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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Abrasive fine-finishing technology

Fukuo Hashimoto (1)a,*, Hitomi Yamaguchi (2)b, Peter Krajnik (2)c, Konrad Wegener (2)d,
Rahul Chaudhari a, Hans-Werner Hoffmeister e, Friedrich Kuster d
a
Technology Center, The Timken Company, North Canton, OH, USA
b
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, USA
c
Department of Materials & Manufacturing Technology, Chalmers University of Technology/Scania CV, Södertälje, Sweden
d
Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
e
Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology (IWF), Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Abrasive fine-finishing technology is often applied as a final finishing process, and the selection of the
Abrasive
right technology is crucial to obtaining the desired performance of functions such as fatigue life. This
Finishing
paper begins with classifications of the technology along with fundamentals and brief histories of the
Surface integrity
individual methods. The material removal mechanisms, specific energies, and finishing characteristics of
the various technologies are summarized giving assessments of the surfaces created by them. Guidelines
developed for selecting the appropriate methods, and case studies illustrate the effectiveness of various
methods. This paper ends with a discussion of the future prospects of the technology.
ß 2016

1. Introduction grains to enhance the surface characteristics and integrity. The

material removal and surface-generation mechanisms of abrasive
For production of critical parts, the manufacturing processes fine-finishing technology are quite different from those of
turning raw materials into finished components typically consist of grinding. The differences are summarized as follows:
material-conversion processes and finishing processes (Fig. 1). The
material-conversion processes usually start with a forging or (1) Abrasive fine-finishing technology utilizes a pressure-copying
forming process followed by soft (green) machining to create the principle as the material removal process (The stock removal
desired form and geometry. If applied, heat-treatment processes capability of the abrasive fine-finishing is far lower than
control the microstructure and mechanical properties of machined grinding, and it is limited to controlling dimensional accura-
components. It is crucial to select the right technology for the cies, such as sizes, taper, roundness etc.).
material-conversion processes, which determine the hardness, the (2) It utilizes a more sophisticated (compared with grinding)
residual stress condition, and the amount of stock removal in relative motion between work surface and abrasive tool.
subsequent processes. Accordingly, the material-conversion pro- (3) It does not utilize grinding wheels, and the cutting speed is
cesses have a significant influence on the productivity, quality, and significantly lower than in grinding.
cost of finishing processes.
Following material-conversion processes such as grinding and
hard-turning, the hard stock is further processed to meet
specifications including geometrical tolerances, accuracies, and
surface topography. In many cases, particularly in the production
of critical components, abrasive fine-finishing processes are
applied to improve the surface or sub-surface functions beyond
the degree accomplished in preceding operations. In addition,
abrasive fine-finishing processes meet desired specifications that
are too difficult or too expensive to meet using only the preceding
processes.
In this paper, abrasive fine-finishing technology is defined as a
technology following grinding/hard-turning that adds value by
imparting desired functionality to the surface by using abrasive

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fukuohashimoto@gmail.com (F. Hashimoto). Fig. 1. Typical manufacturing processes from raw material to finished components.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.06.003
0007-8506/ß 2016

Please cite this article in press as: Hashimoto F, et al. Abrasive fine-finishing technology. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.06.003
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Abrasive fine-finishing technology has unique capabilities [47],
which attract considerable attention in industry. Among the
advantages are the following:
(1) Surface modification in texturing and topography.
(2) Damage-free surface generation without a heat-affected zone.
(3) Enhancement of surface integrity and the creation of compres-
sive residual stresses in most of cases.
(4) Improvement of geometrical accuracies, such as roundness,
profile, etc.
(5) Enhancement of visual factors such as uniformity, light-
reflection, brightness, etc.
Fig. 2 shows examples of components finished by various
abrasive fine-finishing technologies. In the case of bearing
components, the fatigue life, motion accuracy, and sound
performance are significantly improved when superfinishing is
used. The honed bores of engine block cylinders have surfaces with
low sliding friction and high wear resistance. Precision mechanical
components finished with mass finishing provide a low torque
performance and a long service life. The fatigue strength of turbine
blades is improved by blasting. Optical components and silicon
wafers processed with lapping and polishing have damage-free
mirror surfaces. Jewels finished with polishing and buffing have
mirror surfaces with high brightness. Abrasive flow machining
(AFM) enables the finishing of holes with complex paths and
geometries. Manifolds finished with AFM show improved flow
through the passages.
Fig. 2. Samples of critical components finished by abrasive fine-finishing
technology.
Abrasive fine-finishing technologies use a wide variety of tools
with various shapes and grain states under different operational
conditions. Distinct empirical rules are implemented for each
process to control the finishing characteristics, and finishing
conditions must be selected by skilled operators. This is due to a
lack of scientific understanding of the fundamentals of those
processes. However, a comparison of parameters common to those
processes would allow engineers to analyze them and choose the
optimum process for a given application.
This paper will clarify the fundamentals of abrasive fine-
finishing technology through the establishment of common
parameters, which enables a scientific assessment of each process
as well as providing a baseline for comparison. The fundamental
understanding of each process helps optimize the design of
manufacturing processes to produce components that meet
desired specifications and achieve performance.
CIRP (Collège International pour la Recherche en Productique) has
made significant contributions to scientific knowledge-building
regarding abrasive fine-finishing technology. There have been
54 relevant papers published from 1960 to 2015 by the Scientific
Technical Committee-Abrasive Process (STC-G) in the Annals of
CIRP Vol. 1. The breakdown by the finishing method is: 25 papers
on lapping/polishing [12,13,20,25,42,43,45,71,77,78,82,89,92,95,
Please cite this article in press as: Hashimoto F, et al. Abrasive fine-finishing technology. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.06.003
109,125,144–146,149,175,185,191,199,220], 8 in honing [24,41,
61,111,128,148,183,204], 8 on magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF)
[52,85,163,173,187,210,211,215], 4 on coated abrasives [16,97,
158,176], 3 on jet finishing [14,76,87], 3 on superfinishing
[28,133,195], and 3 on mass finishing [65–67]. In addition to
those, there have been three CIRP keynote papers regarding
polishing technology, which have provided invaluable technologi-
cal overviews. In 1997, Komanduri et al. [98] summarized fine
abrasive processes, with an emphasis on material removal of
brittle materials, and described the process modeling of various
fine-abrasive methods, such as ultra-precision grinding, polishing,
elastic emission machining, erosive jets, magnetic field-assisted
finishing, etc. In 1998, Venketesh et al. reviewed chemical-
mechanical polishing (CMP) technology for semiconductor mate-
rials and discussed ductile-regime machining and modeling
[197]. In 2003, Evans et al. described the material removal
mechanism in lapping and polishing [44]. They characterized
polishing via fundamental interactions between four critical
elements – workpiece, fluid, granules, and lap – of the process
and provided comprehensive overviews of polishing technology.
These keynote papers focused primarily on polishing technologies
for brittle materials.
In 1988, Salje presented a CIRP keynote paper describing the
relationship between grinding, honing and lapping using funda-
mental parameters such as chip thickness, specific energy, etc.
[147]. This paper provided crossover understanding of the material
removal mechanism between bonded- and unbonded-abrasive
finishing processes and made a bridge between grinding and
abrasive fine-finishing technologies. The authors of the present
paper intend to extensively expand Salje’s approach to all abrasive
fine-finishing processes using fundamental parameters.
This paper will begin by classifying each abrasive fine-finishing
technology. Subsequently, the background and the origin of each
technology will be presented in a historical review. The funda-
mentals of the various abrasive fine-finishing technologies will
then be discussed describing the material removal mechanisms,
specific energies, and surface characteristics (topography and
integrity) created. The assessment of the effects of the surface
topography and integrity on the performance of components will
help develop the guidelines for appropriately selecting the
technology and designing the finishing processes. This paper will
end by illustrating the state of the art in industry-applied abrasive
fine-finishing technology and discussing the future directions of
research and development (R&D) in this field.
2. Classifications and descriptions of abrasive fine-finishing
technologies
2.1. Classifications
Fig. 3 shows the classifications of abrasive finishing technolo-
gies. Based on the processing principle, abrasive finishing
technologies (including grinding) can be classified into two
categories: motion-copying processes and pressure-copying pro-
cesses [79]. Motion-copying processes remove material to a given
depth of cut. This enables the control of form accuracy and
dimensions. For example, the grinding process using bonded
abrasive wheels is a motion-copying process. In contrast, pressure-
copying processes have no given depth of cut but instead remove
material by means of the pressure of the tools against the
workpieces. This is suitable for obtaining desired surface geome-
tries and surface integrity and for improving form accuracy but not
for controlling dimensional accuracy. Abrasive fine-finishing
technologies such as superfinishing, honing, lapping, polishing,
and buffing are representative of pressure-copying processes and
are often used as post-grinding processes.
Abrasive fine-finishing technologies can be classified based on
the following criteria: (1) abrasive state, (2) tools used for the
processes, and (3) finishing methods. There are two abrasive
states: bonded and unbonded. In the bonded-abrasive (i.e., fixed
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Fig. 3. Classifications of abrasive fine-finishing technology.
abrasive) state, the abrasive participates in machining while
remaining fixed in a matrix. Bonded abrasive tools include abrasive
stones, coated abrasives, and abrasive media; each tool has a
specific processing principle. Abrasive stones consist of abrasive
grains, a bonding agent, and pores. Abrasive stones are used in
superfinishing and honing. Coated abrasives are composed of
abrasive grains bonded to a flexible substrate using adhesives.
Common substrates are paper, cloth, vulcanized fiber, plastic films,
plastic tapes, and nylon brushes. Coated abrasives are used in film/
tape/sandpaper finishing and brushing. Abrasive tape is also used
in superfinishing and honing. Abrasive media consist of abrasives
bonded to a polymer core, and they are available in a variety of
shapes including spheres, cones, triangles, ellipses, and cylinders.
These abrasive media are used in mass finishing processes.
In the unbonded-abrasive (i.e., loose abrasive) state, the abrasive
freely participates in finishing. The abrasive tools are divided into
three groups: free abrasive, abrasive slurries, and abrasive flow
media. Free abrasives are used in blasting and jet finishing.
Abrasive slurries are used in lapping, polishing and buffing.
Abrasive flow media are used in abrasive flow machining (AFM)
and magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF). Viscous abrasive carriers
are used in AFM and MAF. While the abrasive grains are mixed with
a polymer carrier in AFM, the abrasive grains are mixed with
ferromagnetic particles (such as iron particles) in MAF.
2.2. Descriptions of finishing methods
Superfinishing employs abrasive stone or tape, which is held
against the surface of the rotating work with a controlled contact
pressure, and moves with a rapid short-stroke oscillation
perpendicular to the work rotational direction. Superfinishing
improves surface finish with crosshatch patterns, geometrical
accuracy, and workpiece specifications such as profile accuracy
and roundness.
Honing uses abrasive stones, which are forced against the
workpiece surface and move relative to the workpiece with a
combined low-velocity relative motion, usually composed of
rotation and reciprocation. Honing improves form accuracy and
surface texture. Both superfinishing and honing produce cross-
hatched patterns on the finished surfaces, but the ratio of the
cutting speed in the axial direction to that in the circumferential
direction results in a greater crosshatch angle in honing than those
in superfinishing [79]. The larger grit size and hard bond in honing
stones creates deeper scratches with higher negative skewness
than superfinishing does.
Film/tape/sandpaper finishing and brushing use coated abrasives.
Either the coated abrasive or the workpiece is rotated or
reciprocated. The relative motion between the abrasive and
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3
workpiece surface causes material removal. The flexibility of the
coated-abrasive substrate enables free-form surface and edge
finishing.
Abrasive media finishing (mass finishing) is the simultaneous
processing of multiple components in a container, usually with
abrasive media and a compound solution [90]. The container is
given a cyclical motion that causes material to be removed from
the workpieces as media and other workpieces press and/or rub
against workpiece surfaces. Mass finishing is used for burnishing,
de-burring, de-scaling, de-flashing, edge rounding, brightening,
and surface texturing. It can be further classified into five methods:
vibratory finishing, rotary barrel finishing (tumbling), centrifugal
barrel finishing, centrifugal disk finishing, and spindle finishing.
In the unbonded-abrasive state, the viscosity of the abrasive
carrier increases in the order of gases (lowest), liquids, and solids
(highest). In the blasting and jet finishing methods, the abrasive is
mixed with gas or liquids (slurries) and removes material by being
directed at the workpiece as a jet; the jet pressure (which imparts
kinetic energy to the particles) determines the degree to which
abrasive grains impinge the workpiece surface to remove material.
A wide range of pressure can be used to achieve a corresponding
range of matte and mirror surfaces. The cutting marks are isotropic.
In lapping and polishing, slurry is introduced between the
workpiece and tool (e.g., lap or polisher), and the finishing pressure
is applied to the workpiece. The combination of workpiece and tool
motions makes the slurry flow. The abrasive interaction (rolling,
sliding, etc.) with the workpiece determines whether the finishing
mechanism is two- or three-body processing. In general, lapping
(three-body processing) is followed by polishing (two-body
polishing). In buffing, the abrasive slurry is applied to a buff,
which rotates at high speeds and is pressed against the workpiece
to finish the surface with an accumulation of abrasive scratches.
In AFM, the media is forced to flow in a restricted area and
abrade the target surface. The finishing pressure depends on the
fluid dynamics of the media. In MAF, the media is pressed against
the surface by magnetic force and is dragged along the surface for
finishing. In both methods, the finished surfaces are accumulations
of scratch marks, leading to mirror surfaces. The flexibility of the
media enables surface finishing of free-form surfaces or internal
workpiece passages.
3. Historical review of abrasive fine-finishing technology
3.1. Bonded abrasive finishing
3.1.1. Superfinishing
Superfinishing technology evolved from the stone honing of
bearing raceways to produce very smooth surfaces. In the early
1930s, The Timken Company (a US bearing company) introduced
stone honing for finishing raceways of cups and cones for tapered
roller bearings [181,182]. The first patent for a superfinishing
machine for ball bearing raceways was granted to Strong in 1935
[172], followed by a patent granted to Conner in 1936 for the
superfinishing of cylindrical surfaces [36]. At that time, the word
‘‘superfinishing’’ had not yet been coined.
Around the same time, the Chrysler Corporation recognized a
serious problem: brinell marks on automobile wheel bearing
raceways, which resulted when automobile wheels were blocked
to prevent rolling during shipping long distances so that only a few
of the rollers in the wheel bearings supported the entire weight of
the automobile. Vibration during shipping caused the hardened
rollers to press against the bearing raceways and form slight
depressions: a process called brinelling. It was found that the
brinell marks caused excessive noise, and that the brinelling could
be eliminated by decreasing surface roughness of raceways with
oscillated stone honing. Wallace of Chrysler named the finishing
process superfinishing and proactively campaigned between
1937 and 1940 to promote the use of superfinishing for reducing
friction, wear, and noise and for increasing load capacity of critical
components [174,198]. The demand for superfinished bearings
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necessitated the installation of the battery of superfinishing
machines at the Timken plant shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Superfinishing machines for bearing raceways at Timken around 1940.
Since the superfinishing machine was born in 1935, a number of
publications relating to superfinishing have appeared. These investiga-
tions can be classified into three categories. In the early research stage,
investigations focused on the correlation of stone wear with stone
pressure. The existence of a critical stone pressure was discussed as a
way to avoid excessive stone wear [116,217]. The next category is the
development of stone specifications and the evaluation of super-
finishing operations. The development and evaluation of CBN super-
finishing stones were also reported [10,56,57,99,115,132,133]. The last
category includes studies of superfinishing processes in terms of
material removal mechanism, rounding mechanism, and resulting
surface quality. As part of these process studies, fundamental
parameters were discussed [27–30,126,137,195,196].
3.1.2. Honing
During the early years of automotive production, finishing of
bored cylinders of internal combustion engines was accomplished
by reaming and internal grinding [205]. Internal grinding with an
oscillating motion, however, did not give satisfactory results and
often resulted in a bore surface covered with a layer of smeared
abrasive grains, because the lost abrasives were pressed into the
cylinder surface, which is detrimental for pistons and piston rings.
Abrasive fine-finishing processes such as lapping and rolling were
used to remove the smeared layer, although the processes were
slow. Then, re-boring machines for reconditioning cylinders were
adapted to accommodate honing. The originally converted re-
boring machines, built by the Storm Manufacturing Company in
Minneapolis, US, featured multiple cutter mills for rough machin-
ing [171]. For fine-finishing, the process kinematics remained
similar, but the cutting blades could be replaced by rounded
emery-coated heads [127], and later by honing stones with silicon
carbide grits flexibly held in a rotary head [170]. Introduced in
1923, the first patented honing-head used springs to press the
stones against the bore and to facilitate a self-centering action by
aligning the axis of the tool with the axis of the cylinder. Around
1921 or 1922, the major automotive companies (e.g., Chrysler,
Lincoln, Dodge) embraced the idea and started to design their own
Fig. 5. Honing of cylinder liners for diesel engines at Scania in 1976.
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honing machines and built them from the bases of old production
boring machines [50]. This technology was soon embraced by all
engine builders throughout the world (Fig. 5).
Further advancements included the development of different
tooling in which the outward pressure on the honing stones was
applied by a conical spreader mounted in a mandrel [141] or by
means of a hydraulic system [138]. Since then, progress in honing
has been rapid, resulting in fully automated honing machines,
intelligent tooling systems, and super-abrasive honing stones.
3.1.3. Coated abrasive finishing
The first recorded use of coated abrasives was in China in the
13th century. The coated abrasives were made out of crushed
shells, seeds, and sand bonded to parchment using natural gum
[134]. Sandpaper was originally known as glass paper because
particles of glass were used. In 1833, John Oakey’s company in
London mass-produced glass paper using newly developed
adhesive techniques [2]. The first process for mass manufacturing
of sandpaper was patented by I. Fisher Jr. in the US in 1834
[48,49]. In 1921, 3M invented a sandpaper with a waterproof
backing, known as ‘‘Wetordry.’’ Its first application was automotive
paint refinishing [80]. Between 1910 and 1930, new products and
processes related to coated abrasives, such as artificial grains, new
backings and adhesives, and electrical furnaces, were adopted by
manufacturers. The productivity and quality were significantly
improved at the same time. This innovation resulted in the rapid
growth of coated abrasives after 1940 [32], and coated-abrasive
finishing became a key technology in an expanding metal-working
industry.
3.1.4. Mass finishing
The history of mass finishing began with barrel tumbling
methods, which started in periods preceding by far the advent of
manufactured abrasives [1]. Mass finishing technologies had
already been exploited by the Middle Ages. Chain mail suits (as
shown in Fig. 6) consisting of tens of thousands of small rings
needed to be maintained, polished, and cleaned. The chain mail
suit or parts of it were enclosed in a barrel filled with sand and
pebbles. The barrel was then closed and rolled around in the
courtyard, thus tumbling the chain mail with the abrasive material.
Those suits were used since the 4th century BC and came into
fashion between the 11th and 13th centuries AD. The technology
eventually fell into oblivion, and it was necessary to grant patents
for mass finishing in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Fig. 6. Barrel tumbling for cleaning of chain mail used since the 4th century BC.
Source: Codex Manesse (‘‘Herzog von Anhalt’’) Universität Heidelberg.
In 1873, a patent for a tumbling machine with prismatic barrels
for cleaning and shining components was applied for in the US
[18]. The first patent for barrel finishing with an oscillation
mechanism was filed in Germany in 1936 [54], and the first patents
for both tub-type and bowl-type vibratory finishing machines
were filed in 1960 in the US and UK, respectively [121,139]. Media
used in mass finishing has evolved from crushed and graded rock
developed in 1943. The first synthetic media was preformed
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ceramic developed in 1949 in Germany, followed by synthetic,
random-shaped media in the US in 1952 [94].
3.2. Unbonded abrasive finishing
3.2.1. Blasting
Sand blasting is widely used in industry for cleaning surfaces,
engraving (by sand-erosion effects), and deburring. Sand, abra-
sives, and nut shells have been commonly used as blasting media.
Pressurized air or fluid is used to propel the blasting media. A US
patent from 1870 [180] is the earliest patent of this technology
known to us [47,166]. It describes an invention developed to
machine hard or solid workpieces by means of a stream of media
such as sand or quartz [180]. When the media are blasted at the
target surface, the media impact the surface, cut, and rebound. The
accumulation of impacts erodes the surface, resulting in an
isotropic finish.
Over the last century, blasting technology has advanced
extensively. The fine control of media type and size, blasting
nozzle material and geometry, flow rate, and masking enable the
creation of micrometer-scale features on brittle substrates such as
glasses [3,15,34,87,135,154,166]. Use of ice or carbon dioxide snow
[86,96,157,192] or viscoelastic abrasive media as blasting media
[70] is an example of new media types.
3.2.2. Abrasive jet finishing
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) was introduced in the
1970s by injecting abrasives into a high-velocity water stream to
improve the machining performance of waterjet machining
[84]. By that time, about 40 years had already passed since the
concept of using water jets to cut articles such as paper was first
devised [84]. During this period, the process developers’ interest
was to improve the cutting efficiency by achieving high water
pressure (up to 400 MPa) [114]. However, even after pressurizing
the water, many challenges remained, especially with cutting
hard-to-machine materials such as composite materials, ceramics,
and NiTi alloys [51,69,119]. Accordingly, the major applications
were sectioning and engraving. Numerous research papers have
described the efforts to develop a fundamental understanding of
the AWJM process [8,169].
Abrasive jet machining using an air jet system and fine abrasive
(smaller than 100 mm mean diameter) to bombard a surface with
high velocity is called fine particle bombarding [100]. This
technology was patented in Japan in 1990 [7,108]. Due to the
fine particle size and low kinetic energy transferred to the surface
by the particles, the affected zone is shallower than that generated
by shot peening, but this process can create a compressive residual
stress.
3.2.3. Lapping, polishing, and buffing
Recently, 3.3-million-year-old stone tools were found in Kenya.
These stone tools, the earliest yet found, clearly show evidence of
being made using a flaking process [64]. Following the process of
learning to break, then to chip, and then to flake stones to make
early cutting tools, humans learned how to grind stone and other
materials to form tools and other useful objects. In fact, from the
Neolithic Period (15,000–5000 BC) onward, man has cut and formed
objects using abrasive properties using a number of naturally
occurring substances, such as sandstone, emery, and jewels [5].
An obsidian bracelet dated to 7500 BC was discovered in
1995 at Asikli Höyük in Turkey and has been displayed ever since at
the Aksaray Archeological Museum (Fig. 7). The investigation of the
bracelet surface found that it was produced with three sequential
processes: pecking, grinding, and lapping/polishing [5]. The ring
(100 mm in diameter and 33 mm in width) is almost perfectly
regular. It has a complex and symmetrical profile with a
remarkable annular ridge in the cross-section of the ring. The
symmetrical accuracy of the profile is extremely high. The
difference of the included angles of radius profiles located on
either side of the ridge is 1 degree, and the location error of both
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Fig. 7. Highly polished obsidian bracelet dated to 7500 BC [5].
profiles is 200 mm. This suggests that the artisans of the time used
templates to control the shape of the ring when it was lapped and
polished. The mirror-like surface of the bracelet required highly
specialized lapping/polishing techniques capable of obtaining a
nanometer-scale surface quality.
3.2.4. Abrasive flow machining (AFM)
In the 1940s, an invention was made to enlarge and shape (or
‘‘olive’’) small holes in multiple jewel bearings by forcing a fluid
containing liquid and abrasive through them at high speeds
[110]. The most notable development was the introduction in the
mid-1960s of a semi-solid, difficult-to-flow plastic material (e.g.,
silicone putty) mixed with abrasive [117,126]. Unlike conventional
abrasive slurry, the semi-solid silicone putty uniformly holds the
abrasive and flows along the wall surface of the passage (the target
surface). In addition, silicone putty has a wide range of flow
characteristics because it is a non-Newtonian fluid with a viscosity
depending on the shear rate. Forcing the media back and forth
inside the target passage achieves deburring and surface finish
improvement of interior surfaces. Since this process came on the
market in the mid-1960s, the process has attracted various
industrial applications [75].
3.2.5. Magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF)
The earliest MAF patents known to us were granted in the
United States in January 1929 [165] and April 1940 [35]. The
former patent was for the polishing of wire draw dies, and the
latter patent was for the interior cleaning or polishing of barrel
shells or linings. These patents both targeted process areas hard to
reach by the conventional technologies and demonstrated the
advantages of MAF. Full-scale research on MAF started to appear in
the 1970s [11,202]. In the 1980s, research groups succeeded in
putting the process to practical use [162]. In the 1990s, as the
mechanisms and advantages of the process became better
understood, the process gained public recognition [52]. During
much of the same period, development of a variety of magnetic
abrasive tools, including the use of magnetic fluid and magneto-
rheological fluid-based slurry provided a boost to MAF’s practical
application [101,103,177,193]. With the addition of magnetic
techniques and compound fluid-based slurry introduced in the
2000s [159], these smart fluid-based slurries have attracted
considerable attention in nanometer-scale finishing.
The use of alternating magnetic fields in MAF processes has
successfully attracted industrial applications such as surface and
edge finishing, deburring, and peening of intricate components
[11]. Metastable stainless steel pins jumble in response to an
alternating magnetic field. If nonferrous magnetic components are
introduced with the pins, the pins collide with the components,
finishing the surfaces and edges [124,214]. Use of a rotating
magnetic field with a permanent magnet tool enables interior
finishing of tubular components. This method is especially useful
for finishing tubes that are difficult to rotate at high speed, such as
elbows or bends [161].
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4. Material removal mechanism

4.1. Fundamentals of material removal mechanism

Prediction of process results is a driving force behind all

modeling and simulation attempts in manufacturing. A unified
process model framework, as shown in Fig. 8, is an entry point to
modeling attempts. The macroscopic frame includes process
conditions, process outputs, and typical process evaluation factors
(surface integrity and topography, dimension and form accuracy).
On this macroscopic level, the process is characterized based on
the interaction between the abrasive tool (not individual abrasive
grains) and the workpiece surface.

Macro level
Process •Material (ducle or brile) •Depth of cut
condions •Pressure-copying •Feed rate Fig. 9. (a) Kinematics of the grain, (b) forces in the grain-workpiece contact and
•Moon-copying •Cung speed (c–e) different modes of the interference between abrasive grain and workpiece
surface.
Micro level Surface
Surface
integrity Grain Process Local topography
surface depends on the impact angle a of the momentum or velocity v of
•Cung
•Residual speed the grain (measured from the normal of the workpiece surface) and
stress •Material on its rotation v.
•Depth of •Roughness
•Heat affected •Shape •Shape
zone •Size
cut
•Height parameters At small impact angles a (Fig. 9(c)), the grain vertically indents
•Forces
•Subsurface •Edge •Width -2D: Ra, Rz, the surface. As a result, the ductile material of the workpiece is
damage Rsk work hardened as it is pushed around the dent. Cracks might form
-3D: Sa, Sz
underneath the dent where the material is brittle, and the growth
Micro outputs
Dimension Surface asperity Machining
of lateral cracks due to frequent bombardment of abrasive grains
control •Shape, Height, removes material from the surface.
accuracy
Width
•Size •Forces •Roundness In the case of large impact angles a with restricted grain
•Diameter •Removal rate •Profile rotation (Fig. 9(d)), most of the momentum of the grain in the
•Taper •Specific energy •Flatness
tangential direction is transferred to the workpiece surface, and
then the grain cuts off asperities and makes scratches on the
Process •Material removal rate surface. Forces are well defined when rigid kinematics are behind
outputs •Equivalent chip thickness the grain.
•Specific energy
In the case of large impact angles a with free grain rotation
(Fig. 9(e)), the grain hits the surface and starts to roll over leaving
Fig. 8. Unified process model for manufacturing processes.
imprints on the workpiece surface where the asperities of the
surface profile are smoothed out.
The inner frame includes the characterization on the micro- In the case of loose grains (as, for instance, in abrasive jet
scopic level of interactions between individual abrasive grains and finishing), the passive force is obtained from inverting the
the workpiece surface. On the microscopic level, the process is direction of the vertical momentum component, while the
defined by the material removed per grain, which then can be reduction of the tangential momentum component during work
related to the microscopic cutting force. A statistical distribution is contact gives the cutting force.
built using the large number of individual events. The macroscopic The depth of cut, which is the crucial parameter for determining
and microscopic levels are connected by derivation of moments of the mode of cutting, is determined by material properties and the
different order, such as mean values as first order moments created force configuration. When the grain depth of cut becomes very small,
from the distribution of output parameters. the material cannot be removed from the workpiece surface by
From the continuum mechanical equations behind the material cutting action, and plowing or sliding (rubbing) on the workpiece
removal, abrasive fine-finishing processes can be distinguished by surface by the grain can be observed. In brittle materials, there exists
prescribed boundary conditions of individual grains. The boundary a critical grain depth of cut hcu, below which the cutting mode is still
conditions can be defined by feedback of the process onto the active ductile (Fig. 10). The critical depth of cut hcu is still today represented
grains. These can be classified into the following three bounds: by the Bifano equation [17]:
   2
(1) Path bound: Kinematic boundary conditions are prescribed by E K IC
hcu ¼ 0:15  (1)
a defined path of the grains through the material according to H H
machine kinematics. This situation prevails in superfinishing,
honing, and coated abrasive finishing.
(2) Force bound: The forces are prescribed by the machine. The
penetration of grains depends on the feedback of the process.
Such situations are found in polishing, lapping, buffing,
abrasive flow machining, and magnetic abrasive finishing.
(3) Energy bound: Abrasive grains contact the workpiece with
some energy, which is determined by the force and the velocity
of the grain. This situation is found in mass finishing, blasting
and jet finishing.
Fig. 9 illustrates the kinematics and forces on the grains, as well
as the three modes (fatigue, cutting, and rolling) of the interference
between the abrasive grain and the workpiece surface during
abrasive fine-finishing. Which mode takes place in the process Fig. 10. Crack generation and growth with particle workpiece interaction.

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where H is Vickers hardness [Hv], E is Young’s modulus [GPa], and ratio h is defined as
fracture toughness KIC [MPa m1/2]. The hcu provides the upper limit
Ft
for the ductile cutting mode. h¼ (9)
Fn
From the viewpoint of the micro-mechanical contact, it becomes
clear that the grain size has an influence on the generated surface At small Qw, Ft,c and Fn,c approach zero, and h approaches the
structure and roughness in all modes of interference as shown in friction coefficient m. The values for h and m can be used to identify
Fig. 9. the amount of cutting and sliding grains and associated specific
Some fundamental parameters developed in long-term grind- energies [105].
ing research [19,21,93,112,147,153,167,184] can be used for
making the assessment and the comparisons between the abrasive 4.2. Bonded abrasive processes
fine-finishing processes and grinding processes.
The equivalent chip thickness heq is a conceptual parameter 4.2.1. Superfinishing
representing the thickness of a ribbon-shaped chip (the volume is Fig. 11 shows a schematic of the superfinishing of a cylindrical
Q 0w ) with the length of jvsj [167]. The equivalent chip thickness heq workpiece. The stone follows a sinusoidal path as a result of the
is defined as follows: workpiece rotation combined with the stone oscillation in the axial
 0  direction. The average cutting velocity ys and maximum inclination
Qw ¯
heq ¼ (2) angle umax at any point P is calculated using the following
ys equations:
where Q 0w and vs are the specific material removal rate and cutting qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
speed, respectively. The value of heq can be calculated in all ys ¼ p ðdw Nw Þ2 þ 2ð faÞ2 (10)
abrasive fine-finishing processes once the material removal rate
2fa
and cutting speed are found. The other fundamental parameter is umax ¼ tan1 (11)
Dw N w
the specific energy u defined as the total energy for removing a unit
volume of chip from the finished surface [9,19,156]. The energy
consists of the following two components:
u ¼ uc þ usl (3)
where uc is the specific chip-formation energy and usl is the specific
sliding energy (including plowing energy). In the case of general
grinding of steels, the specific energy u typically ranges from
20 to 60 J/mm3, and the specific chip-formation energy uc is
about 13.8 J/mm3 [112]. This means that 30–77% of the total
energy u is expended by plowing and sliding friction. The
total energy u rapidly increases at small equivalent chip
thickness heq. In fine grinding, the energy u is over 80 J/mm3
because of the increased energies of plowing and sliding actions
Fig. 11. Set up parameters in superfinishing.
of grains. In abrasive fine-finishing, the equivalent chip
thickness becomes smaller than that in the fine grinding, and
the total specific energy u is expected to be much greater than in where dw is the workpiece diameter, Nw is the workpiece rotational
fine grinding. speed, f is the frequency of stone oscillation, and a is the amplitude
The total specific energy u is defined as of the oscillation. The specific material removal rate Q 0w can be
represented by the following equation:
P F t ys
u¼ ¼ (4)
Qw Qw Q 0w ¼ pdw Dr =t s (12)

where P is the machining power, Qw is material removal rate, and Ft where Dr is the radius reduction of workpiece and ts is the
is tangential force. The specific material removal rate Q 0w is defined superfinishing time for the material removal. The average
as equivalent chip thickness heq is represented as

Qw Q 0w Dr
Q 0w ¼ ¼ heq ys (5) heq ¼ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (13)
b vs 2 þ 2ð fa=d Þ2
t s Nw w
where b is the width of cut. In the case of pressure-copying
processes, such as the lapping/polishing process, Preston’s Also, the average specific cutting energy u can be represented as
¯
equation [136] can be used to express the material removal rate qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2
as follows: F 0 hps Ac ts Nw þ 2ðð fa=dw ÞÞ
u¼ t ¼ (14)
heq l s Dr
DV Dh
Qw ¼ ¼ A ¼ C y pys (6)
Dt Dt where F 0t is the specific tangential force, and ps is the supply
where V is the chip volume removed, h is the thickness of the pressure to the air cylinder with the area of Ac. The length of the
layer removed from the workpiece surface, A is the contact superfinishing stone is denoted as ls.
surface area of the workpiece, Cv is a material-dependent Stone and tape superfinishing tests were conducted under
constant, and p is the applied pressure. On the macroscopic various setup conditions (Fig. 12), and heq and u were estimated
level, the tangential and normal forces Ft and Fn associated with using the Eqs. (10)–(14). The range of heq is 0.005–0.1 mm, which is
abrasive fine-finishing processes can be written using the about a third of the range in general grinding (0.01–0.3 mm). The
following equations: range of u is 80–480 J/mm3, which is four to six times higher than
in grinding (20–80 J/mm3).
F t ¼ F t;c þ F t;sl (7) Superfinishing has unique capabilities for controlling and
F n ¼ F n;c þ F n;sl (8) improving the following:

where Ft,c and Fn,c are tangential and normal cutting components (1) Surface topography, such as roughness, skewness, cross-
and Ft,sl and Fn,sl are the corresponding sliding components. The hatching.

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600 [59,148], which can be correlated to fundamental honing

Example of setup parameters
Specific energy u J/mm³

500 dw 16.5 mm parameters [148] and used for simulating honing forces and
Stone Tape
Nw 12 - 60 rps surface finish. The total specific energy u in honing increases with a
400 f 70-240 Hz
decrease in chip thickness [190].
a 2.7 mm
300 Table 1 shows the setup conditions and the outputs in bore
∆r 0.0016 mm
200 ts 13 sec honing of cylinder liners, a typical honing operation. Compared
ps 1 - 2.5 N/cm² with general grinding, the cutting speed vs is 35–70 times lower in
100 Ac 4.9 cm²
ls 16 mm
honing, but the specific removal rate Q 0w and the equivalent chip
0 thickness heq are almost the same. As a result, the specific energy u
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
in honing is in the range of 30–49 J/mm3, which is the same energy
Equivalent chip thickness heq μm
level found in general grinding.
Fig. 12. Equivalent chip thickness vs. specific energy in superfinishing.
Table 1
Bore honing of cylinder liner and output parameters.

(2) Out-of-roundness (in particular, high-frequency undulation Inputs Honing conditions

per revolution). Work material Special gray iron
(3) Profile accuracy by minimizing crowning and dub creation. Bore diameter (D) 130 mm
(4) Surface integrity by creating compressive residual stresses and Bore height (H) 272 mm
removing damaged sub-surface layers (including heat affected Cutting fluid Low viscosity neat oil
Spindle speed (Vft) 0.68 m/s
zones).
Axial oscillation (Vfa) 0.47 m/s

Outputs Pre-honing Base-honing

4.2.2. Honing Cutting speed (Vs) 0.83 m/s 0.83 m/s

The conventional kinematics of honing, shown in Fig. 13,
typically include three components of motion: simultaneous
rotation (tangential velocity), outward motion of stones, and an
oscillating motion (reciprocating strokes with longitudinal veloci-
ty) producing a smooth, crosshatched surface. The cutting (honing)
velocity vs is the vector sum of tangential and axial velocities and is
typically set up at vs = 1–3 m/s.
In honing, higher specific material removal rates Q 0w can be
obtained by applying higher outward pressure (normal forces),
resulting in higher stone wear and increased surface roughness
[122]. Stone wear is more apparent with the finer grit sizes, which
means that coarser grit stones wear less at a particular Q 0w
[105,190]. Forces, speed, and honing-stone properties in bore
honing can be correlated to the material removal and stone wear
[107]. For this process, Q 0w can be simply expressed as:
2pRDr L 2pRyf L
Q 0w ¼ ¼ (15)
bnt bn
where R is the initial bore radius, Dr is the radial material (stock) to
be removed in time t, L is the bore length, b is the width of each
honing stone, and n is the number of honing stones in a mandrel.
Q 0w can be also calculated by using the radial infeed velocity vf,
which is typically an input parameter in honing machines.
Equivalent chip thickness heq can be calculated from the honing
parameters by dividing the specific material removal rate by the
cutting speed as in Eq. (2).
Goeldel et al. [59] provided another approach to simulate the
material removal mechanism in honing. Their macroscopic
approach couples a cutting model [59,152] and a ‘‘spatiotemporal’’
discretization for integrating the stone kinematics relative to the
surface points of the workpiece [59], based on the methodology
introduced by Chen et al. [33]. The topography of the workpiece
and the stone can be characterized by the bearing area curve
Specific material removal rate (Q 0w ) 2.82 mm3/mm s 3.68 mm3/mm s
Equivalent chip thickness (heq) 3.42 mm 4.46 mm
Specific energy (u) 49 J/mm3 30 J/mm3
4.2.3. Mass finishing
Very little scientific research has been published in the 50+ years
of mass finishing technology development. As mentioned in Section
2.2, mass finishing can be classified into five methods. Among them,
the vibratory finishing process, especially bowl-type vibratory
finishing, is the most widely used because of its productivity,
consistent surface finish with visual uniformity, process flexibility
with low tooling intensity, and low staffing requirements.
One of the first efforts to develop mathematical models for
the prediction of material removal and surface roughness during
the vibratory finishing process was conducted by Hashimoto
[65]. Wang et al. investigated vibratory finishing of aluminum
workpieces using a force transducer to measure contact forces
[200]. Yabuki et al. measured the tangential and normal contact
forces, and the force ratios were presented [208]. Domblesky
et al. conducted an experimental investigation of the vibratory
finishing process, and presented the model of material removal
rate as a function of bowl acceleration [39,40]. Fraas provided
useful results in the motion analysis of granular solids in
fluidized beds [53]. Naeini et al. presented a 2-D discrete
element model of granular flow in a vibrating bed [123]. There
have been several papers investigating the effect of chemical
solutions on surface roughness and material removal
[4,143]. Song et al. showed that the etching speed of a chemical
solution should be well balanced with the mechanical material
removal rate in order to achieve a good surface finish
[168]. Hashimoto et al. presented the modeling of vibratory
finishing machines, and discussed the machine design and the
setup optimization [66].
The mathematical model of the material removal mechanism in
vibratory finishing has been proposed [67]. The normal force Ḟ n
acting on a unit area of the workpiece surface can be expressed as
follows:
wm
Ḟ n ¼ Ps þ n ar cosu (16)
g
P s ¼ ½fhm w0m ð1Ry Þg þ fhm w0m Ry gH (17)

where Ps is the hydrostatic pressure on the workpiece surface, H is

the depth of the workpiece from the top surface of media, n is the
number of media contact points with workpiece surface in a unit
area, wm is the weight of a medium, ar is the relative acceleration
Fig. 13. Conventional kinematics in honing of cylinder bores [61]. between media and workpiece, and u is the impact angle of the

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media measured from the normal to the workpiece surface. The
specific weights of the media and workpiece are given by w0m and
w0w , respectively. The volume ratio of workpiece to media in the
bowl is Rv, and hm and hw are the occupancy ratios of the media and
the workpiece in a unit volume.
The average cutting speed ys of media relative to the workpiece
¯
can be approximated by
pffiffiffi
ys ffi ð 2=2Þar vsinu (18)
where ar is the relative amplitude of the media to the workpiece
and v is the angular velocity of the forced vibration, which is given
by the spindle speed of the vibratory finishing machine.
The equivalent chip thickness heq and the total specific energy u
in vibratory finishing can be calculated by:
Q̇ w a ma
heq ¼ ¼ (19)
ys ys
mḞ n ys
u¼
m mechanism is characterized especially for lapping, polishing and
where a is the depth of cut, m [mm/s] is the surface penetration
speed of media into the workpiece surface and Q̇ w [mm3/mm2 s] is
the material removal rate per unit area (which is equal to m). The
force ratio of the tangential force Ḟ t to the normal force Ḟ n is
m. Yabuki et al. [208] presented the ranges of the force ratio m:
0.15–0.25 under wet conditions and 0.2–0.35 under dry conditions.
Fig. 14 shows the equivalent chip thickness heq and the specific
energy u calculated using typical setup parameters in vibratory
finishing. The range of heq is 0.3  105 to 2  105 nm, which is
about 107 to 106 times smaller than typical grinding values. The
range of the specific energy is 200–1200 J/mm3, which is 3–60
times higher than that in general grinding. It is estimated by Eq. (3)
that the extremely high cutting energy in vibratory finishing is
expended mostly in plowing and sliding of media against the
workpiece surfaces. Only 1–5% of the total specific energy u in
vibratory finishing is used for material removal compared with
20–70% in typical grinding.
1,400
Removal rate m=0.02 μm/min
Specific energy u J/mm³
1,200 Removal rate m=0.05 μm/min
Removal rate m=0.07 μm/min
1,000 Amplitude Ar=5 mm
Amplitude Ar=4 mm
800 Amplitude Ar=3 mm
600
400
200
0 Fn
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 μ=0.2
Equivalent chip thickness heq nm X
Fig. 14. Equivalent chip thickness vs. specific energy at the depth H = 300 mm in
vibratory finishing.
4.3. Unbonded abrasive processes
4.3.1. Lapping, polishing and buffing
There have been many papers describing the process modeling
of lapping and polishing (including buffing) [104,113,150,
178,186,188,207,218,219]. For instance, Yuan et al. presented a
typical material removal model using a combination of
Preston’s equation and a Hertz model of the contact between
the abrasive-loaded asperities of the pad and material. Particle-
contact modes against the workpiece surface are classified into
rolling and sliding contacts [207]. A roughness evolution model
was presented based on Reye’s theory [113].
As shown in Fig. 15, all lapping and polishing processes
consist of four main component systems: granule, carrier fluid,
workpiece and platen. Material composition plays an important
role in material removal, and the fluid, especially its chemical
and physical properties, also influences the material removal
mechanism. The granule mixed in the slurry, called grit or abrasive,
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9
Fig. 15. Example of lapping and polishing processes that involve a granule, a carrier
fluid, a workpiece and a lap or platen [44].
removes material from the surface of the workpiece. Evans et al.
described six pairwise interactions between the system compo-
nents, grouped into three that involve the workpiece and three that
do not involve the workpiece. The pairs are workpiece-fluid,
workpiece-granule, workpiece-lap, fluid-granule, fluid-lap, and
granule-lap [44].
In processes using free abrasives, the material removal
(20)
buffing by rolling abrasives and temporarily embedded abrasives.
Rolling abrasives cause micro-cracks and breakout of surface
particles. For example, in ductile materials, the workpiece surface
is formed up to fracture and is gradually removed by the repeated
penetration of the grain edges into the workpiece surface. In hard
and brittle materials, micro-cracks are produced on the workpiece
surface, and the accumulation of many such micro-cracks can lead
to breakout of particles. Temporarily embedded abrasives,
however, lead to chipping material removal and micro-plowing.
The main variables of the lapping/polishing/buffing process are
the pressure and the cutting velocity. Because the process is a
pressure-copying process, the feed velocity of the workpiece, as
well as the cutting performance, is not directly adjustable.
In the 1920s, Preston established a model for glass grinding that
related relative velocity and pressure to material removal rate m
[mm/s] measured in change of workpiece height h related to time t
[136]. This relationship, known as Preston’s equation, is
Dh
Condions m¼ ¼ Cpys (21)
Dt
Media: balls
dm=10 mm where C is a constant relating to the process parameters, p is the
Rv=0.2
ηm=0.60
applied pressure, and vs is the relative velocity of the workpiece on
ηw=0.90 the tool. The pressure p is given by the normal force Fn on the
Wm=3 g/cm³ workpieces and the total workpiece contact surface Awp with the
Ww=7.86 g/cm³
Ar=5 mm lap plate.
Ω=143 rad/s
p¼ (22)
a=1.0 μm Awp
The material removal can also be defined as removed volume V
per time:
DV DhAwp
Qw ¼ ¼ ¼ CAwp pys ¼ C y pys (23)
Dt Dt
where Cv is a new constant related to volume.
The linear relationship in Preston’s equation has been
confirmed in numerous experiments conducted on different
forms of abrasive material removal processes at certain pressures
and velocities [22,23,120,130,221]. However, it is generally
accepted that the linear relationship in Preston’s equation is
not valid within certain ranges of lapping parameters [118]. In
order to account for the differences seen between predicted and
empirical results, there have been many proposed modifications to
Preston’s equation. Tellez-Arriaga et al. proposed a modification to
Preston’s equations that accounted for the frictional coefficient as a
function of velocity at low speeds [178]. Several studies have used
power functions for Qw prediction [188,189,206]. There has been
also a great amount of research conducted on the kinematics of
lapping [95,201,218,221].
In lapping/polishing, a large portion of the energy is expended
as friction, with only a small portion going into the material
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removal. There is very little literature on specific energy in lapping.
Chandrasekar et al. [26] measured specific energy in lapping of
T-15 steel material (Table 2). The paper describes that the removal
rate and cutting speed in lapping are about 1/5000 and 1/200–1/
100 of those in general grinding, respectively. The range of material
removal rate Qw was 0.07–0.15 mm3/min, which is about 1/100–1/
10 of that found general grinding. It can be estimated that the
equivalent chip thickness heq in these lapping operations is about
0.4–1.0 nm. The range of specific energy u was 1650–1800 J/
mm3. The specific energy obtained is about 30–90 times greater
than in general grinding. The high specific energy in lapping is
undoubtedly due to the fact that in lapping a large portion of the
energy is expended for plowing and sliding, and only a small
portion goes into chip formation.
Table 2
Specific energy for lapping [26].
Workpiece Abrasive, Lapping Material Specific
grain size pressure p removal rate Qw energy u
mm Mpa mm3/min J/mm3
T-15 Steel Alumina 1.5 mm 0.05 0.07 1800
0.09 1750
0.15 1650
4.3.2. Abrasive fluid jet finishing
A pressurized stream of abrasive slurry has been used as a tool
for cutting, drilling, milling, deburring, polishing, and cleaning. The
abrasive carrier fluid properties, pressure, and carrier flow rate are
the main parameters for controlling the abrasive contact against
the target surface. The nozzle diameter, stand-off distance
(distance between the target surface and nozzle), and abrasive
fluid jet angle and pressure are used to finely adjust the flow
pattern.
Jet pressures up to 50 MPa are considered to be low pressure,
and systems using pressures higher than 50 MPa are referred to as
high-pressure systems [46]. It has been reported that low-pressure
systems operating below 35 MPa often seem to be sufficient for
fluid jet polishing (FJP) [46].
The material removal mechanism of FJP is based on erosion
effects, and the abrasive jet impingement conditions result in
either brittle- or ductile-mode removal. While the brittle mode is
based on permanent impression or indentation, the ductile mode is
based on shearing [106]. The higher the kinetic energy transferred
from the jet to the target surface, the higher the force acting on the
abrasive leading to the brittle erosion mode. However, if the
abrasive grain is small and the jet velocity is low (under 40 m/s),
the kinetic energy of the abrasive is too small to initiate micro-
cracks. Therefore, those FJP conditions result in ultra-fine finishing
in the ductile erosion mode [106].
4.3.3. Abrasive flow machining
Abrasive media used in abrasive flow machining (AFM) are
composed of abrasive uniformly mixed in a viscoelastic polymer.
As shown in Fig. 16, the abrasive medium is extruded through
passages between the workpiece and fixture. The abrasive
suspended in the polymer abrades and finishes the workpiece
Fig. 16. Principle of abrasive flow machining process (Courtesy of Kennametal
Extrude Hone).
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surface. Silicon carbide, boron carbide, aluminum oxide, and
diamond abrasives are commonly used. The abrasive type and size
are chosen according to the workpiece materials and target finish.
The media extrusion pressure is generally between 0.7 MPa and
22 MPa [142]. In addition, the finishing pressure is dependent on
the polymer viscosity, media extrusion passage geometry, flow
pressure, and flow rate. In the case of high-viscosity polymer
(typically 1000–5000 Pa s), the media flows very slowly through
the passage formed by the fixture and target surface. The mass of
media behaves like a solid, brittle abrasive grinding stone. The
abrasive smooths the target surface while being extruded through
the passage. Once the media reaches the exit of the passage, no
stress is applied to the media and the media maintains the form of
the passage. This results in less edge rounding at the exit of the
workpiece. In contrast, low-viscosity media formulations (typical-
ly 0.1–0.5 Pa s) are useful for the edge rounding but not for the
surface finishing of the passages because of the media deform-
ability at the target passage exit [37].
There is a wide range of process parameters, which allow AFM to
machine various materials, including soft alloys (such as aluminum
alloys) to hard, tough materials (tool steels, carbides, super-alloys).
The process applications include surface finishing of complex
internal passages, free-form surfaces (e.g., airfoils, engine compo-
nents), intricate dies and molds, and edge rounding (deburring).
The method shown in Fig. 16 features the extrusion of the
abrasive media back and forth through a passage. The number of
passes determines the total material removal and surface finish. In
one embodiment of AFM called one-way flow, abrasive media is
extruded in only one direction. The AFM process can be fully
automated to be used in mass production.
4.3.4. Magnetic abrasive finishing
Magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF) mechanically removes material
with abrasives suspended by magnetic force. The abrasives typically
used are aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, diamond, etc. Because
these abrasive materials are not ferromagnetic, magnetic media in
the form of particles, pins, or flakes are generally mixed with the
abrasive to provide the force needed for finishing. Some applications
use composite magnetic abrasive composed of iron and abrasive
grains. The abrasive motion is controlled through the manipulation
of the magnetic media by a magnetic field.
The magnetic force acting on the magnetic media and the
motion against the workpiece surface are two major factors that
control the finishing performance. The design of the magnetic field
at the finishing area, therefore, plays an important role in MAF. The
finishing pressures generally range from 5 to 400 kPa [213].
Fig. 17(a) shows a schematic of the processing principle of MAF for
a ferromagnetic workpiece using a mixture of magnetic particles
and abrasive. The magnetic particles are placed between the
magnet and workpiece where they align themselves along the lines
of magnetic force and push the abrasive against the workpiece.
When the tangential component of the resultant magnetic force is
greater than the friction force against the workpiece surface, the
particles follow the magnet’s motion and remove material.
In the case of non-ferromagnetic workpieces, a magnetic table
must be placed below the workpiece to create a sufficient magnetic
field (Fig. 17(b)). This results in a downward magnetic force acting
Fig. 17. Principles of MAF processing.
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on the magnetic particles, pressing the abrasives onto the workpiece 1.2

surface. The translation of the magnetic field drags the mixture of

1 Hard

Magnec abrasive finishing

magnetic particles and abrasive, finishing the surface. As shown in turning Peel
Fig. 17(c), the magnet placed under the workpiece can suspend

Force rao Ft/Fn

grinding

Lapping/Polishing
0.8
magnetic particles located on the workpiece by means of unimpeded Normal
magnetic flux through the non-ferromagnetic workpiece. The grinding
0.6
magnetic particles are attracted by the magnetic field, pushing
the abrasive against the workpiece. In a manner analogous to 0.4 Stone superfinishing
Fig. 17(b), the translation of the magnet drags the mixture of Tape
magnetic particles and abrasive, finishing the surface. The finished Honing
0.2
(mirror) surface is composed of an accumulation of scratch marks. Vibratory finishing
The principle shown in Fig. 17(a) has been applied to finish 0
components made of both low- and high-carbon steels, including 1 10 100 1000 10000
tool steels. The principles shown in Fig. 17(b) and (c) have been Specific energy u J/mm³
applied to components made of 304 stainless steel, brass,
aluminum alloys, CoCr alloys, and ceramics. The surface roughness Fig. 20. Specific energy vs. force ratio.

of MAF-processed 304 stainless steel components is generally in

Tensile
the range of 0.01–0.07 mm Ra. The calculated equivalent chip 400

Residual stress on finished surface MPa

thickness heq and the specific energy u are 0.03–3 nm and 400– Workpiece: hardened steel
6000 J/mm3, respectively. In special conditions, MAF processes Peel
enable finishing of the surface to sub-nanometer Ra. 0 Grinding

turning
Hard
4.4. Fundamental parameters in abrasive fine-finishing methods
-400 Superfinishing
In order to assess the abrasive fine-finishing processes over

Compressive
other machining processes, this study for the keynote paper Lapping/
Honing Polishing
conducted machinability tests of steel materials under various
machining methods. In the tests, fundamental parameters heq and -800 Tape
u were measured in addition to process parameters like force ratio, Vibratory
residual stress and roughness. The machining methods are: hard Finishing
turning, grinding, micro milling and soft turning. The fundamental -1200
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
parameters of abrasive fine-finishing methods shown in the Specific energy u J/mm³
previous sessions were compared with ones obtained by the
machinability tests. It is summarized in Figs. 18–22. Fig. 21. Specific energy vs. residual stress on workpiece surface.

Fig. 18 shows the ratio of the specific cutting energy uc

expended by the chip removal to the total specific energy u in the
100 case of hardened steel finishing. It is assumed that uc is kept at a
chip removal to total specific energy %
Rao of specific energy expended for

Workpiece: alloy steel

90
Peel grinding Specific cung energy uc: 13.8 J/mm³
constant value of 13.8 J/mm3 [112]. The average ratios are 63% for
80 Max. Normal grinding peel grinding and 46% for normal grinding. Roughly speaking,
Stone superfinishing

70
Ave.
about 50% of the energy is expended for cutting actions and the
Tape superfinishing

60
other 50% for plowing and sliding actions on finished surfaces. On
Vibratory finishing

Honing
Magnec abrasive

Lapping/Polishing

50 Min. the other hand, in abrasive fine-finishing methods, the average

40
ratios are 38% for honing/lapping, about 10% for superfinishing,
30
finishing

5% for vibratory finishing, and only 1% for lapping. In abrasive

20
fine-finishing processes, significant amounts of specific energy are
10
consumed for sliding-plowing actions. From the viewpoint of
0
material removal, abrasive fine-finishing processes are low-
Fig. 18. Ratio of specific cutting energy to the total specific energy in various
efficiency processes compared to grinding. However, the high
finishing methods. ratio of energy usl results in the improvement of the surface
integrity characteristics such as surface roughness and residual
stress.
Fig. 19 shows the relationship between the total specific energy
10
u and the surface roughness. The surface roughness is drastically
Hard Workpiece: hardened steel
Grinding improved as the total specific energy is increased. It is obvious that
turning
abrasive fine-finishing methods provide higher surface quality
Surface roughness μmRa

Peel because of the higher ratio of sliding/plowing energy usl.

1 Fig. 20 shows the relationship between the total specific energy
and the force ratio Ft/Fn. As the specific energy u is increased, the
Superfinishing force ratio is significantly reduced, and the ratio eventually comes
Honing Vibratory close to the frictional coefficient of the grain on the workpiece in
0.1 Finishing the region of extremely high specific energy. The low force ratio
Tape comes from the higher ratio of sliding/plowing energy usl that
Lapping/
causes the abrasive grains to rub workpiece surfaces under a high
Polishing
normal force. The low force ratio improves the surface integrity by
increasing compressive residual stresses as shown in Fig. 21.
0.01
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 Fig. 22 shows the regions of various machining methods on the
Specific energy u J/mm³ heq-u diagram. The diagram clearly indicates the range of the
equivalent chip thickness heq and the specific energy u for each
Fig. 19. Specific energy vs. surface roughness. machining method.

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Fig. 22. Mapping of regions for various machining methods on (heq-u) diagram (Material: alloy steel).

The diagram in Fig. 22 predicts the outputs of the machining

processes in terms of surface roughness, residual stress, and
material removal rate. For instance, lapping/polishing and
magnetic abrasive finishing methods provide a very smooth
surface and a high compressive residual stress, although the
material removal rate is small. Also, it is indicated that the
vibratory finishing method provides very smooth surface and
stable process-controllability, but the process time is extremely
long – as long as several hours – due to very small heq. The
superfinishing method provides fine surfaces, and creates com-
pressive residual stress. The honing of cylinder liners provides a
high-efficiency process as well as imparting a compressive residual
stress similar to that found in ground surfaces. The mapping of
regions for machining methods on the diagram may suggest a
future direction for new finishing technology development.

5. Surface characterization and manufacturing process design

for abrasive fine-finishing technology

5.1. Functional performance required from finishing components
The challenges imposed by increased demands of functional
performance of mechanical components, require selection of
appropriate manufacturing methods to yield the desired mechani-
cal properties on the surfaces of these components. Abrasive fine-
finishing processes are commonly used as final finishing processes
to achieve these desired surface properties. These processes greatly
influence the correction of micro geometrical errors on the surface
and also yield desirable properties in a thin subsurface layer.
The requirements of finished surfaces depend on the expected
role of these surfaces in their respective applications. Size and
geometrical accuracy, surface topography, and surface integrity are
critical characteristics for most industrial applications, such as
power transmissions, friction products, etc. Size and geometrical
accuracy includes dimensional accuracy as well as form accuracy
measured as profiles, roundness, flatness, etc. Surface topography
includes the surface roughness and texture, and surface integrity
focuses on residual stress and the heat-affected zone in the near
sub-surface. These three critical characteristics affect the func-
tional performance of finished products, as shown in Fig. 23.
By enabling finished product surfaces to achieve optimum
performance, abrasive fine-finishing processes play a critical role
in every manufacturing industry [6,62,63,74]. The superfinishing
Fig. 23. Functional performance of products affected by three critical characteristics
of finished components.
process is widely used in the automotive and power transmission
industries to improve the surface roughness, waviness, bearing
area, and hence the fatigue life of components. In addition, the
superfinishing process significantly improves sound/noise perfor-
mance by reducing vibration. Similarly, plateau honing is
commonly used in the automotive industry to obtain reduced
peak height and increased bearing area to allow improved engine
efficiency. Lapping and polishing are the most widely used
abrasive fine-finishing processes applied to improve flatness as
well as surface finish on a variety of materials such as metals,
plastics, semiconductor materials, and diamond. These processes
are also widely used for finishing cosmetic surfaces, such as watch
cases and jewelry, where visual appearance of the surface is of
primary importance. In industrial applications such as plastic-
injection-mold surfaces, lapping and polishing are able to yield
parts with uniform mirror finishes. The ultra-smooth surfaces of
these molds also prevent adhesion of the part to the mold. In the
case of cold-forming tools and dies, abrasive fine-finishing
processes are used to create functional surfaces that provide
better lubrication and/or glossy surfaces suitable for coating or
plating processes.

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5.2. Surface characterization

Abrasive fine-finishing methods are normally applied after

material removal processes such as grinding or hard turning so a
minimum stock removal is necessary during these processes to
completely remove the previous surface features. The primary
objective in the application of abrasive fine-finishing processes is
to improve surface roughness. However, even though all abrasive
fine-finishing processes improve the surface roughness, there are
significant differences in the resultant surface topography and
integrity.
In the case of surfaces used in rolling and sliding contacts such
as rolling element bearings, stone and tape superfinishing are
commonly used to improve the roughness as well as the
geometrical accuracy of the components. The overlapping action
of stone superfinishing significantly improves the high-frequency
waviness on cylindrical parts. The resultant surface characteristics Fig. 24. 3D surface characterization of abrasive fine-finishing methods.
of these processes include negative skewness.
Abrasive particle size and processing time are two fundamental
parameters that control the surface roughness in the stone and
tape superfinishing processes. These processes can be implemen-
ted in multiple stages using progressively smaller abrasive grit
sizes. The surface roughness eventually reaches a steady-state
value, and the required processing stages and times depend on the
target surface conditions and abrasive size [137].
The honing process typically used on cylinder liners provides
surfaces that retain oil to reduce wear. Characterization of these
surfaces is typically done by using peak-to-valley roughness values.
Abrasive fine-finishing methods such as vibratory finishing,
lapping, and buffing generate very low surface roughness values
and also yield low values of root-mean-square (rms) slope of the
roughness profile Dq, indicating more reflective surfaces. In
addition, these processes also create isotropic surface finishes. The
texture aspect ratio Str can be used to evaluate the anisotropic or
isotropic topography of a surface.
Table 3 shows typical values of the two- and three-dimensional
surface finish parameters that can be achieved by using different
abrasive fine-finishing processes. Fig. 24 shows representative
three-dimensional surface images for these processes, and Fig. 25
illustrates the surface textures associated with different abrasive
fine-finishing processes. These surface textures depend on the
kinematic interaction between the abrasive and workpiece surface.
In the cases of superfinishing and honing, the relative motion
between the abrasive and the workpiece surface results in a
distinct crosshatch pattern. Superfinishing, using higher work
speeds and smaller oscillation amplitudes typically used in the Fig. 25. Surface textures generated by abrasive fine-finishing methods.

Table 3
Characteristics of surfaces created by typical abrasive fine-finishing methods.

2D Surface finish 3D Surface finish

Process
Ra μm Rt μm Rz μm Rsk Del-q ° Sa μm Sz μm Str μm
Grinding 0.3~0.8 3~5 3~5 0~-1 12~18 0.2~0.4 2~4 0.01~0.05
Base

Hard turning 0.2~1.0 2~4 2~5 0.5~0 8~12 0.2~0.8 3~5 0~0.02
Stone superfinishing 0.05~0.15 1~2 1~2 -0.5~-1.5 5~12 0.2~0.3 2~5 0~0.05
Tape superfinishing 0.05~0.2 1~2 1~2 -0.5~-1.5 5~12 0.1~0.2 2~5 0~0.05
Honing 0.25~0.5 3~7 2.5~6 -2~-4 10~15 0.3~0.4 3~6 0.01~0.05
Abrasive fine-finishing

Mass finishing 0.05~0.1 0.5~1 0.5~1 -0.5~-1.5 1~3 0.05~0.1 0.5~1 0.4~1
Lapping 0.05~0.12 0.5~1 0.5~1 -0.2~-1.0 3~5 0.05~0.12 0.5~1 0.4~1
Polishing 0.01~0.05 0.05~0.1 0.05~0.1 -0.5~-1.5 2~4 0.01~0.05 0.05~0.1 0.6~1
Buffing 0.005~0.01 0.02~0.05 0.05~0.1 -0.5~-1.5 1~3 0.005~0.01 0.01~0.05 0.6~1
Abrasive flow
0.1~0.25 1~2.5 1~2.5 -0.5~-1.5 1~3 0.1~0.25 1~2.5 0~0.1
machining
Magnec abrasive
0.003~0.07 0.03~0.7 0.03~0.7 0~-2 3~5 0.003~0.07 0.03~0.7 0~0.05
finishing

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14
final stages of the process, results in a smaller crosshatch angle and
fine surface finish [31,137,194]. In the case of honing, equally
spaced grooves with a uniform crosshatch angle of 458 is a
preferred surface texture that allows the oil to be equally displaced
in both directions. Plateau-honed surfaces provide increased
bearing surface area with good oil-retention for lubrication [151].
In the vibratory finishing process, multiple abrasive media
repeatedly strike the workpiece surfaces in random directions. The
accumulation of the abrasive media impacts on the workpiece
surface during vibratory finishing results in an isotropic surface
texture [65].
The surface textures generated using brushing, polishing,
abrasive flow machining, and magnetic abrasive finishing show
fine directional patterns parallel to the abrasive sliding direction,
whereas blasting processes generate a non-directional, matte
texture. Buffing, polishing, and magnetic abrasive finishing using
relatively small abrasive grains enable an increase in the reflectivity
of the surface.
5.3. Surface integrity and residual stress
Improving surface integrity through increased compressive
residual stress is one of the biggest advantages of abrasive
fine-finishing processes. Hence, the selection of the right abrasive
fine-finishing process as a final process is critical to achieving the
desired surface integrity. Abrasive fine-finishing processes remove
material from the target surface and create their own respective
topography on the surface at the nano-/micro-meter level. The
amount of material removal, therefore, is much smaller than the
bulk material removal in the preceding processes such as turning,
milling, and grinding. The material removal during abrasive fine-
finishing processes is caused more by plastic deformation than by
cutting so the influence of the abrasive fine-finishing processes on
residual stress is limited to a shallow depth beneath the surface.
The relatively low cutting speed between the tool and workpiece
results in minimal heat generation at the contact point. The higher
plastic deformation – coupled with minimal heat generation – of
abrasive fine-finishing processes results in the generation of near-
surface compressive residual stresses.
Fig. 26 shows the circumferential residual stress of surfaces
obtained using different fine-finishing processes [68,91,102,151,
155,209]. The workpiece material for the data shown in Fig. 26 is
cast iron for honing and hardened alloy steel for all other processes.
Stone and tape superfinishing processes merely increased the
compressive residual stress after grinding, whereas the vibratory
finishing process significantly increased the compressive stress on
the surface. Hashimoto [68] presented similar trends showing the
influence of these processes on the compressive stress near the
surface, which was associated with increased bearing fatigue life.
Similar results showing the increase in residual compressive stress
Depth below surface μm
0 20 40
200
Circumferenal residual stress MPa
100
0 strate their ability to maintain stringent tolerances when properly
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500 Grinding
Tape superfinishing
-600 Blasng
Lapping
-700
Fig. 26. Effect of abrasive fine-finishing method on circumferential residual stress.
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at the surface after tape superfinishing of hard turned parts were
presented by Rech [140].
Shaw [155] presented the effects of dry and wet alumina grit
blasting on the surface residual stress of case-carburized gears. All
these blasting processes resulted in compressive residual stress at
the surface even though the magnitude of change was smaller than
that imparted during the processes preceding the abrasive fine-
finishing processes. Yahata reported the effects of lapping on the
form of valves made of hardened and ground martensitic stainless
steel [209]. The lapping process induced a large amount of
compressive stresses on the valve surfaces leading to fatigue life
improvement. In the case of cylinder honing, similar results
showing compressive residual stresses induced at and below the
surface have been published [102].
Kenda et al. reported that abrasive flow machining of D2 tool
steel after the EDM process results in the removal of the layer of
tensile stress left after EDM and induces a large compressive
residual stress at the surface [91]. Shinmura reported that MAF-
processed surfaces have increased compressive residual stress
[160]. Yamaguchi et al. reported that the compressive residual
stress in stainless steel components was increased by about 100–
200 MPa after MAF processing [214].
5.4. Influence of process factors on product performance
Abrasive fine-finishing methods significantly improve the
geometrical accuracy and surface finish, leading to improved
product performance in terms of reduced power consumption due
to reduced friction, lower torque, lower noise, and higher fatigue
life. Karpuschewski et al. demonstrated that the conditioning of
tribological systems leads to the reduction of friction and wear-
intensive running-in processes [88]. Such engineered surfaces rely
on the control of surface characteristics to obtain the desired
functional performance.
Base- and plateau-honing generate surfaces with specific
functional properties. The form, roughness, and surface appear-
ance obtained by honing determine the friction, wear, and
performance (e.g., power, oil consumption) of a cylinder liner
[60,151]. Johansson et al. showed that an increase in friction and oil
consumption is associated with higher values of core roughness
depth Rk [83]. The mechanical performance of honed surfaces also
largely depends on the honing angle, groove distribution, presence
of cracks (or casting defects), ratio of open graphite channels, etc.
Plateau-honed surfaces have higher wear resistance but lower
scuffing resistance than conventional (non-plateau) surfaces [81].
In the case of mechanical power transmission components such
as bearings and gears, dimensional and form accuracy of the contact
surfaces are extremely important to avoid edge stress concentra-
tions. Usually the form is generated by processes such as grinding,
and the subsequent abrasive fine-finishing methods must preserve
the form by uniformly removing material across the surface. In order
to allow complete replacement of the original surface texture, the
60 80 typical amount of material removed using abrasive fine-finishing
processes is 1.2 times the peak-to-valley height of the incoming
surface roughness. Since the amount of material removal during
abrasive fine-finishing is relatively small, these processes demon-
controlled. As shown in Fig. 27, superfinishing using stone (and/or
tape) can improve surface roughness while maintaining or
improving the form or profile of the workpiece.
Even though all abrasive fine-finishing methods improve
surface finish, the methods that yield an isotropic surface such
as vibratory finishing exhibit lower friction coefficient. Hashimoto
et al. reported 20% lower torque and 40% lower temperature when
Stone superfinishing bearing contact surfaces are finished by vibratory finishing
Vibratory finishing compared to traditional superfinishing [68]. They attributed
Abrasive flow machining reduced friction with the isotropic finish to the lower surface
Honing
roughness and density of summits. Reduced friction, together with
the high compressive residual stress induced by vibratory
finishing, results in an improvement of fatigue life of up to
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high-frequency undulations on the circumference, which leads to

reduced noise and vibration. Fig. 29 shows the comparison of the
sound pressure levels between two bearings with sets of either
vibratory finished rollers or superfinished rollers. Superfinishing
process substantially improves the sound performance by reduc-
ing the high-frequency undulations in the roundness of the rollers.
On the other hand, the vibratory finishing process provides very
low roughness, but it cannot improve the sound performance
because it cannot improve the form accuracy or roundness.

Fig. 27. Profile accuracy of bearing contact surface before and after stone
superfinishing.

2.5 times the standard bearing surface finished by superfinishing

processes (Fig. 28).
Surfaces finished with abrasive fine-finishing processes are also
effective at improving the noise and vibration performance of
bearings and mechanical power transmission components. In the
cases of bearing rings and rolling elements, wrapping of the
Fig. 29. Comparison of sound pressure levels between vibratory-finished rollers and
superfinishing stone around the workpiece results in attenuating
superfinished rollers in assembled bearings.

5.5. Product performance and process design

Table 4 provides guidelines that associate the influence of

critical characteristics of finished components with the product
performance. For instance, in order to enhance fatigue life, almost
all of the critical factors in the fields of geometrical accuracy,
topography, and surface integrity need to be precisely controlled.
On the other hand, in order to reduce the level of vibration/sound,
the process control should be focused on obtaining roundness with
low undulation per revolution (UPR).
Abrasive fine-finishing processes are critical final processes that
remove a very small layer of material from the surfaces and
improve critical performance. A variety of abrasive fine-finishing
processes can be utilized for this purpose. The selection of abrasive
Fig. 28. Relative bearing life vs. finishing methods. fine-finishing processes depends on the size and shape of the

Table 4
Influence of surface characteristic on product performance. ++, big influence, +, some influence, –, almost no influence.
HAZ (heat affected zone)
2D surface parameters

3D surface parameters
Demensional accuracy

Form/Profile accuracy

Roundness/Waviness

Near surface damage

Surface texture

Residual stress

Product performance vs.

crical characteriscs of
finished component

Geometrical accuracy Topography Surface integrity

Fague life ++ ++ + ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++
Fricon - + - ++ ++ ++ - - -
Wear + + - ++ ++ ++ - - -
Product performance

Heat generaon + + + ++ ++ ++ - - -
Torque + + - ++ ++ ++ - - -
Power densiuty + ++ - ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++
Vibraon/Sound - - ++ + + + - - -
Lubricaon - - - ++ ++ ++ - - -
Corrosion - - - ++ ++ ++ - - -
Visual appearance - - - ++ ++ ++ - - -

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Table 5
Process controllability of abrasive fine-finishing methods. ++, big influence, +, some influence, –, almost no influence.

Magnec abrasive finishing

Coated abrasive finishing

Abrasive flow machining

Crical characteriscs
of finished component
Superfinishing

Mass finishing
vs. product

Jet finishing

Polishing
performance

Lapping
Blasng
Honing

Buffing
Bonded abrasive Un-bonded abrasive
Fague life ++ + - ++ - - ++ + + - -
Fricon ++ ++ - ++ - - ++ ++ + + +
Wear + + + ++ + + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Product performance

Heat generaon + + + ++ + + ++ ++ ++ + +
Torque ++ + - ++ - - ++ ++ ++ - -
Power density ++ + - + - - ++ ++ ++ - -
Vibraon/Sound ++ + - - - - - - - - -
Lubricaon + ++ - + - - + + + - -
Corrosion + + + ++ + + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Visual appearance + + + + + + + ++ ++ + ++

product, economics of processing, and the required performance. A typical oscillation frequency would have been 8.3 Hz at 0.8 mm
In the high-volume manufacturing of cylindrical products such as fixed amplitude, limited mainly by the forces related to the large
bearings, gears, and engine cylinders, superfinishing and honing mass and inertia. Further development has led to mechanical
are widely used. Mass finishing is commonly used for small batch systems, still widely used today, with adjustable stroke and
processing of cylindrical as well as asymmetrical products. reduced or balanced inertia.
Polishing and buffing are commonly used for free-form surfaces The limitations of the early oscillation systems also limited
such as molds and dies. Abrasive flow machining and magnetic stock removal to the depth of the cut generated in the previous
abrasive finishing processes have the unique capability to finish process (e.g., grinding). To overcome this, more efficient pneu-
the inner surface of tubes or the wall surfaces of holes. matically actuated oscillators, able to run at frequencies of over
Table 5 provides a guideline for the selection of an abrasive fine- 40 Hz and 2.5 mm amplitude, were developed (Fig. 30). Centerless
finishing method based on the required product performance. For through-feed superfinishing machines equipped with this type of
example, when the key performance characteristics of a product oscillator support stock removal rates high enough to generate the
are high wear resistance and low heat/torque generation, which desired crowned/logarithmic profile on a 113  18 mm cylindri-
can be achieved by lowering the friction, several abrasive fine- cal roller at a rate of 400 parts/min.
finishing processes, such as superfinishing, honing, mass finishing
and lapping/polishing/buffing, can be selected because of their 3.5

capability to generate smooth surfaces. However, among them, 3.0

only superfinishing and honing can improve geometrical accuracy. Mechanical
Amplitude mm

2.5
These processes remove materials from the surfaces using fixed- Pneumac
abrasive stones. Where the product needs to provide consistent 2.0
lubrication from the finished surface, such as the bore of engine 1.5
cylinders, the honing method should be selected.
1.0
The superfinishing method can be used for the production of
components requiring low noise performance, but mass finishing 0.5
cannot be used because it cannot control the form accuracy. 0.0
Abrasive flow machining and magnetic abrasive finishing processes 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
should be selected to improve the surface roughness. These Frequency Hz
processes are not effective in controlling the form accuracy.
Fig. 30. Properties of mechanical and pneumatic superfinishing oscillation systems
However, critical control of both the processing pressure and
(Courtesy of Supfina Grieshaber GmbH & Co. KG.).
process time demonstrates their feasibility to improve the form
accuracy [216]. Traditional systems feature by design either a linear or a
pivoting oscillation. A system patented in 1999 features a
6. Case studies and recent developments combination of servo-controlled motors and is flexible enough
to finish the small radii of ball bearings as well as cylindrical or
6.1. Advanced superfinishing technology tapered geometries [203]. Today, the superfinishing machines with
four servomotors can be found in oscillators designed to finish
In the early days of superfinishing technology, the linear large bearing rings with sophisticated race profiles.
oscillation or reciprocating movement of a stone was generated The early principle of superfinishing, which is to add a faster
using a cam or eccentric rotor to convert the rotation of a motor. oscillation of small amplitude to a slower reciprocation of large

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amplitude, is today reflected in high-frequency, piezo-electric, or
ultrasonic systems. These are combined with the basic oscillator to
generate specific surface structures or increase the stock removal
rate [73].
6.2. New superfinishing with superimposed frequencies
A superfinishing machine that significantly improves produc-
tivity has been developed [179]. The superfinishing stone is held in
a newly developed oscillation head (see Fig. 31), which is oscillated
at either a standard frequency or a high frequency that can exceed
60 Hz. The oscillation head is directly driven by a servomotor to
minimize the mass moment of inertia of the head mechanical
system for high frequencies and high speeds. This design
specifically avoids conventional mechanical high-mass oscillation
units.
Fig. 31. Superimposed oscillation head developed (Courtesy of Thielenhaus
Technologies).
It is assumed that the multiple oscillations generate a higher
stock removal because (1) the longer cutting path that the
superfinishing stone travels and (2) the high-frequency oscillation
increases the honing stone’s cutting ability.
In order to evaluate the capabilities of the superimposed
oscillation superfinishing head, a series of machining trials were
performed. The stone head was oscillated with a standard low
frequency of approximately 20 Hz combined with a high-frequency
oscillation of at least 50 Hz. In the comparison of surfaces super-
finished by conventional and superimposed oscillation heads,
roughness values (in Ra) were almost the same for both surfaces.
However, the processing time with the new head was reduced from
25 s to 20 s, and the stock removal was increased from 5 mm to
8 mm. Due to the differences in the relative motion between the
superfinishing stone and rotating workpiece surface, the individual
abrasive grains are exposed to forces from more directions and in
shorter intervals. The stress vectors of the grains’ cutting edges
change with the significantly high-frequency oscillation compared
to the vectors encountered with the standard oscillation. This
change substantially improves the stone’s self-dressing and self-
cleaning abilities.
With regards to the superfinishing of bearing raceways, the
developed machine with the superimposed oscillation head can
reduce the average machining time by over 20% compared to the
case without superimposed oscillation head. This is particularly
likely in the case of tape or stone superfinishing of functional
surfaces on cylindrical components, such as automotive drives and
camshafts. These cases implement the machining principle similar
to the one used for anti-friction roller bearings.
6.3. Mechanochemical superabrasive stone
Recently developed superfinishing stones, Mechanochemical
superabrasive stones, are made by mixing superabrasives with soft
abrasives that have chemically reactive functions, such as ceria
(CeO2), barium sulphate (BaSO4), silicon dioxide (SiO2), and
Please cite this article in press as: Hashimoto F, et al. Abrasive fine-finishing technology. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.06.003
17
zirconia (ZnO2) [72]. Soft grains like ceria tend to cause chemical
reactions easily at high temperatures, so the sintering tempera-
ture of the stones should be less than 1000 8C. The mechano-
chemical superabrasive stone uses a special vitrified bond to
combine the grains, and intrinsic residual pores and extra pores,
generally 50–100 mm in diameter, are dispersed in the stone
[55,72,129].
The features of the developed stone are discussed based on
results of experiments involving the superfinishing of ball bearing
raceways. For finishing hardened steel bearings, superfinishing tests
using vitrified fine-CBN stones including CeO abrasives have been
conducted. In superfinishing operations on a surface lapping
machine (vertical spindle/rotating work), using CeO2 abrasives to
react chemically with steel workpieces resulted in better surface
finish [72].
Fig. 32 shows the structures of (a) mechanochemical super-
abrasive stone (CBN+ CeO2 stone) and (b) CBN stone. In stone (a),
the CeO2 grits are scattered throughout the bond [133]. The bond
material containing CeO2 grains is likely to promote stone wear.
Fig. 32. SEM micrographs of the stone structure (Courtesy of Mizuho Co., Ltd.).
Comparative superfinishing tests using mechanochemical super-
abrasive stones and conventional CBN stones were conducted, and
the results are summarized in Fig. 33. Mechanochemical super-
abrasive stones provided a finer and more stable surface finish than
that obtained by CBN stones. Mechanochemical stones reached a
steady-state surface roughness faster than the CBN stones. Making
soft bridges between ceria abrasives in the stone improves the
profile conformability of the stone to the workpiece surface.
Fig. 33. Comparison of roughness and stone wear between mechanochemical
superabrasive stone and CBN stone (Courtesy of Mizuho Co., Ltd.).
Fig. 34 shows photographs of the working surfaces of the stones
after the comparative tests. A clean surface without loading is
observed on the mechanochemical super-abrasive stone, while
small metal fragments had become loaded to the CBN’s one despite
the proper operation.
Mechanochemical superabrasive stones have the following
essential features: (1) prevention of loading of the stone surface
due to sustainable bond-post wear with adequate bond erosion by
chip flows and (2) better profile conformity of the stone surface to a
specified work-profile configuration than the CBN stone. Super-
finishing test results using developed mechanochemical super-
abrasive stones indicate a high probability for process
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18 F. Hashimoto et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Fig. 34. Typical working surfaces of mechanochemical super-abrasive stone and

CBN stone (Courtesy of Mizuho Co., Ltd.).

improvement with the change from a two-step (rough/fine)

process to a single-step process, due to the stone’s effective self-
dressing capability. A combination of diamond stones with the soft
and reactive abrasives could be successfully applied to super-
finishing operations of hard and brittle materials, such as silicon
carbide, sapphire, etc.

6.4. Newly designed superfinishing stone without chromium oxide Fig. 35. SEM photographs and schematic diagrams of conventional stone and newly
and bond material designed stone (Courtesy of Noritake Co., Ltd).

Chromium oxide stones are conventionally used to enhance the

visual appearance of the workpiece surface. However, chromium
oxide’s lack of cutting ability sometimes results in an unevenly
finished surface due to unprocessed areas on the workpiece
surface. Moreover, chromium oxide is considered to be a toxic
material, and its use should be avoided.
For fine superfinishing applications, the grain size used in the
stone is very fine, and the stock removal is typically as small as 1–
2 mm. Because of the fineness, they tend to agglomerate with the
bond material to form large secondary grains, leading to uneven
dispersion of grains and thus uneven surface quality. Here,
superfinishing stone made of abrasive grains with a vitrified bond
is commercially available for industrial applications. Presence of
bond material in fine-abrasive stone may cause loading on the
stone surface. As a result, the available stone occasionally produces
uneven surfaces, and its performance becomes unstable. In order
to overcome the issues and improve the process performance, a
bondless stone without chromium oxide has been designed.
The concept of the bondless structure is to achieve a dense
Fig. 36. The relationship between pore and the surface finish (Courtesy of Noritake
structure by mixing coarse alumina grains with fine alumina. A Co., Ltd).
new manufacturing process has been employed to attain
homogeneous distribution of grains in the superfinishing stone.
The hardness of the stone is adjusted through the proper self-
dressing to improve its ability to conform to the workpiece. Also,
artificial pores are made to adjust the stone hardness and to
facilitate smooth chip flow. For grit sizes finer than #5000, the
artificial pore diameter is preferably 10–100 mm, and the volume
density is preferably 10–55%.
Fig. 35 shows SEM photographs and schematic diagrams of the
structure of conventional and newly designed superfinishing
stones. The features of the newly designed superfinishing stone are
as follows:

(1) No chromium oxide.

(2) No bond material.
(3) Uniform grain-distribution.
(4) Hardness adjustment with artificial pores.

Fig. 36 shows the surface roughnesses of workpieces finished by

stones with different pore size and volume. The surface roughness
of the finished workpiece varies according to the pore size and
volume. This case, the preferable pore diameter and volume for
achieving fine-surface roughness with WA #8000 are 50 mm and
30.6%, respectively.
Fig. 37 shows the average surface roughness and stone wear
created using the conventional and newly developed stones. The
Fig. 37. Stone wear and surface roughness (Courtesy of Noritake Co., Ltd.).
new stone has greater wear due to its conformity to the workpiece
surface. The surface roughness obtained is finer and more uniform
than that of the conventional stone. This is attributed to the
homogeneous grain distribution and dense structure. Use of the
developed stones can be more environmentally friendly and lead
to superfinishing applications requiring higher precision finishing.

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6.5. Advanced vibratory finishing machine design

There are two types of vibratory finishing machines: tub-type

and bowl-type. While the tub-type machine uses a rectangular
container, the bowl-type machine uses a circular container. Both
containers are shaken by forced vibration and are suspended by
springs vertically mounted on the machine base. Excitation forces
and moments of the vibratory container are determined by
rotating eccentric masses [66].
Fig. 38 shows an advanced excitation unit that uses an
eccentric-mass-drive system. This drive system uses a direct
power transmission located at the center of gravity of the machine,
which enables the adjustment of centrifugal forces via scale. The Fig. 40. 150 diameter electroless-nickel coated aluminum disk (Courtesy of Prof.
advanced excitation unit enables vibration modes and media flow Beaucamp).

speeds to be automatically changed. It eliminates wear and tear of
the container as well as a large amount of maintenance. Moreover,
it adjusts the processing conditions to obtain desired finishing
characteristics.
distance: about 5 mm) followed by AFJP. The turned surface,
consisting of periodical cutting marks, was completely trans-
formed to a surface consisting of isotropic abrasive impingements.
While the periodical cutting marks of the turned surface reflect
light and act as a diffraction grating, the AFJP-processed surface
does not exhibit such diffraction effects. Fine control of abrasive jet
pressure and path enables the ultra-precision machining of optical
components.

6.8. Abrasive flow machining

Three major components for a successful AFM process are the

Fig. 38. Bowl-type vibratory finishing machine with newly developed excitation
unit (Courtesy of Spaleck Oberflächentechnik GmbH & Co. KG).
6.6. Abrasive media blasting
Soft, viscoelastic abrasive media deform, slide, and rebound when
they are blasted against a target surface in abrasive media
blasting. While sliding on the target surface, the abrasive media
cut, remove material, and generate a mirror-like surface. The
processing parameters are size and type of abrasive media, blasting
speed, blasting angle, and blasting time. The media blasting angle
alters the finished surface roughness of the workpiece, and a 458
blasting angle seems to be the most effective in reducing surface
irregularity [70].
This process is applicable for mirror-finishing intricate work-
pieces including dies, cutting tools, medical devices, etc. Fig. 39
shows an example of the surface of a carbide component finished
using abrasive media blasting.
appropriate choices of the (1) machine tool, (2) fixture, and (3)
media. The flowability of abrasive media enables a wide variety of
industrial applications, especially those related to aircraft engine
components such as blisk airfoils. Because the media passage
formed between the target surface and fixture has a significant
effect on the machining performance, designing appropriate
fixturing is a key part of process preparation.
This case study describes the surface and edge finishing of a
titanium compressor rotor. Fig. 41 shows the component before and
after the AFM process. Designing appropriate fixturing is always
key. The precise control of the media passages formed between the
workpiece and fixturing enables fine control of material removal
and edge rounding. After processing for 12 cycles, the surface
roughness Ra was measured on the concave and convex sides of the
blades. For example, the roughnesses in the transverse and
longitudinal directions on the convex side of a blade were improved
from 0.47 mm and 0.40 mm to 0.26 mm and 0.35 mm, respectively.

Fig. 39. Carbide surface before and after abrasive media blasting (Courtesy of Toyo
Kenmazai Kogyo).

6.7. Abrasive fluid jet polishing

Abrasive fluid jet polishing (AFJP) enables removal of material in
the ductile regime, leading to ultra-precision surface finishing. The
manufacture of optical components is a significant application of
AFJP. Fig. 40 shows a 150 mm diameter electroless nickel-plated
aluminum disk processed using diamond turning (peak-peak
Fig. 41. Titanium compressor rotor processed with AFM (Courtesy of Extrude Hone).
Air and oil holes are examples of edge-finishing applications.
Microholes in injector nozzles, typically ranging in diameter from
120 to 300 mm, are a representative application of automated AFM
[37]. The nozzle geometry is carefully controlled to optimize fuel

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efficiency, power, and emissions. These holes are manufactured by
mechanical drilling or electrodischarge machining processes
followed by AFM.
6.9. Magnetic abrasive finishing
In MAF, magnetic particles are placed in a magnetic field and
linked by magnetic force, forming particle brushes (tools). The
flexibility of the particle brushes is one of the advantages of MAF. In
general, applications of MAF include the finishing of optics and
free-form surfaces (e.g., dies and molds, medical components);
internal and external finishing of nonferromagnetic components
(e.g., needles, catheter shafts, tubes); and the surface and edge
conditioning of cutting tools. The finished surface roughness (Ra,
Sa) ranges between sub-nanometer to sub-micrometer.
Fig. 42 shows an application of MAF using a static magnetic field
to finish the inner surfaces of 316L stainless steel nozzles used for
blood testing (0.5 mm ID and 0.7 mm OD at the small end; 0.8 mm
ID and 1.1 mm OD at the large end). Because of the small diameter
and tapered geometry of the workpiece, the inner surface is
difficult to finish using conventional technologies. The flexibility of
the magnetic media suspended in the magnetic field enables the
internal finishing and results in a smoothly finished inner surface
of the nozzle.
Fig. 42. Photographs of 316L stainless steel nozzles used for blood testing (Courtesy
of Kyoei Denko Co.).
The application of MAF is also attractive to industries that
prepare cutting-tool edges (e.g., cutting edges of end mills and drill
bits) because of the flexibility of the magnetic particle brushes at
the finishing zone [38,85]. The mass of magnetic media conforms
to the complex cutting edge geometries, resulting in simultaneous
surface and edge finishing. MAF-processed drill bits have lives
more than an 80% longer than unprocessed drill bits [85].
Several methods using MAF with alternating magnetic fields
have been in practical use. For instance, a rotating magnetic field
may drive a magnetic tool along a tube, finishing the tube interior
[164]. In another example, an alternating magnetic field jumbles
magnetic tools, which causes the tools to strike against the
workpieces [212]. This results in deburring, surface finishing, and
cleaning not only outside but also inside intricate components.
Magnetic field strength is decreased with increasing the distance
from the permanent magnets. The region where the tools exhibit
their dynamic motion is within the magnetic field, which is
controlled by the magnetic properties and positioning arrange-
ments of the permanent magnets. The size of this region limits the
size of the workpiece to which the process can be applied. In
general, the region is within 100 mm from the magnets, and the
maximum effective size is generally about as big as a human fist.
Fig. 43 shows an example of metal components, made using
additive manufacturing, processed with MAF using alternating
magnetic fields. In this application, the oxide layers inside and
outside a component made during the additive manufacturing
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(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2016.06.003
Fig. 43. Photographs of 3D-printed components before (left) and after (right)
magnetic polishing (Courtesy of PRIORITY Company).
were removed using an alternating magnetic field-assisted
process.
7. Concluding remarks
This paper focuses on abrasive fine-finishing technologies used
as a final manufacturing process. The technologies were classified
according to abrasive state, tools used for the processes, and
process methods; and brief histories of abrasive fine-finishing
methods were presented. The material removal mechanisms were
then discussed, and fundamental parameters established in
grinding research were estimated. The relationship between the
equivalent chip thickness and specific energy make possible the
assessment of abrasive fine-finishing methods over the grinding
method.
Surfaces created by abrasive fine-finishing processes were
evaluated based on surface topography and integrity and their
functions. Guidelines for selecting suitable processes were also
given. In addition, recent developments and case studies using
some abrasive fine-finishing processes obtained from the
manufacturing industry were presented.
As discussed in the introduction, the material-conversion
processes will be radically advanced as in the widespread application
of additive manufacturing and powder-metal compaction with
advanced heat-treatment technology. This revolution may force
traditional finishing processes to be replaced by advanced abrasive-
fine finishing processes. In the future, precision components with
minimum finishing stocks produced by advanced material-conver-
sion processes will need to be finished by newly developed abrasive
fine-finishing technologies that are capable of both high stock
removal and the creation of desired surface integrity. For example,
the development of a new abrasive fine-finishing technology is
desired to finish very complex components made using additive
manufacturing, as shown in Fig. 43.
The fuel efficiency of an internal combustion engine is directly
related to the increase of the ratio between stroke and output and
the reduction of internal losses, as shown in Fig. 44. In combination
with the fuel-saving start/stop technology, additional demands
will be made on the superfinishing of crankshafts, camshafts and
gear-shafts. This is reflected in the needs of the next generation of
abrasive fine-finishing technology.
Rao of output to engine capacity kW/l
140 0.35
Rao of outpuo capacity
Surface roughness μmRa
120 0.3
Surface roughness
100 0.25
80 0.2
60 0.15
40 0.1
20 0.05
0 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Year
Fig. 44. Internal combustion engine output per l of stroke, related surface roughness
over time (Courtesy of Supfina Grieshaber GmbH & Co. KG.).
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Recently, in ultra-large bearings (over 2 m in diameter) for
windmill applications [58,131], critical functional surfaces were
required to be finished by abrasive fine-finishing methods, because
of the demands for improved fatigue life and torque performance,
as well as the need for a lifetime of maintenance-free service.
Similar demands can be seen in various other industries such as
semiconductor, medical, aerospace, food, etc. The trend will lead to
the development of novel abrasive fine-finishing processes and the
development of machine tools, finishing tools, and abrasives. To
achieve this goal, further understanding of the existing abrasive
fine-finishing processes and the development of the necessary
modeling and simulation are vital.
The future demands described above are quite a challenge not
only for machine tool and abrasive tool manufacturers, but also for
abrasive finishing researchers. Collaboration between machine
tool builders, abrasive tool suppliers, and the abrasive finishing
R&D community will be critical for moving to the next generation
of abrasive fine-finishing technology.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions,
comments, and encouragement from the following individuals
in the preparation of this paper (in alphabetical order): J. Aurich
(Univ. of Kaiserslautern, Germany), D. Axinte (Univ. of Notting-
ham, UK), J. Badger (Grinding Doc Consulting, USA), A. Beaucamp
(Kyoto University, Japan), D. Biermann (TU Dortmund Univ.,
Germany), B. Boutantin (Extrude Hone, France), E. Brinksmeier
(Univ. of Bremen, Germany), R. Brocker (RWTH Aachen Univ.,
Germany), P. Cromi (Timken, USA), J. Greenslet (Extrude Hone,
USA), T. Grove (Univ. of Hannover, Germany), W. Grzesik
(Technical Univ. of Opole, Poland), T. Hayakawa (Kyoei Denko,
Japan), S. Hesse (Thielenhaus, Germany), H. Hocheng (National
Tsing Hua Univ., Taiwan), C. Hollands (Spaleck, Germany),
K. Nakahama (Noritake, USA), O. Nakano (Priority, Japan), K.
Ogawa (Noritake, Japan), J. Oliveira (Edificio Parque Cidade
Corp., Brazil), Y. Onchi (Mizuho, Japan), K-H, Richber (Supfina,
Germany), O. Salman (Suleyman Demirel Univ., Turkey), V.
Schulze (Karlsruhe Inst. of Tech., Germany), K. Takai (Toyo
Kenmazai Kogyo, Japan), and R. Teti (Univ. of Naples Federico II,
Italy).
Also, the authors extend their thanks to the colleagues of CIRP
STC-G for their support during preparation of the paper.
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