 11
1.3 OBJECTIVES: .................................................................................................................. 11
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................. 11
1.5 HYPOTHESIS .................................................................................................................. 12
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: ..................................................................................... 12
1.7 SCOPE: ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.8 LIMITATIONS: ................................................................................................................ 12
1.9 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH ................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION: - ......................................................................................................... 13
2.2 CLIMATE DEFINITION:- ............................................................................................... 14
2.3 CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA:-..................................................................................... 14
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 15
HOT AND DRY ................................................................................................................... 15
WARM AND HUMID.......................................................................................................... 15
COLD.................................................................................................................................... 16
COMPOSITE ........................................................................................................................ 17
OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.4 THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE .................................................................................... 17
A. DAYLIGHT:- ....................................................................................................................... 18
SUN ORIENTATION – THE ANGLE OF THE BUILDING:- ................................................... 22
ORIENTATION IN WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE: ............................................................ 24
B. WIND .................................................................................................................................... 24
VENTILATION ............................................................................................................................ 26
C. TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................................. 27
D. HUMIDITY .......................................................................................................................... 28
E. THERMAL COMFORT ....................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER 3 – CASE STUDIES .......................................................................................... 31
3.1 CASE STUDY 1-FUSD SCHOOL BUILDING TYPES ................................................. 31
3.2 CASE STUDY 2-DAYLIGHT CODE ............................................................................. 33
3.3 CASE STUDY 3: DPS KINDERGARTEN SCHOOL IN BANGALORE INDIA ......... 36
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STUDIES ......................................................................... 40

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DESIGN SOLUTIONS .......................................................................................................... 41
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 45

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TABLE OF FIGURE:-
Figure 1-TYPICAL CLASSROOM
Figure 2-PASSIVE CONCEPTS .......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-CLIMATE ZONE MAP OF INDIA ...................................................................................... 14
Figure 4-WARM & HUMID ZONES IN INDIA ................................................................................. 16
Figure 5-DAYLIGHT
Figure 6-DAY LIGHTING CONCEPT ................................................................................................ 18
Figure 7-Performance scale of daylight factor, Average illuminance, Surface “In Range”, Uniformity,
Daylighting autonomy, Energy demand ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 8-DEFINATION OF LUMINANCE & ILLUMINANCE ........................................................ 20
Figure 9-The classroom and activity area with large glazing; (Right) The library utilizes clerestory
windows for diffuse daylighting (Ben Franklin Elementary School, Kirkland Washington, US –
Confirmatory Case) (Source: Mahlum Photography) ........................................................................... 20
Figure 12-Dual aspect lighting by way of skylight: optimal ................................................................. 21
Figure 10-Dual aspect lighting by way of clerestory to atrium: eye level glare with insufficient
daylight factor from atrium ................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 11-Single aspect lighting: insufficient daylight to far side of classroom .................................. 21
Figure 13-June noon ............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 14-March and September noon.................................................................................................. 22
Figure 15-December noon .................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 16-SUNLIGHT ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT CONDITIONS ........................................... 22
Figure 17-This sun path diagram of Chicago illustrates how the path of the sun changes throughout a
year. The angle of the sun is much higher in the summer months and lower in the winter. ................. 23
Figure 18-SUN PATH .......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 21 ............................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 19-Wind moment is and around exposal building ..................................................................... 24
Figure 20-Flow patterns around tall, slab like building area of increased wind speeds at pedestrian
level ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 22-CROSS VENTILATION ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 23 ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 24-VENTILATION DETAIL.................................................................................................... 26
Figure 27-TEMP. VARIATIONS THROUGHOUT INDIA ................................................................ 27
Figure 25-Cross ventilation - optimal ................................................................................................... 27
Figure 26-Single - sided ventilation: poor ventilation on the far side of room ..................................... 27
Figure 28-SUN ANGLE
Figure 29-Orientation with longer facades on E-W .............................................................................. 29
Figure 30 ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 31-Drop ceilings are thermally inefficient causing peaks in internal temperatures................... 30
Figure 32-Exposed thermal mass on ceilings and high level walls serves to retain heat generated
internally and moderate room temperature. .......................................................................................... 30
Figure 33-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Finger Plan School .............................................. 31
Figure 34-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Double Loaded School Plan ............................... 32
Figure 35-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Grouped Plan ...................................................... 32
Figure 36-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Pinwheel Plan ..................................................... 32
Figure 37-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Pod Plan .............................................................. 33
Figure 38-Bungalow Exterior View and Interior View ........................................................................ 33
Figure 39-DAYLIGHT CODE CRITERIA .......................................................................................... 34

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Figure 40-Photos of Daylight Code 5 Classrooms ................................................................................ 34
Figure 41-Photos of Daylight Code 4 Classrooms ................................................................................ 35
Figure 42-Photo of Daylight Code 3 Classroom ................................................................................... 35
Figure 43-Photo of Daylight Code 2 Classroom ................................................................................... 35
Figure 44-Photo of Daylight Code 1 Classroom ................................................................................... 36
Figure 45-Photo of Daylight Code 0 Classroom ................................................................................... 36
Figure 48-Ground floor plan ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 49-First Floor Plan ..................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 46-Central courtyard .................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 47-The classrooms on either side flank an 8ft wide single loaded corridor and open up to a
central open-to-sky courtyard. .............................................................................................................. 37
Figure 50
Figure 51 ............................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 52 & Figure 53-Corridors run around the central perimeter of the school, while a bright red
staircase connects the ground floor with classrooms on the upper level. ............................................. 38
Figure 54 ............................................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 55 ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 56 ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 57-Horizontal overhang with WWR of 20%
Figure 58-Sloped overhang with WWR of 20% ................................................................................... 43
Figure 61-Horizontal overhang with WWR of 40%
Figure 62-Sloped overhang with WWR of 40% ................................................................................... 43
Figure 59-Horizontal overhang with drop edge with WWR of 20% .................................................... 43
Figure 60-Horizontal overhang with side view protection with WWR of 20%.................................... 43
Figure 63-Double horizontal overhang with WWR of 40% ................................................................. 44
Figure 64-Double horizontal overhang with three louvers with WWR of 40 ....................................... 44
Figure 65-Horizontal overhang with three louvers with WWR of 60% ............................................... 44
Figure 66-Double horizontal overhang with three louvers with WWR of 60% ................................... 44
Figure 67-Double Horizontal overhang with three louvers with WWR of 60% .................................. 44
Figure 68-Double Horizontal overhang with WWR of 60% ................................................................ 44

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 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

Climate is the statistical component of weather conditions for some place viewed over a long
period of time, usually for duration of at least 20 to 35 years. The frequency of specific
occurrences, the range of values, and the variability of values or occurrences are attributes
and significant factors in distinguishing the climate of one region from another.
Understanding of the climate is therefore essential to the design of climate responsive
buildings. It is proper when designing for a particular region to put into consideration the
climatic conditions of the region.

Students spend much of their day in classrooms that almost never feel warm and homelike.
Rooms that do will improve student morale and make students happier to be there. It provides
the opportunity for students to help create an inviting environment that supports positive
interaction. And it empowers students in the process. Classrooms are very public places-
everyone knows who does what and how well or how badly.
To truly enhance human well-being, building design needs to move beyond optimising single
parameters such as temperature and humidity, to more holistic approaches that take their cues
in health-supporting human behaviours. Based on the Five Ways to Well-Being that have
recently been established by scientists, this article outlines some essential rules of thumb that
designers can follow in order to nudge building users into a healthier way of living.
Classrooms with good environmental performance can considerably improve the attention
capacity, concentration, learning, hearing and behaviour of the students. It is argued that
spaces designed with an understanding of how children respond to the properties of the space
can contribute to creating an environment that favours the student's learning performance. In
practice, if the students feel uncomfortable or distracted by noise, by poor lighting conditions,
due to the lack of heating, cooling and/or ventilation, their capacity to learn will be affected.
It is important that planners and the designers of schools see, in their task, an opportunity to
create better settings for learning, as a tool which favours academic performance.

1.1 BACKGROUND:-

Across the history Human used the shelter to protect them from danger Such as wild animals
and Climatic conditions. Later on with the evolution of human the dwellings has developed
after it was a cave in Mount it became a building in various forms and functions. Buildings
provide the foundation for our daily activities, for example, educational, commercial,
Healthcare. Etc.

Climate is generally the weather conditions of a region, as temperature, air pressure,

humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness, and winds, throughout the year, averaged over
a series of years (N.D, The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy) Every
region have it own climatic characteristics that can affect the architecture facade differently,
for example- In warm areas like middle east region, people avoid the glare and the heat of the
sun, as demonstrated by the decreasing size of the windows. On the other hand in north

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Europe they use glass in Exaggeration way to allow the sun light to enter the building and
heat the interior space because of the cold weather of their region.

Learning spaces are evolving into increasingly dynamic environments that support a wide
range of learning styles and pedagogical approaches. The classrooms of tomorrow are
flexible, technologically advanced spaces that support discovery and experimentation like
never before and allow students to collaborate with peers and instructors in novel ways.
At the heart of the American university experience resides a core tenant of higher education:
organized, focused, outcome-oriented learning. For much of history this learning was focused
on developing well-established academic skills and was achieved in two basic types of space:
the classroom – a highly ordered, largely inflexible space where instructors presented
information to small groups of students, and lecture halls – where large assemblies of
students would be addressed by a well-regarded speaker. Each setting successfully placed
students and information in close proximity but did little to enhance students’
comprehension. Each has allowed countless numbers of students to gain an understanding of
course content through knowledge delivery and consumption techniques that have been in
practice for centuries.

1.2 AIM:

 The aim is to examine and analyse the climatic effect on classroom design for
institutional building.

1.3 OBJECTIVES:

 To investigate and study the climatic parameters such as daylight, wind direction,
orientation, temperature, humidity, etc.

 To develop the knowledge required for understanding the influence of climate on

classroom.

 The objective was applying a methodology that integrates the daylight variations to
know the annual lighting performance in typologies that resulted from passive design
strategies in order to compare their performance.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

How important is lighting quality, orientation, illuminance, ventilation strategies for

classroom?

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1.5 HYPOTHESIS

Daylight, illuminance, orientation, window and ventilation strategies are important for
classroom design.

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

Analytical study through case studies and research

1.7 SCOPE:

 The study would include the comparative analysis of climatic parameters

 The study can be proved through statistical analysis and case studies.
 Implementation of natural ventilation system-daylighting can be provided.

1.8 LIMITATIONS:

 Climatic zones, only classroom and specific parameters.

 Limitations are design criteria change according to climatic zones.
 According to user for the classroom the design parameters changes
 Optimum temperature for humans to reside is hard to achieve.

1.9 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

This research will help in designing of climate responsive classroom which will further
benefit for the low energy consumption as well as better performance and well being of
the student.

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 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION: -

“Designs for classrooms not only tell us much about the didactic means that were used
therein; they also reveal the essence of the pedagogy that directed the educative efforts of
past times.” – McClintock and McClintock (1968, p. 60)

Passive (Solar) Concepts

• Daylighting

Architectural and technical measures

Plus:
Artificial lighting control, sun and glare
protection, visual comfort

Figure 1-TYPICAL CLASSROOM Figure 2-PASSIVE CONCEPTS

In 1851, Henry Barnard compiled a reference guide of classroom spaces entitled, Practical
Illustrations of the Principles of School Architecture. Barnard writes in this compendium
about his experiences visiting American school houses, noting that the school’s “location,
construction, furniture, and arrangements seemed to hinder, and not promote, to defeat and
not perfect, the work which was to be carried out within and without its walls” (p. 9).

He attributes the poor construction of these schools’ spaces to the lack of a consideration of
the users, arguing that teachers and students have differing needs based on the type of
material they are learning, the type of activities in which they are engaged, and the physical
size of the students as they mature from early childhood toward adulthood. In Barnard’s
mind, the perfected school was one which considered the needs and the comfort of its users
and was built to accommodate their needs.

Barnard’s work and the work of his contemporaries (e.g. Horace Mann, James Henry) were
centered on the establishment of standards for classrooms. These standards were designed to
meet the needs of the users of the buildings; some are things that might be considered as
typical quality control issues today:
 Proper ventilation, available restroom facilities,
 Adequate lighting, and
 Adjustable heating and cooling.
These concerns have persisted to present times. Moreover, changes in the technology
behind these systems have changed their application to educational environment. For
example, schools no longer use wood burning stoves to heat classrooms or rely on

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 sunlight from windows to light the spaces; heating and cooling are largely self-regulating;
and restrooms are a required component of any campus building project.

2.2 CLIMATE DEFINITION:-

Climate (from Greek Klima) is defined as certain conditions of temperature, dryness, wind,
light, etc. of a region. Different regions of the world have diverse characteristic climates. A
place or region's climate is determined by both natural and manmade factors.
The relationship between People, Climate and buildings is non- linear and complexly
interdependent. Climate also affects the use of land, the type of crop that can be grown or the
animal husbandry that can be practiced. These variations in the use of land can cause regional
climatic changes- such as the spread of desert conditions due to deforestation. Microclimate
variations can be caused by presence of trees, grass and water. Built up areas and cities would
tend to have their own microclimate which would differ significantly from the climate of the
region. Ground reflecting surfaces and artificial topographical features can affect wind flow,
solar radiation and hence temperature patterns. It is now established that the consumption of
energy in cities for buildings and transport etc. can make very significant changes to
temperature.

Here are the climatic elements like air temperature, relative moisture, the intensity and angle
of sun radiation which are considered significantly important.

2.3 CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA:-

Figure 3-CLIMATE ZONE MAP OF INDIA

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Introduction
As per the climatic classification of national building code – 2005, though India has large
variety of climate types, it is predominantly a country with tropical climate. Approximately
90% of the area has hot-dry, warm-humid and composite climate. Regions having similar
characteristic features of climate are grouped under one climatic zone. According to a recent
code of Bureau of Indian Standards, the country may be divided into five major climatic
zones:

1. Hot & Dry (mean monthly temperature >30 and relative humidity <55%);
2. Warm & Humid (mean monthly temperature >25-30 and relative humidity >55-75%);
3. Temperate (mean monthly temperature 25-30 and relative humidity <75%);
4. Cold (mean monthly temperature <25 and relative humidity – all values);
5. Composite (This applies, when six months or more do not fall within any of the other
categories)

India Climate can be divided into mainly four zones namely, Alpine, Sub tropical, Tropical
and Arid.

Situated roughly between 8º N and 37º Brief Description Buildings in different climatic zones
require different passive features to make structures energy-efficient. Some features that can
be adopted in particular zones are listed below.

 HOT AND DRY

 The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer,
Jodhpur and Sholapur are some of the towns that experience this type of climate.
 In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot
winds. The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing
shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing
thermal capacity. The presence of “water bodies” is desirable as they can help
increase the humidity, thereby leading to lower air temperatures. The ground and
surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings. As far as
possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.
 Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
 Appropriate orientation and shape of building
 Insulation of building envelope 
 Massive structure 
 Air locks, lobbies, balconies, and verandahs 
 Weather stripping and scheduling air changes 
 External surfaces protected by overhangs, fins, and trees 
 Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles 
 Windows and exhausts 
 Courtyards, wind towers, and arrangement of openings 
 Trees, ponds, and evaporative cooling

 WARM AND HUMID

 The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country, such as Mumbai,
Chennai and Kolkata.

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  The main design criteria in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by
providing shading, and promote heat loss by maximizing cross ventilation.
Dissipation of humidity is also essential to reduce discomfort.
 Moderate; Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic
zone. The design criteria in the moderate zone are to reduce heat gain by providing
shading, and to promote heat loss by ventilation.
 Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
 Appropriate orientation and shape of building
 Roof insulation and east and west wall insulation
 Walls facing east and west, glass surface protected by overhangs, fins, and trees
 Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles
 Windows and exhausts
 Courtyards and arrangement of openings

Figure 4-WARM & HUMID ZONES IN INDIA

 COLD
 Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. The design
criteria are to resist heat loss by insulation and controlling infiltration.
Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by admitting and trapping solar
radiation within the living space.
 Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
 Appropriate orientation and shape of building
 Use of trees as wind barriers
 Roof insulation, wall insulation, and double glazing
 Thicker walls
 Air locks and lobbies
 Weather stripping
 Darker
 colours
 Sun spaces, greenhouses and trombe walls (One of the simplest and most elegant solutions to
retain solar heat is the Trombe wall, where solar heat is collected and stored in a wall of high thermal
mass, tempering the heat gain during the day and releasing it at night. )

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  The Trombe wall is named after a French engineer Felix Trombe in the 1970s
particularly well-suited to sunny climates that have high diurnal (day-night)
temperature swings.
 COMPOSITE
 The composite zone covers the central part of India, such as New Delhi, Kanpur and
Allahabad. The design criteria are more or less the same as for hot and dry climate
except that maximizing cross ventilation is desirable in the monsoon period.
 Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:

 Appropriate orientation and shape of building

 Use of trees as wind barriers
 Roof insulation and wall insulation

 Weather stripping
 Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins, and trees
 Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles
 Exhausts
 Courtyards, wind towers, and arrangement of openings
 Trees and ponds for evaporative cooling
 Dehumidifiers and desiccant cooling

OVERVIEW
The main considerations are lighting, ventilation, humidity, and thermal comfort. In a
classroom with only one exterior wall, which is often the case, it is nearly impossible to
achieve the requirements for all of these factors simply using passive systems. Unfortunately,
mechanical systems are not always economically feasible. In light of this it is imperative that
all four factors are considered early on in the design and planning stages, and, depending on
site conditions, budget constraints, and specific user requirements, a strategy toward the
importance and impact of each factor is developed. The following are the basic requirements
and conflicts when dealing with light, ventilation, acoustics, and thermal comfort in a
classroom with a single exterior wall.

2.4THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

 Daylight
 Wind
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Thermal comfort

The designer is interested in those aspects of climate which affect human comfort and the
use of buildings. They include averages, changes and extremes of temperature, the
temperature differences between day and night, humidity, air movements and special
features such as trade winds. Climatic records as gathered at Climatic records as gathered
at airports and meteorological stations are not primarily intended for the use of designers.

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 A. DAYLIGHT:-

Figure 5-DAYLIGHT Figure 6-DAY LIGHTING CONCEPT

"Depending on the context, we work with daylight in many different ways.

In primary schools or creative institutions we use the changing nature of daylight to stimulate
creativity and playful learning. At universities and institutes of higher education, we ensure a
more even distribution of light that is pulled far into classrooms, providing ideal conditions
for reading and studying," says Louis Becker.

Classrooms on the north side of the building have large windows facing north to receive a lot
of indirect sunlight, which is the most suitable for working environments. Windows that face
the south and south east receive the most direct sunlight and are therefore behind vertical
timber louvers to prevent possible glare and overheating. The louvers rotate according to the
time of day and directions of the sunlight to shield the spaces from strong sunlight. Other
facades have fewer and smaller windows.

A building should operate with low energy consumption and offer a healthy, bright and
inspiring indoor climate. One of the key elements in achieving a good indoor climate is
daylight. When utilized wisely, daylight can improve students' wellbeing and indoor
experience as well as reduce the building's level of energy consumption. Research proves that
the right amount of daylight helps students to learn faster and achieve better results (World
Green Building Council, 2013). The correct use of daylight supports the children's
intellectual development. Furthermore, daylight is a rich resource when it comes to designing
a dynamic learning environment with great variation in intensity of light, color rendering,
orientation and movement of light through the space. This dynamic influences our experience
of space, time and colors as well as our motivation and ability to learn and be creative.

The design of the facade allows for the daylight to enter the building through windows of
various sizes, thus creating an ever-changing inflow of daylight. As previously stated,
maximising the use of daylight in order to improve student performance and reduce energy
demand is an absolute imperative. Good quality daylight is given by north-facing windows
and general teaching spaces that face north will receive even, consistent light through all
seasons.
East-facing classrooms are also good, providing an abundance of daylight during morning
hours when students are most alert and temperatures are cooler, and avoiding too much heat
toward the end of the day when external and internal (occupants, computers, lights)
temperatures rise. However, an east-facing scheme should consider the glare of low light at

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sunrise and early morning and may require the use of shading devices to temper the effect.
South and west-facing classrooms cannot always be avoided, and direct light can produce a
large amount of glare and provide substantial amounts of solar heat gain.

However, if a specific site results in south and west-facing classrooms, then the area, type and
height of glazing should be carefully considered to mitigate heat gain and minimise glare.
The choice of the type of rooms to locate on the south and west orientations should also be
considered at an early stage and in relation to the management practices of the school.
Equally, art rooms may require particular types of light and should be given priority when
allocating spaces to specific orientations. Furthermore, it is important to take account of any
shadows from surrounding buildings, rises in topography, or heavily forested areas when
considering natural lighting.

Clearly an average daylight factor of 5% or more is desirable, assuming that the associated
issues of summer overheating and glare can be overcome. However, it should be realised that
to achieve 5% or more with a single side of wall glazing in a classroom is not possible. To
achieve 5%, roof lights or clerestory windows would be needed at the rear of the classroom.
Although the use of atria spaces with good daylight penetration can help, they generally do
not allow enough light to penetrate the rear of the classroom.

It should be recognised that achieving a 5% daylight factor throughout all the school spaces is
very unlikely, especially when the school is not of single-storey construction.

 A daylight factor is the ratio of internal light level to external light level and is defined
as follows:
 DF = (Ei / Eo) x 100% where,
Ei = illuminance due to daylight at a point on the indoors working plane,
Eo =simultaneous outdoor illuminance on a horizontal plane from an unobstructed
hemisphere of overcast sky.
 In order to calculate Ei, one must establish the amount of light received from the
outside to the inside of a building.
 There are three paths along which light can reach a point inside a room through a
glazed window, rooflight, oraperture, as follows:
 Direct light from a patch of sky visible at the point considered, known as the sky
component (SC),
 Light reflected from an exterior surface and then reaching the point considered,
known as the externally reflected component (ERC),
 Light entering through the window but reaching the point only after reflection from an
internal surface, known as the internally reflected component (IRC).

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 Figure 7-Performance scale of daylight
Figure 8-DEFINATION OF LUMINANCE
factor, Average illuminance, Surface “In
& ILLUMINANCE
Range”, Uniformity, Daylighting
autonomy, Energy demand

 The sum of the three components gives the illuminance level (lux) at the point
considered:
 Lux = SC + ERC + IRC
 Illuminance is measured in foot candles (FC) or lux. 1 FC is the amount of light that
hits a 1 square foot surface when 1 lumen is shined from 1 foot away – this equates to
1 lumen per square foot. 1 lux is the amount of light that hits a 1 square meter surface
when 1 lumen is shined from 1 meter away – this equates to 1 lumen per square
meter. 10 lux is roughly 1 FC.

ROOM TYPE LIGHT LEVEL LIGHT IECC 2015 LIGHTING

(FOOT CANDLES) LEVEL POWER DENSITY (WATTS
(LUX) PER SF)

Classroom - 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 1.24

General

Figure 9-The classroom and activity area with large glazing; (Right) The library utilizes clerestory
windows for diffuse daylighting (Ben Franklin Elementary School, Kirkland Washington, US – Confirmatory Case)
(Source: Mahlum Photography)

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For this reason a technical brief should not ask for a 5% daylight factor throughout and
an exercise should be undertaken to determine priorities for such requirements.
A good strategy for daylight briefing would be to identify those spaces that would benefit
from the higher levels of daylight and accept that those rooms not on the top storey will not
achieve the highest standards of daylight. A pre-engineering task could identify the levels of
daylight expected in the majority of spaces and a clearer brief could be written containing
minimum daylight factors and uniformity standards. Circulation spaces also benefit from
daylight penetration. Without daylight, access corridors can be gloomy spaces.
In some spaces it is not possible to have any daylight. This creates inner spaces without any
view of the outside or connection to the external conditions. In such cases it is important that
the proposed use of the space considers this aspect. These internal rooms would not be a good
space for a permanent staff location, but may be more suitable to a meeting room or other
transiently occupied usage.

It is also important to understand where elements such as whiteboards and computer screens
will be located, in order to avoid reflections which cause glare. This also affects the
performance of thermal mass, since an applied reflective surface will prevent absorption. This
is why it is suggested that thermal mass be on ceilings and high up on walls.

Figure 11-Single aspect lighting: Figure 10-Dual aspect lighting by way of

insufficient daylight to far side of clerestory to atrium: eye level glare with
classroom insufficient daylight factor from atrium

Figure 12-Dual aspect lighting by way of skylight: optimal

In addition, depth of sills, height and area of glazing and the inclusion of sun-shading devices
all need to be considered. The following diagrams illustrate general sun angles during
different seasons. The issue of glare in winter is illustrated in the winter conditions diagram.

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 Figure 13-June noon Figure 14-March and September
noon

Figure 15-December noon

Daylight is an important part of the desire for windows and has qualities that cannot be
replicated by electric light. The changing direction, intensity, and even color of daylight are
stimulating and connect people to the time of day and the natural world.
Daylight design is far more sophisticated than simply providing a window with a high enough
visible transmittance. More daylight does not necessarily equate to better lighting conditions.
It is a matter of balancing daylight admission with glare control, as well as providing uniform
light distribution. Remember that the usability of daylight is dependent on the task. For some
tasks, bright illumination improves visual acuity and glare is of little concern. For computer
tasks, glare may be problematic and it is better to control illuminance levels.

Figure 16-SUNLIGHT ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

SUN ORIENTATION – THE ANGLE OF THE BUILDING:-

In tropical climate like India long facades of buildings oriented towards North—south are
preferred. East and West receive maximum solar radiation during summer. In predominantly
cold regions, also North South long facades are advisable, as South orientation receives
maximum intensity of solar radiation in winter months.

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This is to be expected as the rooms towards the South receive the most solar radiation of all
the different room orientations. The rooms can heat up quickly, especially when the sunlight
penetrates directly into the room. The rooms towards the West experience stronger and more
intense sunlight and sun heat than those towards the East. The North rooms, on the other
hand, do not receive direct solar radiation for most of the time. In order to take advantage of
the solar heat as much as possible, in most instances the North and South walls should be
longer than the east and west ones. A rule of thumb is that a ratio of around 1.3 to 2.0 will
optimize wanted or unwanted heat gain or heat dissipation in terms of solar incidence for
warm and humid zone. (Littler and Thomas 1984; Szokolay 2003 p64).
Orientation is an important variable affecting energy performance in a building. Building
orientation will have impacts on the building's heating, cooling, and lighting, as well as
relating it to the natural environment in terms of access to daylight, ventilation and views.
Differences in annual electricity use between orientations are driven by solar gain affecting
cooling and daylight affecting electric lighting. Depending on the climate, certain low-
E coatings will allow or reject the solar heat gain through the glazing system. In a cold
climate this passive solar gain may be desired while in a hot climate it is not.

Figure 17-This sun path diagram of Chicago illustrates how the path of the sun changes throughout a
year. The angle of the sun is much higher in the summer months and lower in the winter.

Orientation, in combination with window area and the type of glass, also affects the amount
of light that can enter a space. Appropriate levels of light entering a space may result in the
reduction in the use of electric lighting. This is usually achieved by using a glazing system
with a high visible transmittance. Glare issues need to be considered.
In most climates, a southern orientation is preferred due to the ability to shade the summer
sun to reduce unwanted solar gain while still capturing daylight to reduce the lighting energy
load. The angle of the summer sun is much higher while the angle of the sun in the winter is
lower which allows the light and heat to possibly enter the space. Light-redirecting strategies,
such as light shelves, work well on a south facade.
North oriented facades receive good ambient and indirect daylight. Solar heat gain, too much
direct light, and glare issues are minimized. In colder climates, possible heat loss through the
window unit should be considered.
Due to low sun angles, glare and increased solar heat gain is harder to control on the east and
west facades.

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ORIENTATION IN WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE:
Orient the buildings with the long axes in the east-west direction so that the longest walls face
north and south, and only the short wall face east and west.

Temperature ranges from

 Maximum temp 270 C-32 0 C
 Manimum temp 210 C-27 0 C in
summers.
In winters, little seasonal variations both
annual and diurnal ranges of temperature
are very narrow.
Humidity remains high around 75 % but
varies from 55%-100%.
Wind typically low wind velocities. Strong
wind with torrential rains
Figure 18-SUN PATH Solar radiation – the intensity of solar
radiation is high during summers and
moderate during winters.
B. WIND
The shape of the building bends away from prevailing wind directions and lets the wind blow
over it gently with less resistance, to minimize the likelihood of so-called downdraught
effect. Obviously, the angled roofs also let rainwater off more easily than flat roofs and are
more suitable for Nordic weathers.

Figure 20-Flow patterns around tall, Figure 19-Wind moment is and

slab like building area of increased around exposal building
wind speeds at pedestrian level

Figure 21

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The buildings’ inner form provides constant natural ventilation, as all spaces above ground
have both fixed and operable windows.
Vertical cores and openings in the roof create a so-called chimney effect. That is when cold
air entering the windows of the facade, warms up as it travels through the building, rises up
the cores and center spaces and exits the roof windows at the top.
Window area or window-to-wall ratio (WWR) is an important variable affecting energy
performance in a building. Window area will have impacts on the building's heating, cooling,
and lighting, as well as relating it to the natural environment in terms of access
to daylight, ventilation and views.

Figure 22-CROSS VENTILATION

Figure 23

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VENTILATION
The primary purpose of ventilation is to moderate indoor air quality (IAQ). The secondary
purpose is to prevent summer overheating; this demands the largest ventilation requirement.
It is important to understand that all the ventilation requirements are unlikely to be achieved
by opening windows alone, and, although opening windows can aid in passive ventilation
(depending on external air quality, temperature, noise sources, internal acoustic
requirements), opening windows during the winter can create draughts and lead to significant
heat loss.

Ventilation is a process by which air is removed from and supplied to premises

simultaneously.
•To supply fresh air to meet the respiratory needs of the occupants.
•To remove airborne contaminants such as dusts, mists, gases, vapour tobacco smoke, body
odors and bacteria which may pose health hazards or nuisance to the occupants.
•To maintain the temperature and humidity within an acceptable range that is appropriate to
the activities on the premises.

Figure 24-VENTILATION DETAIL

It is therefore imperative that the ventilation strategy is able to function at its optimum
during cold external weather conditions and that any window openings are arranged in
a suitable manner to avoid draughts. However, this does not mean that passive
principles cannot be used.

Essentially, passive ventilation works on the following principle: taking air from the outside
(mediating its temperature), pulling it across the space, and extracting it at a second point.
Because hot air rises, the intake vent is usually placed low on the exterior wall, and the
extraction vent/chimney is up high. The higher the vent/taller the chimney, the greater the
force of the air being pulled across the space, and the greater the air exchange rate. The
system will work most efficiently when the whole classroom is sealed (i.e. all windows and
doors are closed) so that the air has only one place to come in, and one place to go out. The
ventilation openings must be acoustically attenuated (sound-dampening) should the external
noise levels be high. This means that sound from outside is absorbed, while air is still allowed
to pass through. Double-sided or cross-flow ventilation will perform to higher standards than
single-sided ventilation. The results in Appendix 1 give an example of the scale of
improvement that cross-flow ventilation will achieve.

Cross section of typical classroom/tutorial room in natural ventilation mode:-

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 Figure 26-Single - sided ventilation: poor Figure 25-Cross ventilation - optimal
ventilation on the far side of room

C. TEMPERATURE
Basically, thermal comfort in a building is achieved by maintaining temperature, humidity,
air movement and human activity conditions within a certain range. Space heating and/or
cooling loads, which are required to maintain this comfort, to some extent, depend on the
building’s quality itself to modify the external conditions and how far the outdoor conditions
are from the acceptable range. (Szokolay 2003, p63)

Figure 27-TEMP. VARIATIONS THROUGHOUT INDIA

In case of design based approach, passive solar design, ventilation, insulation on the building
envelope, shading and glazing area, proper orientation of buildings etc. are the key
parameters for optimization process. In this study, a vernacular building of warm and humid
climatic zone of North-East India is considered.

There are three building design options practically which have the greatest influence on
thermal performance: Orientation: solar heat is the main source to warm the surface of the
whole Earth and every single building anywhere in the world. The Earth’s movement in
relation to the Sun can be calculated with great accuracy, and so the orientation of the
building will have a predictable impact on the indoor environment. Building layout: links to
the building shape, which heavily affects the heat gains and losses, as the exchange between
the outside and the envelope is directly proportional to the surface area. Windows: the larger
the windows the more the solar gain and the greater the heat loss.

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 D. HUMIDITY
Classrooms with minimal windows and minimal outside light increases student depression.
At the other extreme, windows without adequate room darkeners make visual media difficult
to use.

While the human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly efficient at feeling heat and
cold, relative humidity (RH) is harder to detect. The influence of humidity on the perception
of an indoor environment can play a part in the perceived temperature and their thermal
comfort. As a matter of fact, relative humidity affects the evaporation from the skin, which is
the prevailing way of heat loss at high temperatures, normally from 26°C (80°F). At lower
RH more sweat is allowed to evaporate from the body, while at higher values it is harder for
this process to happen, because the air's moisture content is already elevated. Therefore, very
humid environments (RH > 70-80%) are usually uncomfortable because the air is close to the
saturation level, thus strongly reducing the possibility of heat loss through evaporation. On
the other hand, very dry environments (RH < 20-30%) are also uncomfortable because of
their effect on the mucous membranes. The recommended level of indoor humidity is in the
range of 30-60%, but new methods allow lower and higher humidities, depending on the
other factors involved in thermal comfort

Moisture can be a liability if it comes in the form of humidity, causing such stickiness that
one cannot evaporative cool (cooling by perspiring) in summer strategies to reduce the
discomfort of high humidity : maximizing ventilation, inducing air flow around facilities
venting or moving moisture-producing functions such as kitchens and shower rooms to
outside areas nature can be an asset by evaporating in hot, dry climates to cool and humidify
the air (a natural air conditioning) techniques for evaporative cooling include placing
facilities where breezes will pass over water features before reaching the facility, and
providing fountains, pools, and plants.

E. THERMAL COMFORT
Temperature is the most significant component to the experience of comfort in a space.
Maintaining a person’s thermal comfort means ensuring that they don’t feel too hot or too
cold. This means keeping the temperature, humidity, airflow and radiant sources within
acceptable range. In the process our bodies’ metabolism generates heat, which must dissipate
into the surrounding air or surfaces.

DESIGN STRATEGIES:-

Some ways to keep people comfortable are

•Use the sun’s heat to warm them,
•Use the wind or ceiling fans to move air when it’s too warm, and keeping surrounding
surfaces the correct temperature with good insulation.
Passive design strategies use ambient energy sources instead of purchased energy like
electricity or natural gas. These strategies include daylighting, natural ventilation, and solar
energy.

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Figure 28-SUN ANGLE Figure 29-Orientation with longer facades on E-W

In terms of thermal comfort, overheating issues are the main problem. Although BB101 has
defined the number of acceptable occupied hours allowable above an internal air temperature
of 28°C, it is important to consider, in light of global warming, that the number of days in a
year that will exceed 28°C may only increase.
In calculating heat gain, it is important to know that primary heat gains are caused by the
direct contact of sunlight with the floor, while secondary heat gains are caused by hot air
rising from the floor. Internal heat gains from lighting and equipment also contribute to the
rise in room temperatures.

In the Architectural Forum issue, thermal comfort is introduced as a particularly difficult area
of school design, with the author noting, “there are few types of work in which the static
analysis that is the basis of most heating design comes into such open and obvious conflict
with the everyday realities as in the school classroom” (Luce,
1949, p. 144).

This is so in the first place because the use of such rooms, and consequently their heating, is
on an intermittent rather than a constant or nearly constant basis.
Classrooms are normally used only during the daytime, and during the middle daylight hours
at that Secondly, classrooms are in use during the time of day when solar heat gain is at a
peak Since almost all classrooms today have a great deal of class- from 20 per cent of the
floor area upwards- the solar heat gain is tremendous. Finally, classroom heating is
complicated by density of occupancy (ibid).

Figure 30

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Processes of passive solar heating:

1. Transmitted
2. Absorbed and stored
3. Reflected
4. Released by convection and radiation

A passive means of absorbing some of this heat is the use of thermal mass. Thermal mass in
association with high levels of summer ventilation (e.g. cross-flow ventilation) is a good
method of reducing the summer overheating conditions. In Appendix 1, computer modelling
results indicate the benefits of a range of solar control technologies with both single-sided
and cross-flow ventilation.

Figure 32-Exposed thermal mass on Figure 31-Drop ceilings are thermally

ceilings and high level walls serves to inefficient causing peaks in internal
retain heat generated internally and temperatures.
moderate room temperature.
Thermal mass works best on ceilings and high up on walls, as floors and lower walls,
especially in classrooms, tend to become covered by carpets, furniture, white boards,
computer screens, posters, etc.

Thermal comfort is determined by air temperature, relative humidity, air movement, and
means radiant temperature, the presence of direct solar radiation, and occupants' clothing and
activity levels.
Windows affect human comfort in several ways. During cold periods, exterior temperatures
drive interior glass surface temperatures down below the room air temperature; how low the
glass temperature drops depends on the window's insulating quality. If people are exposed to
the effects of a cold surface, they can experience significant radiant heat loss to that cold
surface and they feel uncomfortable, even if the room air temperature is comfortable. The
closer they are to a window, the more they will feel its influence. The fact that this heat loss
occurs on one side of the body more than the other is called radiant asymmetry, and this leads
to further discomfort. A familiar example of radiant asymmetry is the experience of sitting
around a campfire on a winter night. The side of the body facing the fire is hot, while the side
facing away is cold. In the case of a cold window, a person may be cold in warm clothes in a
70 degrees Fahrenheit room air temperature if part of the body is losing heat to a cold
window.

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 CHAPTER 3 – CASE STUDIES

3.1 CASE STUDY 1-FUSD SCHOOL BUILDING TYPES

FUSD (Fresno Unified School District) has long had a policy of neighbourhood schools, and
in the early years of the city, small elementary schools were located about every two miles so
that children could easily walk to school.
All classrooms include some form of air conditioning. It is original in all classrooms built
since the 1970s and retrofitted in earlier buildings. Many classrooms were being modernized
during the study period, including painting, new lighting, carpets and new wiring. We only
included classrooms in our study where the modernization was in progress before or after the
testing period.
For the purposes of this project, HMG classified the FUSD elementary school classroom
buildings into five basic plan types that captured the key differences in layout and daylight
availability:
• Finger Plan: Wings one classroom wide with exterior entrances, all facing south.
• Double Loaded: Wings of back-to-back classrooms with exterior entrances, either north or
south facing.
• Grouped Plan: Classrooms with an interior corridor often open to one another, facing any
direction.
• Pinwheel: A variation of grouped plan with radiating classroom wings.
• Pod: Non-orthogonal grouped classrooms, with many shared internal spaces.
• Portables: Modular classrooms with exterior entrances, typically lined up in north or south
facing rows.

These plan types, and their associated classroom configurations, are described in more detail
below.

Figure 33-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Finger Plan School

The classrooms include operable, clear glass windows and blinds or shades on the inside. The
south windows are well shaded by overhangs that extend over the exterior walkway on the
south side. Although originally designed with extensive windows on the north and south
sides, many finger plan schools have had their window areas reduced. Often, all south-facing
windows have been removed except for a single high strip. At some schools, the north-facing
glazing area has also been reduced with opaque metal or insulating panels.

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 Figure 34-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Double Loaded School Plan

Buildings in the double loaded plan are two classrooms wide, with classrooms facing either
due north or due south. The classrooms share an interior wall, and each classroom has only
one exterior wall with a door and clear glass windows.
Typically the windows on this one wall are smaller than the windows in the finger plan
classrooms, and often include exterior shading louvers that greatly reduce both the view and
the available daylight.

Figure 35-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Grouped Plan

Classrooms can face in any direction. Classrooms typically have one external wall, with high
strip or view windows. The area of windows varies largely depending on the school type and
era built. Typically the windows are tinted, but not well shaded and rarely operable.
The classrooms share walls with other classrooms on the other three sides. In many schools,
separations between classrooms are either permanently open, or can be opened with movable
partitions.

Figure 36-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Pinwheel Plan

Classrooms face in all directions, and have an exterior door that opens directly to the outside
play area and an interior door that opens into the central activity space. The classrooms
typically do not receive much daylight, as the only classroom windows are single, tinted but
unshaded windows adjacent to the exterior doorways.

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 Figure 37-Aerial View and Classroom Interior of a Pod Plan

Classrooms in some pod schools are arranged two-deep from the perimeter with the
remaining central space used as a common area for library and other purposes. Classrooms on
the interior do not have any exterior windows or any other means of getting natural light.

Figure 38-Bungalow Exterior View and Interior View

Direct sun penetration into classrooms, especially through unshaded east or south facing
windows, is associated with negative student performance, likely causing both glare and
thermal discomfort.

3.2 CASE STUDY 2-DAYLIGHT CODE

Since one of the objectives of the project was to attempt a replication of the
Capistrano study, it was necessary to assign a Daylight Code to each classroom following the
previous methodology. The Daylight Code was assigned after all of the classrooms have been
surveyed in order to understand the balance between highest and lowest conditions observed.
The primary criteria for the code were as follows:

Daylight Code 5 Even and balanced daylight allowing

operation of classroom without electric lights
for a large portion of the school year.
This might translate to approximately 45-
75% potential electric lighting savings during
daylight hours.

Daylight Code 4 More asymmetrical daylight allowing

operation of classroom without electric lights
occasionally in all or frequently in parts of
the classroom. This might translate to

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 approximately 20- 40% potential electric
lighting savings.

Daylight Code 3 Daylight in part of the classroom, which

would allow occasional turning off of part of
the electric lights. This might translate to
approximately 5-15% potential electric
lighting savings.

Daylight Code 2 Some daylight in classroom, but insufficient

for normal operation without electric lights.

Daylight Code 1 Minimal daylight.

Daylight Code 0 No daylight in classroom.

Figure 39-DAYLIGHT CODE CRITERIA

The Daylight Code is meant to be a simple and crude, but holistic, assessment of the amount
of daylight available in a classroom over the course of the school year. Two daylight experts
worked together to assign the Daylight Code to classrooms following a similar method to that
used in the Capistrano study, but with a much higher level of information available to make
judgments about classrooms. While the Capistrano study was based on review of plans and
site visits to a sub-sample of the schools, the Fresno assignments were made with surveyed
information from all classrooms, including area, tint and shading of windows, orientation,
classroom proportions and measure illumination levels. In addition to information from the
surveys, photographs and plans of the classrooms were also available for a cross check.
Classrooms that seemed to fit between two criteria were assigned a half code rating, such as
2.5 or 4.5.
Below an example of a classroom typifying each Daylight Code is presented with a
photograph and brief description.

Figure 40-Photos of Daylight Code 5 Classrooms

In application, Daylight Code 5 was applied to Finger Plan classrooms that were in well
maintained and original condition, with high ceilings, fully shaded south clerestory windows,
and continuous desk-to-ceiling clear windows to the north.
These classrooms were likely to have 12’ to 14’ ceilings.

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 Figure 41-Photos of Daylight Code 4 Classrooms

Daylight Code 4 was typically applied to finger plan classrooms that had been renovated with
lowered ceilings and/or reduced window area to the south and/or north. Daylight Code 4
classrooms had more asymmetric daylight distribution than Daylight Code 5 classrooms.

Figure 42-Photo of Daylight Code 3 Classroom

Daylight Code 3 was applied to double loaded classrooms that have large windows with
modest to high visible light transmittance. These classrooms typically had ten foot ceilings. A
few portable classrooms with excellent north south orientation and nearby reflective surfaces
that would increase the amount of reflected daylight in the classroom were also considered
Daylight Code 3.

Figure 43-Photo of Daylight Code 2 Classroom

Daylight Code 2 was applied to most portable classrooms and traditional classrooms with
modest view windows and heavily tinted glass. These classrooms typically had low 9’
ceilings and one 4’ x 8’ window on either side of the room.

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 Figure 44-Photo of Daylight Code 1 Classroom

Daylight Code 1 was applied to any classroom with one small window area typically next to
an exterior door. Some Daylight Code 1 classrooms had high narrow strip windows above the
door height which provided little daylight or view. Daylight Code 1.5 was also assigned to a
few portable classrooms that were heavily shaded by nearby structures.

Figure 45-Photo of Daylight Code 0 Classroom

Daylight Code 0 was applied to any classroom with no windows at all. There were six of
these in the study, in the interior of two open-plan schools.

3.3 CASE STUDY 3: DPS KINDERGARTEN SCHOOL IN

BANGALORE INDIA

DPS kindergarten school is the latest project created in Bangalore (India) by Indian
architects khosla ASSOCIATES. A kindergarten is being built to cater to 4,000 students. To
reduce times and costs the project is built on a modular structure consisting of the single 60
square meter classroom (10m x 6m) which can be reproduced both horizontally and in height.
The classrooms on either side flank a 2 meter wide corridor, and open up onto an interior
courtyard. Formal elements typical of the vernacular architecture of the region like the jaalis,
a terracotta wall function as sun shields and ventilation. Precisely the adoption of this element
makes it possible to mitigate the climatic conditions by shading the interior spaces, while
ensuring an adequate use of natural light. Another central element in the project design is the
inner courtyard, which, by developing along the entire structure represents “the soul of the
building” as the designers explain, as it is accessible to all classes and can be used as an open
air classroom. Indian vernacular buildings also see climate as an essential aspect of
organization and highlight its integration by use of terraces, pavilions and courtyards.

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Rather than adding air-conditioning systems, Khosla and Anand wanted to make use of
natural light and ventilation throughout the building, so they installed a series of perforated
screens.

Figure 47-The classrooms on either side flank

an 8ft wide single loaded corridor and open up Figure 46-Central courtyard
to a central open-to-sky courtyard.

A modular concrete framework provides a standard size for the classrooms, which in some
places are stacked to create a second storey.
There are 25 classrooms in total and they are arranged around a pair of courtyards that can be
used as either playgrounds or outdoor learning spaces.

CLASSROOMS Figure 48-Ground floor plan

CLASSROOMS Figure 49-First Floor Plan

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The classroom is sidelit with narrow and vertical openings directed toward north. The
window to wall ratio (WWR) is about 19%. The typical capacity of each classroom is 48
students. Since the most important attribute of the material for lighting design is the material
reflectance; reflectance of various materials used to build up the classroom were measured
using a Lightmeter,

The central linear open-to–sky court that runs the entire length of the building is the soul of
the school and facilitates learning outside the classroom. The temperate climate of Bangalore
allows for open to sky discussion on benches surrounding the courtyard trees or on the steps
of the corridors.
Constructed from two standard types of perforated brick, these decorative screens - referred
to locally as jaalis - reduce the impact of direct sunlight and enable cross ventilation.

Figure 50 Figure 51

Figure 52 & Figure 53-Corridors run around the central perimeter of the school, while a bright red
staircase connects the ground floor with classrooms on the upper level.

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The efficiencies of designing and constructing a building so rapidly had to be balanced with
what we believed in; creating a warm, playful and welcoming environment for these young
children that would be filled with natural light and ventilation

Other contextual references are in the vernacular terracotta jaalis (shading and ventilation
screens used traditionally in India) that wrap around parts of the building and are included on
both sides of each classroom to facilitate adequate cross ventilation from NE to SW. The
jaalis cut down the sun especially on the western face of the building where we have
effectively used them in breakout areas.

Judging the sun directions we played with a number of devices: horizontal and vertical
pergolas and a combination of two different patterns of jaali on the exterior that create
interesting patterns on the building at different times of the day.
In an age of air-conditioned schools becoming increasingly popular, we have attempted an
energy efficient and cost-effective approach that utilises minimal electrical load during the
day due to effective harnessing of breezes and adequate natural light during the day. It is our
hope as architects that we are able to take this simple yet effective typology further to other
franchises in the region.

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CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STUDIES

Now on the basis of the findings the following conclusions can be drawn:-

1. Proper illumination should be provided in the classroom.

2. The illuminance of Classroom should be 30 fc (Foot Candle), 300 lux.
3. It is possible to reach a good energy performance by integrating the different
environmental, thermal, lighting, acoustic and air quality parameters, as long as they
are included in the architectonic response, being able to reduce the energy demand in
the schools through passive design without needing to integrate active systems.
4. The 30-50% overhangs depth and total window area should equal from 40 to 50% of
the total wall area of the long side of the room, and in general, one quarter the floor
area of the classroom. These ranges can be expanded when both parameters were
specified - for example, a recommended overhang depth can be 0-50% for the existing
window and 30-80% for the fully glazed wall. It reveals that those recommendations
might be overestimates as they used the maximum average illuminance values.
5. The windows should extend up to within 6 inches of the ceiling; the window stools
should be from 3 to 3 ½ feet from the floor. Light from below that level is useless; it
is the height of the top of the window that determines its lighting efficiency.
6. The sill should, however, not be higher than 3 ½ feet from the floor, as it is desirable
that the pupils should be able to rest their eyes at times by looking out at more or less
distant objects, which is impossible for many with a sill 4 ½ or even 4 feet high.
7. The orientation of classroom is on north-south, +/- 15 degree.

Daylight levels in the classroom were mostly not high enough even though the window area
and overhang depth were improved. It is probable that other innovative solutions could
increase daylight levels and improve distribution.
The influence of the direct sun resulted in excessively high daylight levels in the area next to
the window and overwhelming illuminance ratio values. This is due to insufficient shading
devices for the southwest orientation in the afternoon. It appears that the window shading
needs to be improved.
On the other hand, when the thermal aspect was combined, the fully glazed wall without an
overhang appeared to have excessively high illuminance levels and slightly warm discomfort
voting, although high amounts of cooling energy were consumed. The optimal case of an
overhang which can completely shade for direct sunlight was not suitable for day lighting.
Interestingly, benefits from the direct sun were also found. Apart from the intense
illuminance which affected the area next to the window, the low angle of the sun also
influenced illuminance levels in the rest of the room.
As a further solution, diffusing the direct solar beam might benefit unaffected areas – for
example, using reflection techniques such as light shelves. It appears that the impact of
changing window area, compared to changing overhang depth, was more significant for
daylight levels rather than thermal conditions. Their influences also were dependent on each
other.
Similarly, the impact of window area will be high if there is no shading. It appears that the
combination of full glazing on the opposite wall did not have much effect on daylight levels
and, instead, resulted in higher heat transfer. However, the results show that this additional
window provided more pleasant illuminance ratios. This strategy is, therefore, still useful for
reducing variations in daylight distribution.

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DESIGN SOLUTIONS

On the basis of conclusions, the following recommendations for improvement of the

environment of the classroom are given below:

1. Proper illumination should be provided in the classroom

2. Adequate cross ventilation should be provided in the classroom.
3. By roof ceiling listening performance of the students may be increased.

A wide range of environmental design solutions exist and the following examples illustrate
some of the approaches that can be used. In each case all the environmental criteria cannot be
fully met and this confirms that compromises need to be considered.

Figure 54

a. thermal mass;
b. soft surface for acoustic absorption;
c. hard surface for acoustic reflection;
d. acoustically attenued air intake with heating coil for winter;
e. acoustically attenuated air extract with fan for higher levels of ventilation

This solution will provide good internal acoustic conditions, especially with high external
noise levels. The ventilation system is cross-flow through an attenuated louver; the incoming
ventilation air can be heated. The ventilation systems could be supplemented with a fan for
higher ventilation rates which would work in conjunction with the exposed thermal mass to
reduce summer overheating. The cross-flow ventilation is also attenuated to reduce sound
travel between the spaces. Reverberation times are controlled by the provision of some
absorption surfaces at high level that also allow for services distribution without a full drop
ceiling. The daylight standards would not be high due to the provision of glazing on one side
only.

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 Figure 55

a. thermal mass and hard surface for acoustic reflection;

b. soft surface for acoustic absorption (minimum 2m if only on high level walls);
c. external noise sources

(Note: noise of rain on skylight, even when unopened)

This solution would provide high levels of daylight. Ventilation is provided by a cross-flow
route and, together with exposed thermal mass, will provide good summer overheating
protection. Acoustic conditions would be compromised by the non-attenuated window
openings and rain noises from the skylight. Reverberation times would be controlled by the
inclusion of absorption surfaces. The skylights will require cleaning and there are restrictions
on the window opening sizes for safety reasons. When opening widows are used as a prime
component of the ventilation strategy the teacher should have good access to the windows
and they should be easy to control.

Figure 56

a) thermal mass; b) soft surface for acoustic absorption and sound insulation; c) carbon
dioxide sensor and heat recovery system; d) air intake

Although this solution will improve daylight standards due to the clerestory windows, the
level of light and its penetration would not create such good standards as the skylight
solution. A full mechanical ventilation solution would allow good acoustics and CO 2 sensing
would lead to energy efficiency by only running the ventilation system when it is needed.

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Classroom (7.20 m x 7.20 m), with window-to-wall-ratio (WWR) of 20 % and 40 % and
shading devices, such as horizontal overhang, sloped overhang, horizontal overhang with side
view protection, horizontal overhang with a drop edge, and light shelves in half or the models
with WWR 40%, as shown in figures.

Figure 57-Horizontal overhang with WWR of 20% Figure 58-Sloped overhang with WWR of 20%

Figure 60-Horizontal overhang with side Figure 59-Horizontal overhang with

view protection with WWR of 20% drop edge with WWR of 20%

Figure 61-Horizontal overhang with WWR of 40% Figure 62-Sloped overhang with WWR of 40%

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Classroom (7.20 m x 7.20 m), with window-to-wall-ratio (WWR) of 40 % and 60 % and
shading devices, such as double horizontal overhang, double horizontal overhang with three
horizontal louvers, horizontal overhang with three horizontal louvers, besides the use of light
shelves in half of the models;

Figure 64-Double horizontal overhang Figure 63-Double horizontal overhang

with three louvers with WWR of 40 with WWR of 40%

Figure 66-Double horizontal overhang with Figure 65-Horizontal overhang with three
three louvers with WWR of 60% louvers with WWR of 60%

Figure 68-Double Horizontal overhang with Figure 67-Double Horizontal overhang with
WWR of 60% three louvers with WWR of 60%

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REFERENCES

Advanced Environmental (AE), 2005b, Natural Light Investigation Report, (un-published

project report).

Coward, S. SEE Breeze, The Impact of Indoor Air Quality on Education,

[online], www.woodsbagot.com/en/Documents/Public_5.papers/SEE_Breeze.pdf (12 April
2009).

Hyde, R., 2000, Climate Responsive Design – A Study of Buildings in Moderate and Hot
Humid Climates, E & FN Spon, Oxon.

Altomonte, S. 2009. “Daylight and the occupant: visual and physio-psychological well-being
in built environments.” Proc. 26th Int. Conf. On Passive and Low Energy Architecture, 22-24
June 2009, Quebec City, Canada: 239-250.

Boubekri, M. and L. L. Boyer. 1992. "Effect of window size and sunlight presence on glare."
Lighting Research & Technology 24 (2): 69-74.

Theodorson, J. 2009. “Daylight classrooms at 47N, 117W: Insights form occupation.” Proc.
26th Int. Conf. Passive and Low Energy Architecture, 22-24 June 2009, Quebec City,
Canada: 286-290.

Piderit, M.B. Day lighting Design Strategies for Visual Comfort in Classrooms. Ph.D. Thesis,
University catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique, 11 June 2011. [Google
Scholar]

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