The History, Culture, and Science of Our Favorite Beverages

By William Jiang, MLS

Table of Contents

Coffee

● Etymology
● History
● Legendary accounts
● Historical transmission
● Biology
● Cultivation
● Ecological effects
● Production
● Processing
● Roasting
● Grading roasted beans
● Roast characteristics
● Decaffeination
● Storage
● Brewing
● Nutrition
● Serving
● Instant coffee
● Sale and distribution
● Commodity market
● Health and pharmacology
● Method of action
● Health effects
● Mortality
● Cardiovascular disease
● Mental health
● Type II diabetes
● Cancer
● Risks
● Caffeine content
● Coffeehouses
● Social and culture
● Break
● Prohibition
● Fair trade
● Folklore and culture
● Economic impacts
 ● Competition

Tea
● Introduction
● Etymology
● History
● Culture
● Packaging
● Storage
● Packaging and Harvesting
● Processing and Classification

Caffeinated Teas
● White
● Green
● Black

Chemistry Note: Lemon and Vitamin C vs Milk

Orange Pekoe

Red Teas
● Rooibos
● Hibiscus

Flower Teas
● Chrysanthemum

Teas For Energy

● Ginseng
● Samovar

Teas for Rest and Sleep

● Chamomile (with Anise)
● Euthyphro (Tension Tamer)
● Lotus

Medicinal Teas
● Dandylion
● Licorice
● Ginger
Sweeteners for Tea
● Sugar
● Honey
● Equal, Splenda, Saccharine
● Stevia
● Agave

Additions

Introduction to The Little Book of Tea and Coffee

This was meant to be a fun book and interesting read. Within these pages, America’s two
favorite brewed, non-alcoholic drinks are covered in one easy-to-read book. Etymology, history,
medical and health aspects of the coffee and tea are covered, from authoritative sources. The
information is procured from public domain sources such as Wikipedia and MEDLINE with some
narrative to tie everything together in a unique and useful way. I am giving this little book away
for free, so it is covered by fair use in terms of copyright. The narrative is there especially for
those who may not understand the medical MEDLINE jargon, so it can be read more plainly by
a non- medical professional. Being a former medical library chief, I keep in mind the old adage
by Ben Franklin that, “There is much virtue in herbs, little in men.” To your health!

William Jiang, MLS- Former Columbia University/NYSPI Medical Library Chief

Coffee

Country of origin: Yemen (drink), Ethiopia (plant)

Introduced: Approximately. 15th century
Color Dark brown, beige, light brown, black

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries
from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the
Comoros, Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian Ocean.The plant was exported from Africa to
countries around the world and coffee plants are now cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in
the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, India, and Africa. The two most
commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and
more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. Dried coffee
seeds (referred to as beans) are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor.
Roasted beans are ground and brewed with near boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage.

Coffee is slightly acidic and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine
content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world. It can be prepared and presented
in a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, French press, cafe latte, etc.). It is usually served hot,
although iced coffee is also served. Clinical studies indicate that moderate coffee consumption
is benign or mildly beneficial in healthy adults, with continuing research on whether long-term
consumption inhibits cognitive decline during aging or lowers the risk of some forms of cancer.

The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the
Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in
a similar way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to
Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former. Yemeni
traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century,
it had reached Persia, Turkey, and North Africa. From there, it spread to Europe and the rest of
the world.

Coffee is a major export commodity: it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and
is among the world's largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable
commodities exported by developing countries. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most
traded agricultural commodities in the world. Some controversy is associated with coffee
cultivation and the way developed countries trade with developing nations and the impact of its
cultivation on the environment, in regards to clearing of land for coffee-growing and water use.
Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding.

Etymology

Coffee beans
The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and
understood to be a misprint of chaou], equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This
term and "coffee" both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè]

In turn, the Arabic qahwah may be an origin, traditionally held to refer to a type of wine whose
etymology is given by Arab lexicographers as deriving from the verb qahiya (‫)ﻗﻬﻲ‬, "to lack
hunger", in reference to the drink's reputation as an appetite suppressant. It has also been
proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning "dark".

Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before
being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, or the Arabic word
quwwah' (meaning "strength"). It may also come from the Kingdom of Kaffa in southeast
Ethiopia where Coffea arabica grows wild, but this is considered less likely; in the local Kaffa
language, the coffee plant is instead called "bunno".

History

Legendary accounts
According to legend, ancestors of today's Oromo people in a region of Kaffa in Ethiopia were
believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant, though no
direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the native
populations might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th
century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee when he
noticed how excited his goats became after eating the beans from a coffee plant, did not appear
in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.

Other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient
chronicle (preserved in the Abd-Al-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his ability to
cure the sick through prayer, was once exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near
Ousab (modern day Wusab, about 90 km east of Zabid). Starving, Omar chewed berries from
nearby shrubbery, but found them to be bitter. He tried roasting the seeds to improve the flavor,
but they became hard. He then tried boiling them to soften the seed, which resulted in a fragrant
brown liquid. Upon drinking the liquid Omar was revitalized and sustained for days. As stories of
this "miracle drug" reached Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint. From
Ethiopia, the coffee plant was introduced into the Arab World through Egypt and Yemen.

Historical transmission

The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the
middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al-Ghaffar in Yemen. It was here in Arabia
that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared.
Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals. Accounts differ on the
origin of coffee (seeds) prior to its appearance in Yemen. One account credits Muhammad ben
Said for bringing the beverage to Aden from the African coast. Other early accounts say Ali ben
Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the first to introduce coffee to Arabia. According to al
Shardi, Ali ben Omar may have encountered coffee during his stay with the Adal king Sadadin's
companions in 1401. Famous 16th century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami notes in his
writings of a beverage called qahwa developed from a tree in the Zeila region.

By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern
Africa. The first coffee smuggled out of the Middle East was by Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to
India in 1670. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilised. Portraits of
Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest.
The first plants grown from these smuggled seeds were planted in Mysore. Coffee then spread
to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.
In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning
from a ten-year trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the
stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed
around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a
bush called bunnu. — Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)

From the Middle East, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North
Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port.
From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted
after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban
the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Rome in 1645.

The Dutch East India Company was the first to import coffee on a large scale. The Dutch later
grew the crop in Java and Ceylon. The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the
Netherlands occurred in 1711.

Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular in England as
well. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today.
Coffee was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of
Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks.

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful
as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the
Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their
scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea
from British merchants, and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea
following the 1773 Boston Tea Party.

After the War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the
Americans' taste for coffee grew. Coffee consumption declined in England, giving way to tea
during the 18th century. The latter beverage was simpler to make, and had become cheaper
with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there. During the Age of Sail, seamen
aboard ships of the British Royal Navy made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot
water.

The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu took a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique in the
Caribbean, from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee
thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas. Coffee was cultivated in
Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee. The
conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow
Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully recovered there. It made a brief come-back in
1949 when Haiti was the world's 3rd largest coffee exporter, but fell quickly into rapid decline.

Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather
momentum until independence in 1822. After this time massive tracts of rainforest were cleared
for coffee plantations, first in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo. Brazil went from
having essentially no coffee exports in 1800, to being a significant regional producer in 1830, to
being the largest producer in the world by 1852. In 1910-20, Brazil exported around 70% of the
world's coffee, Colombia, Guatemala, and Venezuela, exported half of the remaining 30%, and
Old World production accounted for less than 5% of world exports.

Cultivation was taken up by many countries in Central America in the latter half of the 19th
century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and exploitation of the indigenous
people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and bloody suppression of peasants.[38]
The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor prevented the formation of
large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and
20th centuries.

Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of the 19th century
was matched by growth in consumption in developed countries, though nowhere has this growth
been as pronounced as in the United States, where high rate of population growth was
compounded by doubling of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though the
United States was not the heaviest coffee-drinking nation at the time (Nordic countries, Belgium,
and Netherlands all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption), due to its
sheer size, it was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world by 1860, and, by 1920,
around half of all coffee produced worldwide was consumed in the USA.

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many developing countries. Over one hundred million
people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of
income. It has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda,
Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia, as well as many Central American countries.

Biology

Illustration of a single branch of a plant. Broad, ribbed leaves are accented by small white
flowers at the base of the stalk. On the edge of the drawing are cutaway diagrams of parts of
the plant.
Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds

Robusta coffee flowers

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is
extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora (predominantly
a form known as 'robusta') and C. arabica. C. arabica, the most highly regarded species, is
native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan
and possibly Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya. C. canephora is native to western and central
Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to Uganda and southern Sudan. Less popular species are C.
liberica, C. stenophylla, C. mauritiana, and C. racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or
trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy,
usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. Petioles of
opposite leaves fuse at base to form interpetiolar stipules, characteristic of Rubiaceae. The
flowers are axillary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously. Gynoecium
consists of inferior ovary, also characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are followed by oval
berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in). When immature they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then
crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of
the berries have only one; these are called peaberries. Arabica berries ripen in six to eight
months, while robusta take nine to eleven months.

Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally
uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora, and C. liberica are
self-incompatible and require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be
propagated vegetatively. Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative
propagation. On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential
new strains.

In 2016, Oregon State University entomologist George Poinar, Jr. announced the discovery of a
new plant species that's a 45-million-year-old relative of coffee found in amber. Named
Strychnos electri, after the Greek word for amber (electron), the flowers represent the first-ever
fossils of an asterid, which is a family of flowering plants that not only later gave us coffee, but
also sunflowers, peppers, potatoes, mint — and deadly poisons.

Cultivation

The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of
the rainy season. This method loses about 50% of the seeds' potential, as about half fail to
sprout. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in
nurseries that are then planted outside at six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with
food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers
become familiar with its requirements. Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally more highly
regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less
flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated
worldwide is C. arabica.[41] Robusta strains also contain about 40–50% more caffeine than
arabica.[52] Consequently, this species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many
commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso
blends to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head, known as crema.

Additionally, Coffea canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be
cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will not thrive. The robusta
strain was first collected in 1890 from the Lomani River, a tributary of the Congo River, and was
conveyed from Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo, to Brussels to Java around 1900.
From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many
countries. In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix), to
which C. arabica is vulnerable, hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. Coffee leaf rust is
found in virtually all countries that produce coffee.

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these,
over a third are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species
of mites, and several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat
coffee berries, but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates. In general, arabica is the
more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed
by different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, coffee borer beetles burrow into stems and
woody material, and the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae of butterflies and
moths.

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proved disastrous, as predators of the pests are more
sensitive than the pests themselves. Instead, integrated pest management has developed,
using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop environment
away from conditions favouring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the
ground, which promotes scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the fallen branches but
in the plant as well.

The 2-mm-long coffee borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) is the most damaging insect pest
to the world's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of the coffee berries on
plantations in most coffee-producing countries. The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny
hole in a coffee berry and lays 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge
from the commercially ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly
ineffective because the beetle juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries, but they are
vulnerable to predation by birds when they emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, the
American yellow warbler, rufous-capped warbler, and other insectivorous birds have been
shown to reduce by 50 percent the number of coffee berry borers in Costa Rica coffee
plantations.

Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor,
aroma, body, and acidity.[62] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee's
growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are
generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java and Kona.

Arabica coffee beans are cultivated mainly in Latin America, eastern Africa or Asia, while
robusta beans are grown in central Africa, throughout southeast Asia, and Brazil.

Ecological effects

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many
animals and insects. Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have
been planted as well. These include leguminous trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia, Cassia,
Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga, and Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of
the genus Casuarina, and the silky oak Grevillea robusta.

This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or "shade-grown".

Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in
which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to
ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and
increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health
problems.

Unshaded coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although unfertilized shaded
crops generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops: the response to fertilizer is much
greater in full sun. While traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and
produce lower yields, the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional
shaded method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade cultivation
say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and
soil and water degradation are the side effects of the practices employed in sun cultivation.

The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, National Arbor Day
Foundation, and the Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for 'shade-grown' and organic
coffees, which can be sustainably harvested.[citation needed] Shaded coffee cultivation
systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, and those more distant from
continuous forest compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for
some bird species.

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. It takes about 140 liters (37 U.S. gal) of
water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and coffee is often grown
in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.

Used coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially
appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries. Some commercial coffee
shops run initiatives to make better use of these grounds, including Starbucks' "Grounds for
your Garden" project, and community sponsored initiatives such as "Ground to Ground".

Starbucks sustainability chief Jim Hanna has warned that climate change may significantly
impact coffee yields within a few decades. A study by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens concluded
that global warming threatens the genetic diversity of Arabica plants found in Ethiopia and
surrounding countries.

Processing

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar
roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor-intensive
method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly,
crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by
person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry
process method, simpler and less labor-intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the wet
process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild coffee.

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and most often the flesh of the berry is removed,
usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still
present on the seed. When the fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large
quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts
of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried.

The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the
pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all
sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes
place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner
and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method.

Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee seeds dry
is to let them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use
cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this is generally in places where
the humidity is very high.

An Asian coffee known as kopi luwak undergoes a peculiar process made from coffee berries
eaten by the Asian palm civet, passing through its digestive tract, with the beans eventually
harvested from feces. Coffee brewed from this process is among the most expensive in the
world, with bean prices reaching $160 per pound or $30 per brewed cup. Kopi luwak coffee is
said to have uniquely rich, slightly smoky aroma and flavor with hints of chocolate, resulting from
the action of digestive enzymes breaking down bean proteins to facilitate partial fermentation.
Roasting

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a
roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold
roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted. The roasting process influences the taste of
the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases
in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The
density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately 200 °C
(392 °F), though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at
different rates. During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches,
changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which alters the color of the bean.

Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process, and may disappear entirely in darker roasts.
During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other
oils start to develop. One of these oils, caffeol, is created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is
largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.

Roasting is the last step of processing the beans in their intact state. During this last treatment,
while still in the bean state, more caffeine breaks down above 235 °C (455 °F). Dark roasting is
the utmost step in bean processing removing the most caffeine. Although, dark roasting is not to
be confused with the Decaffeination process.

Grading roasted beans

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be
labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate
method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted
seeds illuminated with a light source in the near-infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter
uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the
roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

Roast characteristics
The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee flavor and body. Darker roasts are generally
bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a
more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise
destroyed by longer roasting times. Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean,
but does give less caffeine when the beans are measured by volume because the beans
expand during roasting.
A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the seed after
processing. Chaff is usually removed from the seeds by air movement, through a small amount
is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the seeds.

Decaffeination
Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are
decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all
involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the "Swiss water process") or
steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils. Decaffeination is often
done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical
industry.

Storage

Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass, or non-reactive metal.
Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way valve which prevents air from entering
while allowing the coffee to release gases. Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it is
stored away from moisture, heat, and light. The ability of coffee to absorb strong smells from
food means that it should be kept away from such smells. Storage of coffee in the refrigerator is
not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration. Exterior walls
of buildings which face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage
coffee stored near such a wall. Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.

In 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted
coffee was packed and then 99% of the air was removed, allowing the coffee to be stored
indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in a large part
of the world.

Brewing

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a
method include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require that the
beans be ground and then mixed with hot water long enough to allow the flavor to emerge but
not so long as to draw out bitter compounds. The liquid can be consumed after the spent
grounds are removed. Brewing considerations include the fineness of grind, the way in which
the water is used to extract the flavor, the ratio of coffee grounds to water (the brew ratio),
additional flavorings such as sugar, milk, and spices, and the technique to be used to separate
spent grounds. Ideal holding temperatures range from 85–88 °C (185–190 °F) to as high as 93
°C (199 °F) and the ideal serving temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to 174 °F).[96] The
recommended brew ratio for non-espresso coffee is around 55 to 60 grams of grounds per litre
of water, or two level tablespoons for a 5- or 6-ounce cup.
The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most
coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee
beans can be ground at home immediately before consumption. It is also possible, though
uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.

The choice of brewing method depends to some extent on the degree to which the coffee beans
have been roasted. Lighter roasted coffee tends to be used for filter coffee as the combination
of method and roast style results in higher acidity, complexity, and clearer nuances[clarification
needed]. Darker roasted coffee is used for espresso because the machine naturally extracts
more dissolved solids, causing lighter coffee to become too acidic.

Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr grinder uses revolving elements to shear
the seed; a blade grinder cuts the seeds with blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and
pestle crushes the seeds. For most brewing methods a burr grinder is deemed superior
because the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish
grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The
most common grinds are between these two extremes: a medium grind is used in most home
coffee-brewing machines.

Coffee may be brewed by several methods. It may be boiled, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing
coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.[99]
It is prepared by grinding or pounding the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and
bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki.
This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not
meant for drinking) settling at the bottom of the cup.

Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic
coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a paper, plastic, or perforated
metal coffee filter, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils
and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the
spent grounds are retained in the filter.

In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created
by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until
terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal timer, or by a thermostat that turns off the
heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press, also known as a
cafetière, coffee press or coffee plunger. Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a
cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the
cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom.
The filter retains the grounds at the bottom as the coffee is poured from the container. Because
the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the liquid,
making it a stronger beverage. This method of brewing leaves more sediment than in coffee
made by an automatic coffee machine. Supporters of the French press method point out that
the sediment issue can be minimized by using the right type of grinder: they claim that a rotary
blade grinder cuts the coffee bean into a wide range of sizes, including a fine coffee dust that
remains as sludge at the bottom of the cup, while a burr grinder uniformly grinds the beans into
consistently-sized grinds, allowing the coffee to settle uniformly and be trapped by the press.
Within the first minute of brewing 95% of the caffeine is released from the coffee bean.

The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through ground coffee. As a
result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is
more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing
methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A
well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface. Other
pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker.

Cold brew coffee is made by steeping coarsely ground beans in cold water for several hours,
then filtering them. This results in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-brewing methods.

Nutrition

Brewed coffee from typical grounds prepared with tap water contains 40 mg caffeine per 100
gram and no essential nutrients in significant content. In espresso, however, likely due to its
higher amount of suspended solids, there are significant contents of magnesium, the B vitamins,
niacin and riboflavin, and 212 mg of caffeine per 100 grams of grounds.

Serving

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or

French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as white coffee with a dairy product such as
milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened
with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, an
espresso is served alone as a shot or short black, or with hot water added, when it is known as
Caffè Americano. A long black is made by pouring a double espresso into an equal portion of
water, retaining the crema, unlike Caffè Americano. Milk is added in various forms to an
espresso: steamed milk makes a caffè latte, equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a
cappuccino, and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato. A flat white is
prepared by adding steamed hot milk (microfoam) to espresso so that the flavour is brought out
and the texture is unusually velvety. It has less milk than a latte but both are varieties of coffee
to which the milk can be added in such a way as to create a decorative surface pattern. Such
effects are known as latte art.

Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol to produce a variety of beverages: it is combined
with whiskey in Irish coffee, and it forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Kahlúa
and Tia Maria. Darker beers such as stout and porter give a chocolate or coffee-like taste due to
roasted grains even though actual coffee beans are not added to it.

Instant coffee

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare
their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that
can be quickly dissolved in hot water. Originally invented in 1907, it rapidly gained in popularity
in many countries in the post-war period, with Nescafé being the most popular product. Many
consumers determined that the convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more than
made up for a perceived inferior taste, although, since the late 1970s, instant coffee has been
produced differently in such a way that is similar to the taste of freshly brewed coffee.
Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant coffee was the coffee vending machine
invented in 1947 and widely distributed since the 1950s.

Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan,
South Korea, and Taiwan. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee,
much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience
stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically
lightly sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the
United States.

Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee
needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a
flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The
machines can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.

Sale and distribution

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.
Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the
forecast is a rise to seven million metric tons annually by 2010.

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, however Vietnam tripled its exports between
1995 and 1999 and became a major producer of robusta seeds. Indonesia is the third-largest
coffee exporter overall and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee. Organic Honduran
coffee is a rapidly growing emerging commodity owing to the Honduran climate and rich soil.
In 2013, The Seattle Times reported that global coffee prices dropped more than 50 percent
year-over-year. In Thailand, black ivory coffee beans are fed to elephants whose digestive
enzymes reduce the bitter taste of beans collected from dung. These beans sell for up to $1,100
a kilogram ($500 per lb), achieving the world's most expensive coffee some three times costlier
than beans harvested from the dung of Asian palm civets.

Commodity market

Coffee is bought and sold as green coffee beans by roasters, investors, and price speculators
as a tradable commodity in commodity markets and exchange-traded funds. Coffee futures
contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange under
ticker symbol KC, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September,
and December. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant
commodity futures price variations. Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through
other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the London International
Financial Futures and Options Exchange and, since 2007, on the New York Intercontinental
Exchange.

Dating to the 1970s, coffee has been incorrectly described by many, including historian Mark
Pendergrast, as the world's "second most legally traded commodity". Instead, "coffee was the
second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.
This fact was derived from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third World" commodity exports by value in the period
1970–1998 as being in order of crude oil in first place, coffee in second, followed by sugar,
cotton, and others. Coffee continues to be an important commodity export for developing
countries, but more recent figures are not readily available due to the shifting and politicized
nature of the category "developing country".

International Coffee Day, which is claimed to have originated in Japan in 1983 with an event
organised by the All Japan Coffee Association, takes place on September 29 in several
countries.

Health and pharmacology

The primary psychoactive chemical in coffee is caffeine, an adenosine antagonist that is known
for its stimulant effects. Coffee also contains the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carboline and
harmane, which may contribute to its psychoactivity.

In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic system.
The excreted metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—and a
small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the
state of this enzymatic system of the liver.
Polyphenols in coffee have been shown to affect free radicals in vitro, but there is no evidence
that this effect occurs in humans. Polyphenol levels vary depending on how beans are roasted
as well as for how long. As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food
Safety Authority, dietary polyphenols, such as those ingested by consuming coffee, have little or
no direct antioxidant value following ingestion.

Health effects

Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and
results are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects of coffee consumption.
Furthermore, results and generalizations are complicated by differences in age, gender, health
status, and serving size.

Extensive scientific research has been conducted to examine the relationship between coffee
consumption and an array of medical conditions. The consensus in the medical community is
that moderate regular coffee drinking in healthy individuals is either essentially benign or mildly
beneficial. Researchers involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the Harvard School of Public
Health stated that "Coffee may have potential health benefits, but more research needs to be
done."

Mortality

In 2012, the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study analysed the relationship
between coffee drinking and mortality. They found that higher coffee consumption was
associated with lower risk of death, and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those
who did not. However the authors noted, "whether this was a causal or associational finding
cannot be determined from our data." A 2014 meta-analysis found that coffee consumption (4
cups/day) was inversely associated with all-cause mortality (a 16% lower risk), as well as
cardiovascular disease mortality specifically (a 21% lower risk from drinking 3 cups/day), but not
with cancer mortality. Additional meta-analysis studies corroborated these findings, showing that
higher coffee consumption (2–4 cups per day) was associated with a reduced risk of death by
all disease causes.

Cardiovascular disease

Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease. A 2012 meta-analysis
concluded that people who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a lower rate of heart failure,
with the biggest effect found for those who drank more than four cups a day. Moreover, in one
preliminary study, habitual coffee consumption was associated with improved vascular function.
Interestingly, a recent meta-analysis showed that coffee consumption was associated with a
reduced risk of death in patients who have had a myocardial infarction.

Mental health
One review published in 2004 indicated a negative correlation between suicide rates and coffee
consumption, but this effect has not been confirmed in larger studies.

Long-term studies of both risk and potential benefit of coffee consumption by elderly people,
including assessment on symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive impairment, are not
conclusive.

Some research suggests that a minority of moderate regular caffeine consumers experience
some amount of clinical depression, anxiety, low vigor, or fatigue when discontinuing their
caffeine use. However, the methodology of these studies has been criticized. Withdrawal effects
are more common and better documented in heavy caffeine users.

Coffee caffeine may aggravate pre-existing conditions such as migraines, arrhythmias, and
cause sleep disturbances. Caffeine withdrawal from chronic use causes consistent effects
typical of physical dependence, including headaches, mood changes and the possibility of
reduced cerebral blood flow.

Type II diabetes
In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 prospective observational studies, representing
1,109,272 participants, every additional cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed
in a day was associated with a 9% (95% CI 6%, 11%) and 6% (95% CI 2%, 9%) lower risk of
type 2 diabetes, respectively.

Cancer
The effects of coffee consumption on cancer risk remain unclear, with reviews and
meta-analyses showing either no relationship or a small lower risk of cancer onset.

Risks
Instant coffee has a greater amount of acrylamide than brewed coffee. It was once thought that
coffee aggravates gastroesophageal reflux disease but recent research suggests no link.

Caffeine content
Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single
serving can vary greatly. The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainly on the
brewing method, and also on the variety of seed. According to the USDA National Nutrient
Database, an 8-ounce (237 ml) cup of "coffee brewed from grounds" contains 95 mg caffeine,
whereas an espresso (25 ml) contains 53 mg.

According to an article in the Journal of the American Dietetic Association, coffee has the
following caffeine content, depending on how it is prepared:[167]

Serving size Caffeine content

Brewed 7 oz, 207 ml 80–135 mg
Drip 7 oz, 207 ml 115–175 mg
Espresso 1.5–2 oz, 45–60 ml 100 mg

While the percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds themselves diminishes with increased
roast level, the opposite is true for coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing methods
using the same proportion of coffee to water volume. The coffee sack (similar to the French
press and other steeping methods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; the
percolator and espresso methods extract more caffeine from light roasted seeds:

Coffea arabica normally contains about half the caffeine of Coffea robusta. A Coffea arabica
bean containing very little caffeine was discovered in Ethiopia in 2004.

Coffeehouses

Coffeehouse in Palestine (c.1900)

Widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other hot
beverages have existed for over five hundred years. Various legends involving the introduction
of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han" in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but
with no documentation.

Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams who
banned them, and the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530 the first coffeehouse
was opened in Damascus. The first coffeehouse in Constantinople was opened in 1475 by
traders arriving from Damascus and Aleppo. Soon after, coffeehouses became part of the
Ottoman Culture, spreading rapidly to all regions of the Ottoman Empire.

In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire,
and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehouses in
Western Europe appeared in Venice, as a result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the
Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up in
Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as "The Grand Cafe".
A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a trendy cocktail bar. By
1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.

A legend says that after the second Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, the Viennese discovered
many bags of coffee in the abandoned Ottoman encampment. Using this captured stock, a
Polish soldier named Kulczycki opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna. This story never
happened. Nowadays it is proven that the first coffeehouse in Vienna was opened by the
Armenian Johannes Theodat in 1685.

In 1672 an Armenian named Pascal established a coffee stall in Paris that was ultimately
unsuccessful and the city had to wait until 1689 for its first coffeehouse when Procopio Cutò
opened the Café Procope. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a major meeting place of
the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is
arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia. America had its first
coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676. Coffee, tea and beer were often served together in
establishments which functioned both as coffeehouses and taverns; one such was the Green
Dragon in Boston, where John Adams, James Otis, and Paul Revere planned rebellion.

The modern espresso machine was invented in Milan in 1945 by Achille Gaggia, and from there
spread across coffeehouses and restaurants across Italy and the rest of Europe and North
America in the early 1950s. An Italian named Pino Riservato opened the first espresso bar, the
Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and there were 400 such bars in London alone by 1956. Cappucino
was particularly popular among English drinkers.[184] Similarly in the United States, the
espresso craze spread. North Beach in San Francisco saw the opening of the Caffe Trieste in
1957, which saw Beat Generation poets such as Allen Ginsberg and Bob Kaufman alongside
bemused Italian immigrants. Similar such cafes existed in Greenwich Village and elsewhere.

The first Peet's Coffee & Tea store opened in 1966 in Berkeley, California by Dutch native Alfred
Peet. He chose to focus on roasting batches with fresher, higher quality seeds than was the
norm at the time. He was a trainer and supplier to the founders of Starbuck's.

The international coffeehouse chain Starbucks began as a modest business roasting and selling
coffee beans in 1971, by three college students Jerry Baldwin, Gordon Bowker, and Zev Siegl.
The first store opened on March 30, 1971 at the Pike Place Market in Seattle, followed by a
second and third over the next two years.[186] Entrepreneur Howard Schultz joined the
company in 1982 as Director of Retail Operations and Marketing, and pushed to sell premade
espresso coffee. The others were reluctant, but Schultz opened Il Giornale in Seattle in April
1986. He bought the other owners out in March 1987 and pushed on with plans to
expand—from 1987 to the end of 1991, the chain (rebranded from Il Giornale to Starbucks)
expanded to over 100 outlets.[188] The company has 16,600 stores in over 40 countries
worldwide.

Barista at work

South Korea experienced almost 900 percent growth in the number of coffee shops in the
country between 2006 and 2011. The capital city Seoul now has the highest concentration of
coffee shops in the world, with more than 10,000 cafes and coffeehouses.

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a coffeehouse employee,
is a barista. The Specialty Coffee Association of Europe and the Specialty Coffee Association of
America have been influential in setting standards and providing training.

Social and culture

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home or when eating
out at diners or cafeterias. It is often served at the end of a formal meal, normally with a dessert,
and at times with an after-dinner mint, especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner
party.

Coffee break area

A coffee break is a routine social gathering for a snack, the consumption of a hot beverage such
as coffee or tea and short downtime practiced by employees in business and industry,
corresponding with the Commonwealth terms "elevenses", "Smoko" (in Australia), "morning
tea", "tea break", or even just "tea". An afternoon coffee break, or afternoon tea, sometimes
occurs as well.

The coffee break originated in the late 19th century in Stoughton, Wisconsin, with the wives of
Norwegian immigrants. The city celebrates this every year with the Stoughton Coffee Break
Festival. In 1951, Time noted that "[s]ince the war, the coffee break has been written into union
contracts". The term subsequently became popular through a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad
campaign of 1952 which urged consumers, "Give yourself a Coffee-Break – and Get What
Coffee Gives to You." John B. Watson, a behavioral psychologist who worked with Maxwell
House later in his career, helped to popularize coffee breaks within the American culture. Coffee
breaks usually last from 10 to 20 minutes and frequently occur at the end of the first third of the
work shift. In some companies and some civil service, the coffee break may be observed
formally at a set hour. In some places, a "cart" with hot and cold beverages and cakes, breads
and pastries arrives at the same time morning and afternoon, an employer may contract with an
outside caterer for daily service, or coffee breaks may take place away from the actual
work-area in a designated cafeteria or tea room. More generally, the phrase "coffee break" has
also come to denote any break from work.

Prohibition

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,100 years ago, traders brought coffee
across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim dervishes began
cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the
fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was
used during religious ceremonies.

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and scholars (ulema) meeting in Mecca in 1511 as
haraam, but the subject of whether it was intoxicating was hotly debated over the next 30 years
until the ban was finally overturned in the mid-16th century. Use in religious rites among the Sufi
branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical
substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in
Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.

Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as
late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early
association in Europe with rebellious political activities led to Charles II outlawing coffeehouses
from January 1676 (although the uproar created forced the monarch to back down two days
before the ban was due to come into force).[30] Frederick the Great banned it in Prussia in 1777
for nationalistic and economic reasons; concerned about the price of import, he sought to force
the public back to consuming beer. Lacking coffee-producing colonies, Prussia had to import all
its coffee at a great cost.

A contemporary example of religious prohibition of coffee can be found in The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints. The organization holds that it is both physically and spiritually
unhealthy to consume coffee. This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by
founder Joseph Smith in a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by
name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been
interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated drinks.
In its teachings, the Church encourages members to avoid tea, coffee, and other stimulants.
Abstinence from coffee, tobacco, and alcohol by many Adventists has afforded a near-unique
opportunity for studies to be conducted within that population group on the health effects of
coffee drinking, free from confounding factors. One study was able to show a weak but
statistically significant association between coffee consumption and mortality from ischemic
heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined, and all
causes of death.

For a time, there had been controversy in the Jewish community over whether the coffee seed
was a legume and therefore prohibited for Passover. Upon petition from coffeemaker Maxwell
House, the coffee seed was classified in 1923 as a berry rather than a seed by orthodox Jewish
rabbi Hersch Kohn, and therefore kosher for Passover.

Fair trade

Small-sized bag of coffee beans

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest
price, began in the late 1980s with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the
Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in
2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%. A
number of fair trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee produces a mixed impact
on the communities that grow it. Many studies are skeptical about fair trade, reporting that it
often worsens the bargaining power of those who are not part of it. Coffee was incorporated into
the fair-trade movement in 1988, when the Max Havelaar mark was introduced in the
Netherlands. The very first fair-trade coffee was an effort to import a Guatemalan coffee into
Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".

Since the founding of organisations such as the European Fair Trade Association (1987), the
production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee
chains started to offer fair trade alternatives. For example, in April 2000, after a year-long
campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry
fair-trade coffee in its stores.[210] Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in
UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.

A 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with
their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed
to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as
coffee. The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price
premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.

Folklore and culture

The Oromo people would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers.
They believed that the first coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed
over the corpse of a dead sorcerer.

Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to compose the Coffee Cantata, about dependence on the
beverage.

Economic impacts

Market volatility, and thus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Brazilian entrepreneurs to
shift their attention from gold to coffee, a crop hitherto reserved for local consumption.
Concurrent with this shift was the commissioning of vital infrastructures, including approximately
7,000 km of railroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of these railways enabled the
importation of workers, in order to meet the enormous need for labor. This development
primarily affected the State of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the Southern States of Brazil, most
notably São Paulo, due to its favourable climate, soils, and terrain.

Coffee production attracted immigrants in search of better economic opportunities in the early
1900s. Mainly, these were Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, and Japanese nationals. For
instance, São Paulo received approximately 733,000 immigrants in the decade preceding 1900,
whilst only receiving approximately 201,000 immigrants in the six years to 1890. The production
yield of coffee increases. In 1880, São Paulo produced 1.2 million bags (25% of total
production), in 1888 2.6 million (40%), in 1902 8 million bags (60%). Coffee is then 63% of the
country's exports. The gains made by this trade allow sustained economic growth in the country.
The four years between planting a coffee and the first harvest extends seasonal variations in the
price of coffee. The Brazilian Government is thus forced, to some extent, to keep strong price
subsidies during production periods.

Competition
Coffee competitions take place across the globe with people at the regional competing to
achieve national titles and then compete on the international stage. World Coffee Events holds
the largest of such events moving the location of the final competition each year. The
competition includes the following events: Barista Championship, Brewers Cup, Latte Art and
Cup Tasters. A World Brewer's Cup Championship takes place in Melbourne, Australia, every
year that houses contestants from around the world to crown the World's Coffee King.

From MEDLINE- The Doctor’s Database Run by the American National Library of
Medicine

Check out the following selected bibliography of abstracts and high level medical research. For
more information, including full text, of any article you wish, you may pay to see more detailed
information for any of these articles. The prices are a bit high; however, the information is quite
good.

Curr Pharm Des. 2015;21(34):5034-40.

Coffee and Depression: A Short Review of Literature.
Tenore GC1, Daglia M, Orlando V, D'Urso E, Saadat SH, Novellino E, Nabavi SF, Nabavi SM.
Author information
Abstract
Coffee is among the most widespread and healthiest beverages in the world. It is known to be a
highly rich source of biologically active natural metabolites which possess therapeutic effects
(i.e. caffeine) and functional properties (i.e. chlorogenic acids). Therefore, coffee can be
considered a drink which has different positive effects on human health such as
cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, etc. However, heavy
coffee consumption may be related to some unpleasant symptoms, mainly anxiety, headache,
increased blood pressure, nausea, and restlessness. During the past two decades, several
studies have indicated that there is a close correlation between consumption of coffee and
incidence of depression. In addition, phytochemical studies showed that caffeine is the main
responsible constituent for antidepressant effects of coffee through multiple molecular
mechanisms. The aim of the present paper was to collect the latest literature data (from 1984 to
2014) on the positive and negative impacts of coffee consumption on the major depressive
disorders and to clarify the role of bioactive constituents of coffee in the related different clinical
trials. To the best of our knowledge, this the first review on this topic.

Molecules. 2016 Jul 28;21(8). pii: E979. doi: 10.3390/molecules21080979.

Coffee Consumption and Oxidative Stress: A Review of Human Intervention Studies.
Martini D1, Del Bo' C2, Tassotti M3, Riso P4, Del Rio D5, Brighenti F6, Porrini M7.
Author information
Abstract
Research on the potential protective effects of coffee and its bioactives (caffeine, chlorogenic
acids and diterpenes) against oxidative stress and related chronic disease risk has been
increasing in the last years. The present review summarizes the main findings on the effect of
coffee consumption on protection against lipid, protein and DNA damage, as well as on the
modulation of antioxidant capacity and antioxidant enzymes in human studies. Twenty-six
dietary intervention studies (involving acute and chronic coffee intake) have been considered.
Overall, the results suggest that coffee consumption can increase glutathione levels and
improve protection against DNA damage, especially following regular/repeated intake. On the
contrary, the effects of coffee on plasma antioxidant capacity and antioxidant enzymes, as well
as on protein and lipid damage, are unclear following both acute and chronic exposure. The
high heterogeneity in terms of type of coffee, doses and duration of the studies, the lack of
information on coffee and/or brew bioactive composition, as well as the choice of biomarkers
and the methods used for their evaluation, may partially explain the variability observed among
findings. More robust and well-controlled intervention studies are necessary for a thorough
understanding of the effect of coffee on oxidative stress markers in humans.

J Clin Exp Hepatol. 2016 Mar;6(1):40-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jceh.2016.02.003. Epub 2016 Feb 27.
Coffee and Liver Disease.
Wadhawan M1, Anand AC2.
Author information
Abstract
Coffee is the most popular beverage in the world. Consumption of coffee has been shown to
benefit health in general, and liver health in particular. This article reviews the effects of coffee
intake on development and progression of liver disease due to various causes. We also
describe the putative mechanisms by which coffee exerts the protective effect. The clinical
evidence of benefit of coffee consumption in Hepatitis B and C, as well as nonalcoholic fatty
liver disease and alcoholic liver disease, has also been presented. Coffee consumption is
associated with improvement in liver enzymes (ALT, AST, and GGTP), especially in individuals
with risk for liver disease. Coffee intake more than 2 cups per day in patients with preexisting
liver disease has been shown to be associated with lower incidence of fibrosis and cirrhosis,
lower hepatocellular carcinoma rates, as well as decreased mortality.

Eur J Nutr. 2016 Jun;55(4):1345-58. doi: 10.1007/s00394-016-1206-0. Epub 2016 Mar 30.
Coffee consumption, obesity and type 2 diabetes: a mini-review.
Santos RM1, Lima DR2.
Author information
Abstract
PURPOSE:
The effects of regular coffee intake on weight gain and development of diabetes are reviewed.
The pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes as well as the necessity of preventive
options based on the increasing prevalence of these two disorders worldwide is briefly
discussed. The relationship between weight gain and development of diabetes is also
presented. The two major constituents in the brewed coffee, chlorogenic acids and caffeine, are
responsible for many of the beneficial effects suggested by numerous epidemiological studies of
coffee consumption and the development of diabetes.
METHODS:
A wide search of various databases, such as PubMed and Google Scholar, preceded the writing
of this manuscript, focusing on keywords that are part of the title. It was selected mainly review
papers from in vivo, ex vivo, in vitro experimental studies in animals and human tissues as well
as wide population-based epidemiological studies in the last 10 years.
CONCLUSION:
As of today, there are mounting evidences of the reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes by
regular coffee drinkers of 3-4 cups a day. The effects are likely due to the presence of
chlorogenic acids and caffeine, the two constituents of coffee in higher concentration after the
roasting process.

Pract Neurol. 2016 Apr;16(2):89-95. doi: 10.1136/practneurol-2015-001162. Epub 2015 Dec 16.
Effects of coffee/caffeine on brain health and disease: What should I tell my patients?
Nehlig A.
Abstract
Over the last decade, Food Regulation Authorities have concluded that coffee/caffeine
consumption is not harmful if consumed at levels of 200 mg in one sitting (around 2½ cups of
coffee) or 400 mg daily (around 5 cups of coffee). In addition, caffeine has many positive
actions on the brain. It can increase alertness and well-being, help concentration, improve mood
and limit depression. Caffeine may disturb sleep, but only in sensitive individuals. It may raise
anxiety in a small subset of particularly sensitive people. Caffeine does not seem to lead to
dependence, although a minority of people experience withdrawal symptoms. Caffeine can
potentiate the effect of regular analgesic drugs in headache and migraine. Lifelong
coffee/caffeine consumption has been associated with prevention of cognitive decline, and
reduced risk of developing stroke, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Its
consumption does not seem to influence seizure occurrence. Thus, daily coffee and caffeine
intake can be part of a healthy balanced diet; its consumption does not need to be stopped in
elderly people.

Life Sci. 2015 Dec 15;143:182-6. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2015.11.005. Epub 2015 Nov 10.
The benefits of coffee on skeletal muscle.
Dirks-Naylor AJ1.
Author information
Abstract
Coffee is consumed worldwide with greater than a billion cups of coffee ingested every day.
Epidemiological studies have revealed an association of coffee consumption with reduced
incidence of a variety of chronic diseases as well as all-cause mortality. Current research has
primarily focused on the effects of coffee or its components on various organ systems such as
the cardiovascular system, with relatively little attention on skeletal muscle. Summary of current
literature suggests that coffee has beneficial effects on skeletal muscle. Coffee has been shown
to induce autophagy, improve insulin sensitivity, stimulate glucose uptake, slow the progression
of sarcopenia, and promote the regeneration of injured muscle. Much more research is needed
to reveal the full scope of benefits that coffee consumption may exert on skeletal muscle
structure and function.

Tea
Introduction

Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured
leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most
widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some teas, like
Darjeeling and Chinese greens, have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour,while
others have vastly different profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral or grassy notes.

Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized
as a recreational drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty, and tea drinking spread to other East
Asian countries. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th
century. During the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started
large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese
monopoly.

The phrase herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant,
such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile, or rooibos. These are also known as tisanes or herbal
infusions to distinguish them from "tea" as it is commonly understood.

Etymology

The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with an extra stroke as 荼 (pronounced tú,
used as a word for a bitter herb), and acquired its current form during the Tang Dynasty. The
word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo
and dzo in Wu Chinese, and ta and te in Min Chinese. One suggestion is that the different
pronunciations may have arisen from the different words for tea in ancient China, for example tú
(荼) may have given rise to tê; historical phonologists however argued that the cha, te and dzo
all arose from the same root with a reconstructed pronunciation dra, which changed due to
sound shift through the centuries. There were other ancient words for tea, though ming (茗) is
the only other one still in common use. It has been proposed that the Chinese words for tea, tu,
cha and ming, may have been borrowed from the Austro-Asiatic languages of people who
inhabited southwest China; cha for example may have been derived from an archaic
Austro-Asiatic root *la, meaning "leaf". Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and
Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha, but Hokkien varieties along the Southern coast
of China and in Southeast Asia pronounce it like teh. These two pronunciations have made their
separate ways into other languages around the world.

Starting in the early seventeenth century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early
European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for "tea"
(thee) from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had
established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other
European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish
té, and German Tee. This pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Cha
pronunciation came from the Cantonese chàh of Guangzhou (Canton) and the ports of Hong
Kong and Macau, which were also major points of contact, especially with the Portuguese
traders who settled Macau in the 16th century. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese
pronunciation "chá", and spread it to India. The Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha,
however, came not from Cantonese, rather they were borrowed into Korean and Japanese
during earlier periods of Chinese history.

A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian ‫ ﭼﺎی‬chay. Both the châ and
chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. They are derived from the Northern Chinese
pronunciation of chá, which passed overland to Central Asia and Persia, where it picked up the
Persian grammatical suffix -yi before passing on to Russian as чай (chay), Arabic as ‫ﺷﺎي‬
(pronounced shay due to the lack of a "ch" sound in Arabic), Urdu as ‫ ﭼﺎئے‬chay, Hindi as चाय
chāy, Turkish as çay, etc. The few exceptions of words for tea that do not fall into the three
broad groups of te, cha and chai are mostly from the minor languages from the botanical
homeland of the tea plant from which the Chinese words for tea might have been borrowed
originally. English has all three forms: cha or char (both pronounced /ˈtʃɑː/), attested from the
16th century; tea, from the 17th; and chai, from the 20th. However, the form chai refers
specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English.

History

Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the meeting points of the
lands of north Burma and southwest China. Statistical cluster analysis, chromosome number,
easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids
indicate that likely a single place of origin exists for Camellia sinensis, an area including the
northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China. Tea drinking may have
begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, when it was used for medicinal
purposes. It is also believed that in Sichuan, "people began to boil tea leaves for consumption
into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a
bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction."
Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence
suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China
(Sichuan/Yunnan area). The earliest written records of tea come from China. The word tú 荼
appears in the Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" (苦菜), and it
is possible that it referred to a number of different plants such as sowthistle, chicory, or
smartweed, as well as tea. In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in
Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The state of Ba and its neighbour Shu were later
conquered by the Qin, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi
Lu (日知錄): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea." Another
possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin Dynasty general Liu Kun
who requested that some "real tea" to be sent to him.

The earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum of
Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han
Dynasty emperors as early as the 2nd century BC. The Han dynasty work "The Contract for a
Youth", written by Wang Bao in 59 BC, contains the first known reference to boiling tea. Among
the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that "he shall boil tea and fill
the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang". The first record of tea cultivation is also dated to
this period (the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han), during which tea was cultivated on Meng
Mountain (蒙山) near Chengdu. Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the third
century AD, in a medical text by Hua Tuo, who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one
think better." However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a
southern Chinese practice. It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty, when it was
spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In India, tea has been drunk for medicinal purposes for a
long but uncertain period, but apart from the Himalayan region it seems not to have been used
as a beverage until the British introduced tea-drinking there much later.

Through the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different
forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and
shaped into cake form, while in the Song dynasty, loose-leaf tea was developed and became
popular. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first pan-fried, then
rolled and dried, a process that stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark and
allows tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, in which the leaves were allowed to
partially oxidize before pan-frying, was developed. Western tastes, however, favoured the fully
oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further. Yellow tea was an accidental
discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently sloppy
practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, but yielded a different flavour as a result.

Tea was first introduced to Portuguese priests and merchants in China during the 16th century,
at which time it was termed chá.The earliest European reference to tea, written as Chiai, came
from Delle navigationi e viaggi written by a Venetian, Giambattista Ramusio, in 1545. The first
recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India
Company moved a cargo of tea from Macao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the
first assignment of tea which was from Hirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe. Tea became a
fashionable drink in The Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink to
Germany, France and across the Atlantic to New Amsterdam (New York).

The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an
East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of
chaw" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637,
wrote, "chaa — only water with a kind of herb boyled in it ". Tea was sold in a coffee house in
London in 1657, Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, and Catherine of Braganza took the
tea-drinking habit to the British court when she married Charles II in 1662. Tea, however, was
not widely consumed in Britain until the 18th century, and remained expensive until the latter
part of that period. British drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea
overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s. Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the
general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed the tax
on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade by 1785. In Britain and Ireland, tea was initially
consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and
domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century,
especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had
become an everyday beverage for all levels of society. The popularity of tea also informed a
number of historical events – the Tea Act of 1773 provoked the Boston Tea Party that escalated
into the American Revolution, and the need to address the issue of British trade deficit caused
by the demand for Chinese tea led to a trade in opium that resulted in the Opium Wars.

Tea was introduced into India by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on
tea. In 1841, Arthur Campbell brought seeds of Chinese tea from the Kumaun region and
experimented with planting tea in Darjeeling. The Alubari tea garden was opened in 1856 and
Darjeeling tea began to be produced. In 1848, Robert Fortune was sent by the East India
Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his
journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between the Anglo-Chinese First
Opium War (1839–1842) and Second Opium War (1856–1860). The Chinese tea plants he
brought back were introduced to the Himalayas, though most did not survive. The British had
discovered that a different variety of tea was endemic to Assam and the northeast region of
India and that it was used by the local Singpho people, and these were then grown instead of
the Chinese tea plant. Using the Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British
launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for
export. Tea was originally consumed only by anglicized Indians; however, it became widely
popular in India in the 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea
Board.
Culture

Iced tea with a slice of lemon

Tea may be consumed early in the day to heighten calm alertness; it contains L-theanine,
theophylline, and bound caffeine (sometimes called theine). Decaffeinated brands are also sold.
While herbal teas are also referred to as tea, most of them do not contain leaves from the tea
plant. While tea is the second most consumed beverage on Earth after water, in many cultures it
is also consumed at elevated social events, such as the tea party.

Tea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese traditions,
each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for
enjoyment in a refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony,
which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea.

In the United Kingdom, tea is consumed daily and often by a majority of people, and indeed is
perceived as one of Britain's cultural beverages. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests
soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés or
tea rooms. Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest
England, many cafés serve a cream tea, consisting of scones, clotted cream, and jam alongside
a pot of tea. In some parts of Britain, 'tea' may also refer to the evening meal.

Ireland has long been one of the biggest per-capita consumers of tea in the world. The national
average is four cups per person per day, with many people drinking six cups or more. Tea in
Ireland is usually taken with milk or sugar and is slightly spicier and stronger than the traditional
English blend. The two main brands of tea sold in Ireland are Lyons and Barry's. Irish breakfast
tea is blended for sale in the United States.

Tea is prevalent in most cultures in the Middle East. In Arab culture, tea is a focal point for
social gatherings.

Turkish tea is an important part of that country's cuisine, and is the most commonly consumed
hot drink, despite the country's long history of coffee consumption. In 2004 Turkey produced
205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the world's total tea production), which made it one of the largest
tea markets in the world, with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being
exported. In 2010 Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at 2.7 kg. As of
2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and 13.8 kg per year.
Tea is grown mostly in Rize Province on the Black Sea coast.

In Iranian culture, tea is so widely consumed, it is generally the first thing offered to a household
guest.
Russia has a long, rich tea history dating to 1638 when tea was introduced to Tsar Michael.
Social gatherings were considered incomplete without tea, which was traditionally brewed in a
samovar, and today 82% of Russians consume tea daily.

In Pakistan, both black and green teas are popular and are known locally as sabz chai and
kahwah, respectively. The popular green tea called kahwah is often served after every meal in
the Pashtun belt of Balochistan and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which is where the Khyber Pass of
the Silk Road is found. In central and southern Punjab and the metropolitan Sindh region of
Pakistan, tea with milk and sugar (sometimes with pistachios, cardamom, etc.), commonly
referred to as chai, is widely consumed. It is the most common beverage of households in the
region. In the northern Pakistani regions of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty, buttered
Tibetan-style tea is consumed.

In the transnational Kashmir region, which straddles the border between India and Pakistan,
Kashmiri chai or noon chai, a pink, creamy tea with pistachios, almonds, cardamom, and
sometimes cinnamon, is consumed primarily at special occasions, weddings, and during the
winter months when it is sold in many kiosks.

Indian tea

Indian tea culture is strong – the drink is the most popular hot beverage in the country. It is
consumed daily in almost all homes, offered to guests, consumed in high amounts in domestic
and official surroundings, and is made with the addition of milk with or without spices, and
usually sweetened. At homes it is sometimes served with biscuits to be dipped in the tea and
eaten before consuming the tea. More often than not, it is drunk in "doses" of small cups
(referred to as "Cutting" chai if sold at street tea vendors) rather than one large cup. On 21 April
2012, the Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission (India), Montek Singh Ahluwalia, said tea
would be declared as national drink by April 2013. The move is expected to boost the tea
industry in the country. Speaking on the occasion, Assam Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi said a
special package for the tea industry would be announced in the future to ensure its
development.[95] The History of tea in India is especially rich.

In Burma (Myanmar), tea is consumed not only as hot drinks, but also as sweet tea and green
tea known locally as laphet-yay and laphet-yay-gyan, respectively. Pickled tea leaves, known
locally as laphet, are also a national delicacy. Pickled tea is usually eaten with roasted sesame
seeds, crispy fried beans, roasted peanuts and fried garlic chips.

In Mali, gunpowder tea is served in series of three, starting with the highest oxidisation or
strongest, unsweetened tea, locally referred to as "strong like death", followed by a second
serving, where the same tea leaves are boiled again with some sugar added ("pleasant as life"),
and a third one, where the same tea leaves are boiled for the third time with yet more sugar
added ("sweet as love"). Green tea is the central ingredient of a distinctly Malian custom, the
"Grin", an informal social gathering that cuts across social and economic lines, starting in front
of family compound gates in the afternoons and extending late into the night, and is widely
popular in Bamako and other large urban areas.

In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the
southeastern US, and is iconic in its cuisine.

Economics

Tea is the most popular manufactured drink consumed in the world, equaling all others –
including coffee, chocolate, soft drinks, and alcohol – combined. Most tea consumed outside
East Asia is produced on large plantations in the hilly regions of India and Sri Lanka, and is
destined to be sold to large businesses. Opposite this large-scale industrial production are many
small "gardens," sometimes minuscule plantations, that produce highly sought-after teas prized
by gourmets. These teas are both rare and expensive, and can be compared to some of the
most expensive wines in this respect.

India is the world's largest tea-drinking nation, although the per capita consumption of tea
remains a modest 750 grams per person every year. Turkey, with 2.5 kg of tea consumed per
person per year, is the world's greatest per capita consumer.

Production

In 2003, world tea production was 3.21 million tonnes annually. In 2010, world tea production
reached over 4.52 million tonnes after having increased by 5.7% between 2009 and 2010.
Production rose by 3.1% between 2010. In 2013, world tea production reached over 5.34 million
tonnes after having increased by 6.17% between 2012 and 2013 . The largest producers of tea
are the People's Republic of China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka.

Labor and consumer safety problems

Multiple recent reports have found that most Chinese and Indian teas contain residues of
banned toxic pesticides.

Tea production in Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda has been reported to make
use of child labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child
Labor or Forced Labor(a report on the worst forms of child labor).

Certification

Workers who pick and pack tea on plantations in developing countries can face harsh working
conditions and may earn below the living wage.
A number of bodies independently certify the production of tea. Tea from certified estates can
be sold with a certification label on the pack. The most important certification schemes are
Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade, UTZ Certified, and Organic, which also certify other crops such as
coffee, cocoa and fruit. Rainforest Alliance certified tea is sold by Unilever brands Lipton and
PG Tips in Western Europe, Australia and the US. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large
number of suppliers around the world. UTZ Certified announced a partnership in 2008 with Sara
Lee brand Pickwick tea.

Production of organic tea has risen since its introduction in 1990 at Rembeng, Kondoli Tea
Estate, Assam. 6,000 tons of organic tea were sold in 1999. About 75% of organic tea
production is sold in France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Trade

According to the FAO in 2007, the largest importer of tea, by weight, was the Russian
Federation, followed by the United Kingdom, Pakistan, and the United States. Kenya, China,
India and Sri Lanka were the largest exporters of tea in 2007 (with exports of: 374229, 292199,
193459 and 190203 tonnes respectively). The largest exporter of black tea is Kenya, with the
largest producer, and consumer being India.

Packaging
Tea bags

In 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small
bags of Chinese silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in
the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However, the potential of this distribution/packaging method
would not be fully realised until later on. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United
Kingdom. In 1953 (after rationing in the UK ended), Tetley launched the tea bag to the UK and it
was an immediate success.

The "pyramid tea bag", or sachet, introduced by Lipton and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996,
attempts to address one of the connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its
three-dimensional tetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while
steeping. However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being
environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea
leaves and paper tea bags.

Loose tea

The tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister, paper bag, or other container such as a tea
chest. Some whole teas, such as rolled gunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are
sometimes vacuum packed for freshness in aluminised packaging for storage and retail. The
loose tea must be individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavor control at the
expense of convenience. Strainers, tea balls, tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags
prevent loose leaves from floating in the tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a
three-piece lidded teacup called a gaiwan, the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a
different cup for consumption.

Compressed tea

Compressed tea (such as Pu-erh) is produced for convenience in transport, storage, and
ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea.

Compressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and
steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu,
compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls,
resulting in a "frothy" mixture. In the Song dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked
with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of
preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to
prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony.

Compressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty. By the
beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose leaf tea. It remains popular,
however, in the Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were
ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed
tea is consumed by combining it with yak butter and salt to produce butter tea.

Instant tea

"Instant tea", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be
consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestlé introducing the
first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953.

Delicacy of flavour is sacrificed for convenience. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit,
are popular, as is powdered milk.

During the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea known
as 'Compo' in their Composite Ration Packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and
sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn
observed:

But, unquestionably, the feature of Compo rations destined to be remembered beyond all others
is Compo tea. Directions say to "sprinkle powder on heated water and bring to the boil, stirring
well, three heaped teaspoons to one pint of water."
Every possible variation in the preparation of this tea was tried, but...it always ended up the
same way. While still too hot to drink, it is a good-looking cup of strong tea. Even when it
becomes just cool enough to be sipped gingerly, it is still a good-tasting cup of tea, if you like
your tea strong and sweet. But let it cool enough to be quaffed and enjoyed, and your lips will be
coated with a sticky scum that forms across the surface, which if left undisturbed will become a
leathery membrane that can be wound around your finger and flipped away.

Bottled and canned tea

Canned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan.

The first bottled tea introduced by Indonesian tea company PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with brand
name Teh Botol Sosro, or Sosro bottled tea. In 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd., was
the first company to bottle ice tea on an industrial scale.

Storage

Storage conditions and type determine the shelf life of tea. Black tea's is greater than green's.
Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with
age.

To remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and
moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an airtight container. Black tea in a bag
within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly,
usually in less than a year. Tightly rolled gunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more
open-leafed Chun Mee tea.

Storage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets,
vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers, except green tea, where discrete use of
refrigeration or freezing is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum.

Cultivation and Harvesting

Camellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates.
Some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall in
the United Kingdom, Perthshire in Scotland, Washington state in the United States, and
Vancouver Island in Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, tea is grown as far south as Hobart
on the Australian island of Tasmania and Waikato in New Zealand.
Tea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for a plant to
bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting. In addition to a
zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall a year and prefer
acidic soils. Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft)
above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire a better
flavour.

Two principal varieties are used: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, which is used for most
Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, and C. s. var. assamica, used in Pu-erh and most
Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, many strains and modern
clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with
three primary classifications being,[60] Assam type, characterised by the largest leaves; China
type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of
intermediate size.

A tea plant will grow into a tree of up to 16 m (52 ft) if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are
generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. Also, the short plants bear more new
shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea.

Only the top 1–2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called
'flushes'. A plant will grow a new flush every seven to 15 days during the growing season.
Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas.

Pests of tea include mosquito bugs of the genus Helopeltis, which are true bugs that must not
be confused with the dipteran, that can tatter leaves, so they may be sprayed with insecticides.
In addition, there may be Lepidopteran leaf feeders and various tea diseases.

Chemical composition

Caffeine constitutes about 3% of tea's dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per
8-oz (250-ml) cup depending on type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the
caffeine content of 1 g of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of 1 g of
green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference.

Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and
xanthines similar to caffeine.

Because of modern environmental pollution, fluoride and aluminium also sometimes occur in
tea. Certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems have the highest levels.

Black and green teas contain no essential nutrients in significant content, with the exception of
the dietary mineral, manganese at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of the Daily Value. Tea leaves
contain diverse polyphenols, including flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (commonly noted as
EGCG) and other catechins.

Processing and classification

Common processing methods of tea leaves

Fresh tea leaves in various stages of growth; the smaller the leaf, the more expensive the tea
Tea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed. At least six different types
are produced:

White: wilted and unoxidized;

Yellow: unwilted and unoxidized but allowed to yellow;
Green: unwilted and unoxidized;
Oolong: wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized;
Black: wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized; called (called 紅茶 [hóngchá], "red tea" in
Chinese tea culture);
Post-fermented: green tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost (called 黑茶 [hēichá]
"black tea" in Chinese tea culture).
The most common are white, green, oolong, and black.

After picking, the leaves of C. sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried.
An enzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellular enzymes causes the leaves
to turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This
darkening is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes
responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with
drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging,
growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption.

Although single-estate teas are available, almost all tea in bags and most loose tea sold in the
West is blended. Such teas may combine others from the same cultivation area or several
different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination
of the three.

Tea easily retains odors, which can cause problems in processing, transportation, and storage.
This same sensitivity also allows for special processing, such as tea infused with smoke during
drying, and a wide range of scented and flavoured variants such as bergamot, found in Earl
Grey, vanilla, and spearmint.

Green tea
In regions of the world that prefer mild beverages, such as the West and Far East, green tea
should be steeped in water around 80 to 85 °C (176 to 185 °F), the higher the quality of the
leaves the lower the temperature. Regions such as North Africa or Central Asia prefer a bitter
tea, and hotter water is used. In Morocco, green tea is steeped in boiling water for 15 minutes.

The container in which green tea is steeped is often warmed beforehand to prevent premature
cooling. High-quality green and white teas can have new water added as many as five or more
times, depending on variety, at increasingly higher temperatures.

Flowering tea
Flowering tea or blooming tea should be brewed at 100 °C (212 °F) in clear glass tea wares for
up to three minutes. First pull 1/3 water to make the tea ball wet and after 30 seconds add the
boiling water up to 4/5 of the capacity of the tea ware. The boiling water can help the tea ball
bloom quickly and with a strong aroma of the tea. The height of glass tea ware should be 8–10
cm, which can help the tea and flowers bloom completely. One tea ball can be brewed 4–5
times.

Oolong tea
Oolong tea should be brewed around 82 to 96 °C (185 to 205 °F), with the brewing vessel
warmed before pouring the water. Yixing purple clay teapots are the traditional brewing-vessel
for oolong tea which can be brewed multiple times from the same leaves, unlike green tea,
seeming to improve with reuse. In the Chinese and Taiwanese Gongfu tea ceremony, the first
brew is discarded, as it is considered a rinse of leaves rather than a proper brew.

Premium or delicate tea

A strainer is often used when tea is made with tea-leaves in a teapot

Some teas, especially green teas and delicate oolong teas, are steeped for shorter periods,
sometimes less than 30 seconds. Using a tea strainer separates the leaves from the water at
the end of the brewing time if a tea bag is not being used. However, the black Darjeeling tea, a
premium Indian tea, needs a longer than average steeping time. Elevation and time of harvest
offer varying taste profiles; proper storage and water quality also have a large impact on taste.

Caffeinated Teas
● White
● Green
● Black

Caffeinated Teas

Nutrients. 2016 Jan 5;8(1). pii: E17. doi: 10.3390/nu8010017.

Polyphenols and Glycemic Control.
Kim Y1, Keogh JB2, Clifton PM3.
Author information
Abstract
Growing evidence from animal studies supports the anti-diabetic properties of some dietary
polyphenols, suggesting that dietary polyphenols could be one dietary therapy for the prevention
and management of Type 2 diabetes. This review aims to address the potential mechanisms of
action of dietary polyphenols in the regulation of glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity
based on in vitro and in vivo studies, and to provide a comprehensive overview of the
anti-diabetic effects of commonly consumed dietary polyphenols including polyphenol-rich
mixed diets, tea and coffee, chocolate and cocoa, cinnamon, grape, pomegranate, red wine,
berries and olive oil, with a focus on human clinical trials. Dietary polyphenols may inhibit
α-amylase and α-glucosidase, inhibit glucose absorption in the intestine by sodium-dependent
glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1), stimulate insulin secretion and reduce hepatic glucose output.
Polyphenols may also enhance insulin-dependent glucose uptake, activate 5' adenosine
monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), modify the microbiome and have
anti-inflammatory effects. However, human epidemiological and intervention studies have
shown inconsistent results. Further intervention studies are essential to clarify the conflicting
findings and confirm or refute the anti-diabetic effects of dietary polyphenols.

White

White tea may refer to one of several styles of tea which generally feature young and/or
minimally processed leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. Currently there is no generally
accepted definition of white tea and very little international agreement; some sources use the
term to refer to tea that is merely dried with no additional processing,while others include tea
buds and very young leaves which have been steamed or fired before drying. Most definitions
agree, however, that white tea is not rolled or oxidized, resulting in a flavour which is
characterized as "lighter" than green or traditional black teas.

It is harvested primarily in China, mostly in the Fujian province, but more recently it is produced
in Eastern Nepal, Taiwan, Northern Thailand, Galle (Southern Sri Lanka) and India.

White tea comes from the buds and immature tea leaves that are picked shortly before the buds
have fully opened. The leaves and buds are allowed to wither and dry in natural sun.

The name "white tea" derives from the fine silvery-white hairs on the unopened buds of the tea
plant, which give the plant a whitish appearance. The beverage itself is not white or colourless
but pale yellow and light to the taste.

History
Scholars and tea merchants generally disagree as to when the first production of white tea, as it
is understood in China today, began. What is today known as white tea may have come into
creation in the last two centuries. White tea may have first appeared in English publication in
1876, where it was categorized as a black tea because it is not initially cooked like a green tea,
to deactivate internal enzymes and external microbes.

White tea is often being sold as Silvery Tip Pekoe, a form of its traditional name, and now also
under the simple designations China White and Fujian White.

Composition

White tea, like black and green tea, is made from the Camellia sinensis plant and contains
polyphenols, a set of phytonutrients that are thought to be responsible for the health effects of
tea. Different white teas have different amounts of catechins, a category of polyphenols, and the
overall range of concentrations overlaps with that green tea, meaning that some white teas have
the same concentration of polyphenols as some green teas. This may be due to the variety of
the tea plant from which the tea was picked, the cultivation technique, and the way in which the
tea was processed.

Green

Green tea is a type of tea that is made from Camellia sinensis leaves that have not undergone
the same withering and oxidation process used to make oolong and black tea. Green tea
originated in China, but its production has spread to many countries in Asia.

Several varieties of green tea exist, which differ substantially because of the variety of C.
sinensis used, growing conditions, horticultural methods, production processing, and time of
harvest.

Health effects

Regular green tea is 99.9% water, provides 1 Calorie per 100 mL serving, is devoid of
significant nutrient content and contains phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and caffeine.
Polyphenols found in green tea include epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epicatechin gallate,
epicatechins and flavanols.

There is limited evidence to suggest that green tea consumption may be associated with a
slightly lower risk of esophageal cancer in the Chinese population, a lower risk of lung cancer in
women, and a lower risk of oral cancer in Asian people. A 2015 meta-analysis of nine
prospective cohort studies concluded that a high amount of green tea consumption may be
associated with a lower risk of liver cancer in Asian women. This association was not seen in
Asian men or when one cup of green tea was consumed daily. Similarly, another analysis of
observational data conducted in 2012 suggested that green tea consumption may have a
favorable effect on lung cancer risk. The observed effect was strongest in those who consumed
more than seven cups of green tea daily. A 2011 meta-analysis of epidemiological studies
found limited evidence that green tea consumption may be associated with a moderately
reduced risk of liver cancer in Chinese and Japanese people. Limited evidence suggests that
green tea consumption is not associated with the risk of developing pancreatic cancer or
prostate cancer. The link between green tea consumption and stomach cancer risk is unclear
due to inconsistent evidence.

Green tea interferes with the chemotherapy drug bortezomib (Velcade) and other boronic
acid-based proteasome inhibitors, and should be avoided by people taking these medications.

Cardiovascular disease

Daily consumption of green tea has been associated with a lower risk of death from
cardiovascular disease. In a 2015 meta-analysis of observational studies, an increase in one
cup of green tea per day was associated with a 5% lower risk of death from cardiovascular
causes. Green tea consumption may be associated with a reduced risk of stroke. A 2013
Cochrane review of randomized controlled trials concluded that green tea consumption for 3–6
months appears to lower systolic and diastolic blood pressures a small amount (about 3 mm Hg
each). Additional analyses examining the effects of long-term green tea consumption on blood
pressure have reached similar conclusions.

Glycemic control
Green tea consumption lowers fasting blood sugar but in clinical studies the beverage's effect
on hemoglobin A1c and fasting insulin levels was inconsistent.

Hyperlipidemia
Drinking green tea or taking green tea supplements decreases the blood concentration of total
cholesterol (about 7 mg/dL), LDL cholesterol (about 2 mg/dL), and does not affect the
concentration of HDL cholesterol. A 2013 Cochrane review performed a meta-analysis of
longer-term randomized controlled trials (>3 months duration) and concluded that green tea
consumption lowers total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in the blood.

Inflammation
A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials found that green
tea consumption was not significantly associated with lower plasma levels of C-reactive protein
levels, a marker of inflammation.

Mortality risk
Daily consumption of green tea is significantly associated with a lower risk of death from any
cause; an increase of one cup of green tea per day is linked with a 4% lower risk of death from
any cause. A separate analysis found an increase of three cups of green tea per day was
associated with a lower risk of death from any cause.
Toxicity
Moderate, regular, and habitual consumption of green tea is safe; however, there are reports of
liver toxicity in humans after consuming high doses (10–29 mg/kg/day) of green tea extract
dietary supplements.

Br J Nutr. 2016 Aug;116(3):443-50. doi: 10.1017/S0007114516002221. Epub 2016 Jun 9.

Polyphenol- and fibre-rich dried fruits with green tea attenuate starch-derived postprandial blood
glucose and insulin: a randomised, controlled, single-blind, cross-over intervention.
Nyambe-Silavwe H1, Williamson G1.
Author information
Abstract
Polyphenol- and fibre-rich foods (PFRF) have the potential to affect postprandial glycaemic
responses by reducing glucose absorption, and thus decreasing the glycaemic response of
foods when consumed together. A randomised, single-blind, cross-over study was conducted on
sixteen healthy volunteers to test whether PFRF could attenuate postprandial blood glucose in
healthy volunteers when added to a source of carbohydrate (starch in bread). This is the first
study to examine the effects of a meal comprised of components to inhibit each stage of the
biochemical pathway, leading up to the appearance of glucose in the blood. The volunteers
were fasted and attended four visits: two control visits (bread, water, balancing sugars) and two
test visits (single and double dose of PFRF) where they consumed bread, water and PFRF.
Blood samples were collected at 0 (fasted), 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 min after
consumption. The PFRF components were tested for α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory
potential in vitro. Plasma glucose was lower after consumption of both doses compared with
controls: lower dose, change in mean incremental areas under the glucose curves (IAUC)=-27·4
(sd 7·5) %, P<0·001; higher dose, IAUC=-49·0 (sd 15·3) %, P<0·001; insulin IAUC was also
attenuated by-46·9 (sd 13·4) %, P<0·01. Consistent with this, the polyphenol components of the
PFRF inhibited α-amylase (green tea, strawberry, blackberry and blackcurrant) and
α-glucosidase (green tea) activities in vitro. The PFRF have a pronounced and significant
lowering effect on postprandial blood glucose and insulin response in humans, due in part to
inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, as well as glucose transport.

Black

Blends
Earl Grey, English Breakfast, English Afternoon, Irish Breakfast, Masala Chai

Black tea is a type of tea that is more oxidized than oolong, green and white teas. Black tea is
generally stronger in flavor than the less oxidized teas. All four types are made from leaves of
the shrub (or small tree) Camellia sinensis. Two principal varieties of the species are used – the
small-leaved Chinese variety plant (C. sinensis subsp. sinensis), used for most other types of
teas, and the large-leaved Assamese plant (C. sinensis subsp. assamica), which was
traditionally mainly used for black tea, although in recent years some green and white have
been produced.

In Chinese and the languages of neighboring countries, black tea is known as "red tea"
(Chinese 紅茶 hóngchá, pronounced [xʊ̌ ŋʈʂʰǎ]; Japanese 紅茶 kōcha; Korean 홍차 hongcha,
Bengali লাল চা Lal cha, Assamese ৰঙা চাহ Ronga chah), a description of the colour of the liquid;
the Western term "black tea" refers to the colour of the oxidized leaves. In Chinese, "black tea"
is a commonly used classification for post-fermented teas, such as Pu-erh tea; outside of China
and its neighbouring countries, "red tea" more commonly refers to rooibos, a South African
herbal tea.

While green tea usually loses its flavor within a year, black tea retains its flavour for several
years. For this reason, it has long been an article of trade, and compressed bricks of black tea
even served as a form of de facto currency in Mongolia, Tibet and Siberia into the 19th century.
Although green tea has recently seen a revival due to its purported health benefits, black tea still
accounts for over ninety percent of all tea sold in the West.

Plain black tea without sweeteners or additives contains caffeine but negligible quantities of
calories or nutrients. Some flavored tea with different herbs added may have less than 1 gram
of carbohydrates.Black teas from the Camellia sinensis tea plant contain polyphenols known as
thearubigins and theaflavins.

Meta-analyses of observational studies have concluded that black tea consumption does not
affect the development of oral cancers in Asian or Caucasian populations, esophageal cancer or
prostate cancer in Asian populations, or lung cancer.

Black tea consumption may be associated with a reduced risk of stroke.

A 2013 Cochrane review of randomized controlled trials greater than 3 months duration
concluded that long-term consumption of black tea only slightly lowers systolic and diastolic
blood pressures (about 1-2 mmHg).

A 2013 Cochrane review concluded that long-term black tea consumption lowers the blood
concentration of LDL cholesterol by 0.43 mmol/L (or 7.74 mg/dL) but overall this research
remains inconclusive.

Chemistry Note: Lemon and Vitamin C vs Milk

Food Chem. 2016 Apr 15;197 Pt B:1275-9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.045. Epub 2015
Nov 11.
Iron binding efficiency of polyphenols: Comparison of effect of ascorbic acid and
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid on catechol and galloyl groups.
Tamilmani P1, Pandey MC2.
Author information
Abstract
Dietary polyphenols are markedly studied for their antioxidant activity. They also have a
negative impact on nutrition whereby they interfere with iron absorption. Common dietary
polyphenols include: catechins, flavonols, flavanols, flavones, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins
and phenolic acids. Ascorbic acid (AA) and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) are
commonly used to counter act this reaction and increase iron bioavailability. This study was
aimed at determining the effect of AA and EDTA on the catechol or galloyl iron binding ability of
pure phenolics, coffee and tea. Phenolic concentrations of 40, 80, 610, 240, 320, 400, 520 and
900 μg/ml were tested against six levels of AA and EDTA. These effects were studied in detail
using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) with the hypothesis that there would be one
or more mean differences between the ratio of enhancer and the different concentrations of
samples tested. AA was found to be more efficient than EDTA in a way that lesser quantity is
required for completely overcoming negative iron binding effects of polyphenols and similar
samples.

Orange Pekoe

Black tea grading

In the tea industry, tea leaf grading is the process of evaluating products based on the quality
and condition of the tea leaves themselves. The highest grades are referred to as "orange
pekoe", and the lowest as "fannings" or "dust".

Pekoe tea grades are classified into various qualities, each determined by how many of the
adjacent young leaves (two, one, or none) were picked along with the leaf buds. Top-quality
pekoe grades consist of only the leaf buds, which are picked using the balls of the fingertips.
Fingernails and mechanical tools are not used to avoid bruising.

When crushed to make bagged teas, the tea is referred to as "broken", as in "broken orange
pekoe" (BOP). These lower grades include fannings and dust, which are tiny remnants created
in the sorting and crushing processes.

Orange pekoe is referred to as "OP". The grading scheme also contains categories higher than
OP, which are determined primarily by leaf wholeness and size.

Broken, fannings and dust orthodox teas have slightly different grades. CTC teas, which consist
of leaves mechanically rendered to uniform fannings, have yet another grading system.
Orange pekoe (/pɛk.oʊ/ or /piː.koʊ/), also spelled pecco, or OP is a term used in the Western
tea trade to describe a particular genre of black teas (orange pekoe grading). Despite a
purported Chinese origin, these grading terms are typically used for teas from Sri Lanka, India
and countries other than China; they are not generally known within Chinese-speaking
countries. The grading system is based upon the size of processed and dried black tea leaves.

The tea industry uses the term orange pekoe to describe a basic, medium-grade black tea
consisting of many whole tea leaves of a specific size; however, it is popular in some regions
(such as North America) to use the term as a description of any generic black tea (though it is
often described to the consumer as a specific variety of black tea). Within this system, the teas
that receive the highest grades are obtained from new flushes (pickings). This includes the
terminal leaf bud along with a few of the youngest leaves. Grading is based on the 'size' of the
individual leaves and flushes, which is determined by their ability to fall through the screens of
special meshes ranging from 8–30 mesh. This also determines the 'wholeness', or level of
breakage, of each leaf, which is also part of the grading system. Although these are not the only
factors used to determine quality, the size and wholeness of the leaves will have the greatest
influence on the taste, clarity, and brewing time of the tea.

When used outside the context of black-tea grading, the term "pekoe" (or, occasionally, orange
pekoe) describes the unopened terminal leaf bud (tips) in tea flushes. As such, the phrases "a
bud and a leaf" or "a bud and two leaves" are used to describe the "leafiness" of a flush; they
are also used interchangeably with pekoe and a leaf or pekoe and two leaves.

Etymology

The origin of the word "pekoe" is uncertain. One explanation is it is derived from the
transliterated mispronunciation of the Amoy (Xiamen) dialect word for a Chinese tea known as
"white down/hair" (白毫; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: pe̍h-ho). This is how "pekoe" is listed by Rev. Robert
Morrison (1782–1834) in his Chinese dictionary (1819) as one of the seven sorts of black tea
"commonly known by Europeans". This refers to the down-like white "hairs" on the leaf and also
to the youngest leaf buds. Another hypothesis is that the term derives from the Chinese báihuā
"white flower" (Chinese: 白花; pinyin: báihuā; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: pe̍h-hoe), and refers to the bud content
of pekoe tea.

Sir Thomas Lipton, the 19th-century British tea magnate, is widely credited with popularizing, if
not inventing, the term "orange pekoe", which seems to have no Chinese precedents, for
Western markets. The "orange" in orange pekoe is sometimes mistaken to mean the tea has
been flavoured with orange, orange oils, or is otherwise associated with oranges. However, the
word "orange" is unrelated to the tea's flavor. There are two explanations for its meaning,
though neither is definitive:

The Dutch House of Orange-Nassau, now the royal family, was already the most respected
aristocratic family in the days of the Dutch Republic, and came to control the de facto head of
state position of Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand. The Dutch East India Company performed
a central role in bringing tea to Europe and may have marketed the tea as "orange" to suggest
association with the House of Orange.

Colour: The copper colour of a high-quality, oxidized leaf before drying, or the final bright orange
colour of the dried pekoes in the finished tea may be related to the name. These usually consist
of one leaf bud and two leaves covered in fine, downy hair. The orange colour is produced when
the tea is fully oxidized.

Red Teas
● Rooibos
● Hibiscus

Rooibos

Rooibos (Anglicized pronunciation: /ˈrɔɪbɒs/ roy-bos; Afrikaans pronunciation: [rɔːibɔs],

meaning "red bush"; scientific name Aspalathus linearis) is a broom-like member of the
Fabaceae family of plants growing in South Africa's fynbos.

The generic name comes from the plant Calicotome villosa, aspalathos in Greek. This plant has
very similar growth and flowers to the rooibos plant. The specific name linearis comes from the
plant's linear growing structure and needle-like leaves.

The leaves are used to make an herbal tea called rooibos or bush tea (especially in Southern
Africa) or sometimes redbush tea (especially in Great Britain). The product has been popular in
Southern Africa for generations and is now consumed in many countries. It is sometimes
spelled rooibosch in accordance with the old Dutch etymology.

Rooibos is usually grown in the Cederberg, a small mountainous area in the region of the
Western Cape province of South Africa.

Generally, the leaves are oxidized (often termed "fermentation" in common tea processing
terminology). This process produces the distinctive reddish-brown color of rooibos and
enhances the flavor. Unoxidized "green" rooibos is also produced, but the more demanding
production process for green rooibos, similar to the method by which green tea is produced,
makes it more expensive than traditional rooibos. It carries a malty and slightly grassy flavour
somewhat different from its red counterpart.

Use
In South Africa, it is common to prepare rooibos tea in the same manner as black tea and add
milk and sugar to taste. Other methods include a slice of lemon and using honey instead of
sugar to sweeten.

Several coffee shops in South Africa have recently begun to sell rooibos espresso,
concentrated rooibos served and presented in the style of ordinary espresso. This has given
rise to rooibos-based variations of coffee drinks such as rooibos lattes and rooibos cappuccinos.

Iced tea made from rooibos has recently been introduced in South Africa, Germany, Australia,
and the United States. A variant of the drink London Fog, known as a Cape Town Fog, can also
be made using rooibos steeped in steamed milk with vanilla syrup.

Chemical composition
As a fresh leaf, rooibos has a high content of ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

Rooibos tea does not contain caffeine and has low tannin levels compared to black tea or green
tea. Rooibos contains polyphenols, including flavanols, flavones, flavanones, dihydrochalcones,
aspalathin and nothofagin.

The processed leaves and stems contain benzoic and cinnamic acids.

Grading
Rooibos grades are largely related to the percentage "needle" or leaf to stem content in the mix.
A higher leaf content results in a darker liquor, richer flavour and less "dusty" aftertaste. The
high-grade rooibos is exported and does not reach local markets, with major consumers being
the EU, particularly Germany, where it is used in creating flavoured blends for loose-leaf tea
markets. In development within South Africa are a small number of specialty tea companies
producing similar blends.

History
In 1772, Swedish naturalist Carl Thunberg noted, "the country people made tea" from a plant
related to rooibos or redbush. Traditionally, the local people would climb the mountains and cut
the fine, needle-like leaves from wild rooibos plants. They then rolled the bunches of leaves into
hessian bags and brought them down the steep slopes using donkeys. The leaves were then
chopped with axes and bruised with hammers, before being left to dry in the sun.

Dutch settlers to the Cape learned to drink rooibos tea as an alternative to black tea, an
expensive commodity for the settlers who relied on supply ships from Europe.

In 1904, Benjamin Ginsberg ran a variety of experiments at Rondegat Farm, finally curing
rooibos. He simulated the traditional Chinese method of making Keemun by fermenting the tea
in barrels. The major hurdle in growing rooibos commercially was that farmers could not
germinate the rooibos seeds. The seeds were hard to find and impossible to germinate
commercially.

In 1930 District Surgeon and botanist Dr Pieter Le Fras Nortier Rhodes scholar began
conducting experiments with the cultivation of the rooibos plant. Dr Nortier also saw the vast
commercial potential the tea held for the region.

Dr Nortier cultivated the first plants at Clanwilliam on his farm Eastside and on the farm Klein
Kliphuis. The tiny seeds were very difficult to come by. Dr Nortier paid the local villagers £5 per
matchbox of seeds collected. An aged Khoi woman found an unusual seed source: having
chanced upon ants dragging seed, she followed them back to their nest and, on breaking it
open, found a granary. Dr. Nortier's research was ultimately successful and he subsequently
showed all the local farmers how to germinate their own seeds. The secret lay in scarifying the
seed pods. Dr Nortier placed a layer of seeds between two millstones and ground away some of
the seed pod wall. Thereafter the seeds were easily propagated. Over the next decade the price
of seeds soared to an astounding £80 a pound, the most expensive vegetable seed in the world,
as farmers rushed to plant rooibos. Today, the seed is gathered by special sifting processes. Dr
Nortier is today accepted as the father of the rooibos tea industry. Thanks to his research,
rooibos tea, originally just an indigenous drink, became an iconic national beverage and then a
globalized commodity. Rooibos tea production is today the economic mainstay of the
Clanwilliam district. In 1948 The University of Stellenbosch awarded Dr Nortier an Honorary
Doctorate D.Sc (Agria) in recognition for his valuable contribution to South African agriculture.

J Ethnopharmacol. 2008 Oct 28;119(3):376-412. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.014. Epub 2008 Jun

22.
South African herbal teas: Aspalathus linearis, Cyclopia spp. and Athrixia phylicoides--a review.
Joubert E1, Gelderblom WC, Louw A, de Beer D.
Author information
Abstract
Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis (Brum.f) Dahlg.) and honeybush (Cyclopia Vent. species) are
popular indigenous South African herbal teas enjoyed for their taste and aroma. Traditional
medicinal uses of rooibos in South Africa include alleviation of infantile colic, allergies, asthma
and dermatological problems, while a decoction of honeybush was used as a restorative and as
an expectorant in chronic catarrh and pulmonary tuberculosis. Traditional medicinal uses of
Athrixia phylicoides DC., or bush tea, another indigenous South African plant with very limited
localised use as herbal tea, include treatment of boils, acne, infected wounds and infected
throats. Currently rooibos and honeybush are produced for the herbal tea market, while bush
tea has potential for commercialisation. A summary of the historical and modern uses, botany,
distribution, industry and chemical composition of these herbal teas is presented. A
comprehensive discussion of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo biological properties, required to
expand their applications as nutraceutical and cosmeceutical products, is included, with the
main emphasis on rooibos. Future research needs include more comprehensive chemical
characterisation of extracts, identification of marker compounds for extract standardisation and
quality control, bioavailability and identification of bio-markers of dietary exposure, investigation
of possible herb-drug interactions and plant improvement with regards to composition and
bioactivity.

Expert Rev Neurother. 2010 May;10(5):729-45. doi: 10.1586/ern.10.42.

Oxidative stress and Alzheimer's disease: dietary polyphenols as potential therapeutic agents.
Darvesh AS1, Carroll RT, Bishayee A, Geldenhuys WJ, Van der Schyf CJ.
Author information
Abstract
Oxidative stress has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative
disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). In recent years, antioxidants - especially those of
dietary origin - have been suggested as possible agents useful for the prevention and treatment
of AD. This article reviews the role of oxidative stress and the contribution of free radicals in the
development of AD, and also discusses the use of antioxidants as a therapeutic strategy in the
amelioration of this illness. The antioxidant potential of polyphenolic compounds obtained from
dietary sources, such as anthocyanins from berries, catechins and theaflavins from tea,
curcumin from turmeric, resveratrol from grapes and peanuts, the dihydrochalcones aspalathin
and nothofagin from rooibos and the xanthone mangiferin from honeybush, are discussed in this
review. The neuroprotective effects of these phytochemicals in preclinical models of AD are
highlighted. Finally, innovative concepts, novel hypotheses, current challenges and future
directions in the use of dietary polyphenols for the treatment of AD are discussed.

Hibiscus

Hibiscus (/hᵻˈbɪskəs/ or /haɪˈbɪskəs/) is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family,

Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising several hundred species that are native to
warm-temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are
renowned for their large, showy flowers and are commonly known simply as hibiscus, or less
widely known as rose mallow. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous
plants, as well as woody shrubs and small trees. The generic name is derived from the Greek
word ἱβίσκος (hibískos), which was the name Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40–90) gave to Althaea
officinalis.

The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers
are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals, color from white to pink, red,
orange, peach, yellow or purple, and from 4–18 cm broad. Flower color in certain species, such
as H. mutabilis and H. tiliaceus, changes with age. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule,
containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces or splits
open at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.

Uses
Hibiscus hispidissimus (Wild Hibiscus)
Symbolism and culture
The hibiscus is the national flower of Haiti and is used in their national tourism slogan of Haïti:
Experience It! The Hibiscus species also represents several other nations. The Hibiscus
syriacus is the national flower of South Korea, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is the national flower
of Malaysia. The red hibiscus is the flower of the Hindu goddess Kali, and appears frequently in
depictions of her in the art of Bengal, India, often with the goddess and the flower merging in
form. The hibiscus is used as an offering to goddess Kali and Lord Ganesha in Hindu worship.

In the Philippines, the gumamela (local name for hibiscus) is used by children as part of a
bubble-making pastime. The flowers and leaves are crushed until the sticky juices come out.
Hollow papaya stalks are then dipped into this and used as straws for blowing bubbles.
Together with soap, hibiscus juices produce more bubbles.

The hibiscus flower is traditionally worn by Tahitian and Hawaiian girls. If the flower is worn
behind the left ear, the woman is married or in a relationship. If the flower is worn on the right,
she is single or openly available for a relationship. The hibiscus is Hawaii's state flower.

Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie named her first novel Purple Hibiscus after the
delicate flower.

The bark of the hibiscus contains strong bast fibres that can be obtained by letting the stripped
bark set in the sea to let the organic material rot away.

Beverage

The tea made of hibiscus flowers is known by many names in many countries around the world
and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is well known for its color, tanginess and flavor.

It is known as bissap in West Africa, "Gul e Khatmi" in Urdu & Persian, agua de jamaica in
Mexico and Honduras (the flower being flor de jamaica) and Orhul in India. Some refer to it as
roselle, a common name for the hibiscus flower. In Jamaica, Trinidad and many other islands in
the Caribbean, the drink is known as sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa; not to be confused with Rumex
acetosa, a species sharing the common name sorrel). In Ghana, the drink is known as soobolo
in one of the local languages.

In Cambodia, a cold beverage can be prepared by first steeping the petals in hot water until the
colors are leached from the petals, then adding lime juice (which turns the beverage from dark
brown/red to a bright red), sweeteners (sugar/honey) and finally cold water/ice cubes.

In Egypt, Sudan and the Arab world, hibiscus tea is known as karkadé (‫)ﻛﺮﻛﺪﯾﻪ‬, and is served as
both a hot and a cold drink.
Folk medicine

Precautions and contraindications

Pregnancy and lactation
While the mechanism is not well understood, previous animal studies have demonstrated both
an inhibitory effect of H. sabdariffa on muscle tone and the anti-fertility effects of Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis, respectively. The extract of H. sabdariffa has been shown to stimulate contraction
of the rat bladder and uterus; the H.rosa-sinensis extract has exhibited contraceptive effects in
the form of estrogen activity in rats. These findings have not been observed in humans. The
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is also thought to have emmenagogue effects which can stimulate
menstruation and, in some women, cause an abortion. Due to the documented adverse effects
in animal studies and the reported pharmacological properties, the H. sabdariffa and
H.rosa-sinensis are not recommended for use during pregnancy. Additionally, they are not
recommended while breastfeeding due to the lack of reliable information on its safety and use.

Adverse effects
Drug interactions
It is postulated that H. sabdariffa interacts with diclofenac, chloroquine and acetaminophen by
altering the pharmacokinetics. In healthy human volunteers, the H. sabdariffa extract was found
to reduce the excretion of diclofenac upon co-administration. Additionally, co-administration of
Karkade (H. sabdariffa), a common Sudanese beverage, was found to reduce chloroquine
bioavailability. However, no statistically significant changes were observed in the
pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen when administered with the Zobo (H.sabdariffa) drink.
Further studies are needed to demonstrate clinical significance.

Food Chem. 2014 Dec 15;165:424-43. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.002. Epub 2014 May
27.
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. - a phytochemical and pharmacological review.
Da-Costa-Rocha I1, Bonnlaender B2, Sievers H3, Pischel I4, Heinrich M5.
Author information
Abstract
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Hs, roselle; Malvaceae) has been used traditionally as a food, in herbal
drinks, in hot and cold beverages, as a flavouring agent in the food industry and as a herbal
medicine. In vitro and in vivo studies as well as some clinical trials provide some evidence
mostly for phytochemically poorly characterised Hs extracts. Extracts showed antibacterial,
anti-oxidant, nephro- and hepato-protective, renal/diuretic effect, effects on lipid metabolism
(anti-cholesterol), anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive effects among others. This might be linked
to strong antioxidant activities, inhibition of α-glucosidase and α-amylase, inhibition of
angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACE), and direct vaso-relaxant effect or calcium channel
modulation. Phenolic acids (esp. protocatechuic acid), organic acid (hydroxycitric acid and
hibiscus acid) and anthocyanins (delphinidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside) are
likely to contribute to the reported effects. More well designed controlled clinical trials are
needed which use phytochemically characterised preparations. Hs has an excellent safety and
tolerability record.
Copyright © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Pharmacogn Rev. 2015 Jul-Dec;9(18):87-92. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.162101.

Herbal extracts in oral health care - A review of the current scenario and its future needs.
Chandra Shekar BR1, Nagarajappa R2, Suma S3, Thakur R4.
Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Oral diseases are among the major public health problems and the commonest of chronic
diseases that affect mankind. The application of natural products for the control of oral diseases
is considered as an interesting alternative to synthetic antimicrobials due to their lower negative
impact, and for the effort to overcome primary or secondary resistance to the drug during
therapy.
OBJECTIVE:
To review the current evidence on the antimicrobial efficacy of 10 plant extracts on dental caries
and plaque microorganisms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
A comprehensive literature search was made by one of the authors for 2 months in PubMed,
PubMed Central, MEDLINE, LILACS/BBO, Cochrane database of systematic reviews,
SCIENCE DIRECT, and Google scholar databases. The results from the relevant published
literatures are discussed.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:
The extracts of Azadirachta Indica, Ocimum sanctum, Murraya koenigii L., Acacia nilotica,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava, Rosa indica,
and Aloe barbadensis Miller have all been found to inhibit certain dental caries and periodontal
pathogens. The current evidence is on individual plant extracts against bacteria involved in
either caries or periodontitis. "Herbal shotgun" or "synergistic multitarget effects" are the terms
used for the strategy of combining different extracts. The research assessing the antimicrobial
efficacy of a combination of these plant extracts against dental caries and periodontal
pathogens is the need of the hour, and such research will aid in the development of a novel,
innovative method that can simultaneously inhibit two of the most common dental diseases of
mankind, besides slowing the development of drug resistance.

J Ethnopharmacol. 2015 Dec 24;176:286-96. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.10.038. Epub 2015 Oct 28.
A systematic review of medicinal plants used for weight loss in Brazil: Is there potential for
obesity treatment?
Cercato LM1, White PA1, Nampo FK1, Santos MR1, Camargo EA2.
Author information
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE:
Obesity is a pandemic disease and its prevalence is still increasing. Moreover, it has important
costs to public health. In Brazil, many plants are used for weight loss by overweight or obese
people, but there is a lack of scientific basis for this practice. Many ethnobotanical studies
aiming to characterize this usage have been published, but they are still limited by the region
considered and the diversity of the popular knowledge.
AIM OF THE STUDY:
The present study was undertaken to systematically review the ethnobotanical surveys
regarding the species utilized to reduce body weight in overweight or obese people in Brazil.
METHODS:
Ethnobotanical surveys related to this usage and performed in Brazilian regions were
systematically found in MEDLINE, LILACS and Scopus.
RESULTS:
Thirty-three studies were included in this review. Fifty species were popularly utilized to lose
weight. The most cited species were Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC, Annona muricata L. and
Hancornia speciosa Gomes. Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze and Hibiscus sabdariffa L. were also
cited and are supported by either animal or human investigations that indicate some beneficial
activity against obesity. However, for the majority of species cited in the included studies, there
is no scientific basis that assures the biological effects of this usage. Many studies have
demonstrated important effects of these plants on glycemia, serum lipid levels or body weight
control in non-obese conditions, which is not sufficient to recommend the use of these plants to
reduce body weight in overweight or obese people.
CONCLUSIONS:
Although many plants are popularly used to reduce weight in overweight or obese people in
Brazil, there is little scientific evidence corroborating its usage. Based on the ethnobotanical
data presented, this review indicates the plants that should be considered for scientifically
controlled studies devoted to investigating their effects on obesity.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

J Hypertens. 2015 Jun;33(6):1119-27. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000000585.

Effect of sour tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) on arterial hypertension: a systematic review and
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Serban C1, Sahebkar A, Ursoniu S, Andrica F, Banach M.
Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. is a tropical wild plant rich in organic acids, polyphenols, anthocyanins,
polysaccharides, and volatile constituents that are beneficial for the cardiovascular system.
Hibiscus sabdariffa beverages are commonly consumed to treat arterial hypertension, yet the
evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) has not been fully conclusive. Therefore, we
aimed to assess the potential antihypertensive effects of H. sabdariffa through systematic
review of literature and meta-analysis of available RCTs.
METHODS:
The search included PUBMED, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and EMBASE (up to July 2014) to
identify RCTs investigating the efficacy of H. sabdariffa supplementation on SBP and DBP
values. Two independent reviewers extracted data on the study characteristics, methods, and
outcomes. Quantitative data synthesis and meta-regression were performed using a fixed-effect
model, and sensitivity analysis using leave-one-out method. Five RCTs (comprising seven
treatment arms) were selected for the meta-analysis. In total, 390 participants were randomized,
of whom 225 were allocated to the H. sabdariffa supplementation group and 165 to the control
group in the selected studies.
RESULTS:
Fixed-effect meta-regression indicated a significant effect of H. sabdariffa supplementation in
lowering both SBP (weighed mean difference -7.58 mmHg, 95% confidence interval -9.69 to
-5.46, P < 0.00001) and DBP (weighed mean difference -3.53 mmHg, 95% confidence interval
-5.16 to -1.89, P < 0.0001). These effects were inversely associated with baseline BP values,
and were robust in sensitivity analyses.
CONCLUSION:
This meta-analysis of RCTs showed a significant effect of H. sabdariffa in lowering both SBP
and DBP. Further well designed trials are necessary to validate these results.

Flower Teas
● Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum tea

Chrysanthemum tea (Chinese: 菊花茶; pinyin: júhuā chá) is a flower-based infusion beverage
made from chrysanthemum flowers of the species Chrysanthemum morifolium or
Chrysanthemum indicum, which are most popular in East Asia, mostly especially China. To
prepare the tea, chrysanthemum flowers (usually dried) are steeped in hot water (usually 90 to
95 degrees Celsius after cooling from a boil) in either a teapot, cup, or glass; often rock sugar or
cane sugar is also added, and occasionally also wolfberries. The resulting drink is transparent
and ranges from pale to bright yellow in color, with a floral aroma. In Chinese tradition, once a
pot of chrysanthemum tea has been drunk, hot water is typically added again to the flowers in
the pot (producing a tea that is slightly less strong); this process is often repeated several times.
Chrysanthemum tea was first drunk during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).

Several varieties of chrysanthemum, ranging from white to pale or bright yellow in color, are
used for tea. These include:

● Huángshān Gòngjú (黄山贡菊, literally "Yellow Mountain tribute chrysanthemum"); also

called simply Gòngjú (贡菊)
● Hángbáijú (杭白菊), originating from Tongxiang, near Hangzhou; also called simply
Hángjú, (杭菊)
 ● Chújú (滁菊), originating from the Chuzhou district of Anhui
● Bójú (亳菊), originating in the Bozhou district of Anhui

The flower is called kek-huai in Thai, from kiok-hoe, Min Nan for júhuā. In Tamil it is called
saamandhi.

Of these, the first two are most popular. Some varieties feature a prominent yellow flower head
while others do not.

Medicinal use

Chrysanthemum tea

Chrysanthemum tea has many purported medicinal uses, including an aid in recovery from
influenza, acne and as a "cooling" herb. According to traditional Chinese medicine the tea can
aid in the prevention of sore throat and promote the reduction of fever. In Korea, it is known well
for its medicinal use for making people more alert and is often used as a pick-me-up to render
the drinker more awake. In western herbal medicine, Chrysanthemum tea is drunk or used as a
compress to treat circulatory disorders such as varicose veins and atherosclerosis.

In traditional Chinese medicine, chrysanthemum tea is also said to clear the liver and the eyes.
It is believed to be effective in treating eye pain associated with stress or yin/fluid deficiency. It is
also used to treat blurring, spots in front of the eyes, diminished vision, and dizziness. The liver
is associated with the element Wood which rules the eyes and is associated with anger, stress,
and related emotions. No scientific studies have substantiated these claims.

Commercial availability

A pack of Yeo's Chrysanthemum tea, available commercially in Malaysia and Singapore.

Although typically prepared at home, chrysanthemum tea is also available as a beverage in
many Asian restaurants especially Chinese, and is also available from various drinks outlets in
East Asia as well as Asian grocery stores outside Asia in canned or packaged form, be it in
whole in grain or teabag presentation. Due to its medicinal value, it may also be available at
health food stores or Traditional Chinese medicine outlets, often mixed with other ingredients.

Chin Med. 2013 Apr 4;8(1):7. doi: 10.1186/1749-8546-8-7.

Hepatoprotective effect of water extract from Chrysanthemum indicum L. flower.
Jeong SC1, Kim SM, Jeong YT, Song CH.
Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Chrysanthemum indicum L. flower (CIF) has been widely used as tea in Korea. This study aims
to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of the hot water extract of CIF (HCIF) in in vitro and in
vivo systems.
METHODS:
Hepatoprotective activities were evaluated at 250 to 1000 μg/mL concentrations by an in vitro
assay using normal human hepatocytes (Chang cell) and hepatocellular carcinoma cells
(HepG2) against CCl4-induced cytotoxicity. Cytochrome P450 2E1, which is a key indicator of
hepatic injury, was detected by western blot analysis using rabbit polyclonal anti-human
CYP2E1 antibody. An in vivo hepatoprotective activity assay was performed at 1000 to 4000
μg/mL concentrations on CCl4-induced acute toxicity in rats, and the serum levels of glutamic
oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT), alkaline phosphatase
(ALP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined by standard enzyme assays.
RESULTS:
The hepatoprotective effects of HCIF significantly reduced the levels of GOT (60.1%,
P = 0.000) and GPT (64.5%, P = 0.000) compared with the vehicle control group (CCl4
alone). The survival rates of HepG2 and Chang cells were significantly improved compared with
the control group [82.1% (P = 0.034) and 62.3% (P = 0.002), respectively]. HCIF [50 mg/kg
body weight (BW)] treatment significantly reduced the serum levels of GOT (49.5%, P = 0.00),
GPT (55.5%, P = 0.00), ALP (30.8%, P = 0.000) and LDH (45.6%, P = 0.000) compared with
the control group in this in vivo study. The expression level of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1)
protein was also significantly decreased at the same concentration (50 mg/kg BW; P = 0.018).
CONCLUSION:
HCIF inhibited bioactivation of CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity and downregulates CYP2E1
expression in vitro and in vivo.

J Pharm Pharmacol. 2014 Oct;66(10):1478-90. doi: 10.1111/jphp.12270. Epub 2014 May 13.
Herbal tea extracts inhibit Cytochrome P450 3A4 in vitro.
Dufay S1, Worsley A, Monteillier A, Avanzi C, Sy J, Ng TF, Garcia JM, Lam MF, Vanhoutte P,
Wong IC.
Author information
Abstract
OBJECTIVES:
Ciclosporin and sirolimus, two immunosuppressive agents with narrow therapeutic windows, are
mainly metabolized by Cytochrome 3A4 (CYP3A4). A clinical case of toxic blood levels of these
drugs after the consumption of a '24-flavours' tea was reported. This study aims to identify the
causative ingredients of the 24-flavour herbal tea in the inhibition of CYP3A4 metabolism.
METHODS:
Two commercially available 24-flavour tea products purchased in Hong Kong and the six plant
constituents were tested for their CYP3A4 inhibitory effects utilizing an in-vitro fluorometric
assay.
KEY FINDINGS:
Of the commercially available teas available in Hong Kong, the most potent inhibitory effect was
observed with the tea consumed in the initial clinical case. Of the six universal constituents,
chrysanthemum exhibited the greatest inhibitory effect, with an IC50 of 95.7 μg/ml. Dandelion,
liquorice and bishop's weed have IC50 of 140.6, 148.4 and 185.5 μg/ml, respectively. Field mint
and Japanese honeysuckle have weaker inhibitory effect on CYP3A4 with IC50 of 1153.3 and
1466.3 μg/ml.
CONCLUSIONS:
This study confirms the possible implication of herbal tea constituents in the inhibition of
ciclosporin and sirolimus' CYP3A4 metabolism. Combined usage of herbal teas with drug
should be closely monitored.

Nat Prod Commun. 2015 Mar;10(3):495-8.

Analysis of active compounds and antioxidant activity assessment of six popular Chinese Juhua
teas.
Du H, Li SS, Wu Q, Ji KX, Wu J, Liu Y, Wang LS.
Abstract
Chrysanthemum is an important traditional Chinese medicine and is drunk daily as a herbal tea.
Chlorogenic acids and flavonoids are generally considered as the bioactive compounds. In this
work, six kinds of Juhua Tea were analyzed and their active compounds and antioxidant
activities were compared. In total, 32 phenolic compounds were profiled and identified using
HPLC-DAD/ESI-MSn, composed of chlorogenic acids (10), flavones (8), chalcones (8),
flavanones (4) and flavonols (2). Chalcones were the main flavonoids in Kunlun Xueju
(Coreopsis tinctoria) extract, while flavones and chlorogenic acids were dominant in the five
Chrysanthemum teas. Total chlorogenic acids content (TCA) was highest in Tai Ju
(Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. 'Tai Ju') (8.59 ± 0.87 mg/g DW), and total flavonoids content
(TF) was highest in Kunlun Xueju (87.2 ± 7.0 mg/g DW), which were both lowest in Ganye Ju
(Chrysanthemum eticuspe) (TCA 0.86 ± 0.26 mg/g DW, TF 1.43 ± 0.41 mg/g DW). Huangin Ju
(Anthemis tinctoria) possessed the most flavones (19.7 ± 0.6 mg/g DW). Antioxidant capacity of
each drink, assessed by Folin-Ciocalteu, DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays, consistently showed
that Kunlun Xueju extract possessed stronger antioxidant activity than the other five, suggesting
that the flavonoids content accounted for the free radical scavenging. The present work
provides a method for the characterization and quality control of Juhua Tea. Moreover, it is a
guideline for consuming choice, due to the different biological functions resulting from
chalcones, chlorogenic acids, and flavones.

Teas For Energy

● Ginseng
● Samovar

Ginseng

Ginseng (/ˈdʒɪnsɛŋ/) is any one of the 11 species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy
roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae.
Ginseng is found in North America and in eastern Asia (mostly northeast China, Korea, Bhutan,
eastern Siberia), typically in cooler climates. Panax vietnamensis, discovered in Vietnam, is the
southernmost ginseng known. This article focuses on the species of the series Panax, which are
the species claimed to be adaptogens, principally Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius. Ginseng
is characterized by the presence of ginsenosides and gintonin.

Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) is in the same family, but not genus, as true
ginseng. Like ginseng, it is considered to be an adaptogenic herb. The active compounds in
Siberian ginseng are eleutherosides, not ginsenosides. Instead of a fleshy root, Siberian
ginseng has a woody root.

Over centuries, ginseng has been considered in China as an important component of Chinese
traditional medicine.

Safety
Ginseng generally has a good safety profile and the incidence of adverse effects seems to be
low. Any adverse effects are usually mild and transient.

Considerations
Ginseng is known to contain phytoestrogens.

Side effects
Side effects can include nausea, diarrhea, headaches, nose bleeds, high blood pressure, low
blood pressure, and breast pains.

Components of ginseng can elicit hypoglycemia in both normal and diabetic mice.

Interactions
Ginseng has been shown to have adverse drug reactions with phenelzine and warfarin; it has
been shown to decrease blood alcohol levels. A potential interaction has also been reported
with imatinib resulting in hepatotoxicity, and with lamotrigine causing DRESS syndrome.

Ginseng may also lead to induction of mania in depressed patients who mix it with
antidepressants.

Overdose
The common adaptogen ginsengs (P. ginseng and P. quinquefolia) are generally considered to
be relatively safe even in large amounts. One of the most common and characteristic symptoms
of acute overdose of Panax ginseng is bleeding. Symptoms of mild overdose may include dry
mouth and lips, excitation, fidgeting, irritability, tremor, palpitations, blurred vision, headache,
insomnia, increased body temperature, increased blood pressure, edema, decreased appetite,
dizziness, itching, eczema, early morning diarrhea, bleeding, and fatigue.
Symptoms of gross overdose with Panax ginseng may include nausea, vomiting, irritability,
restlessness, urinary and bowel incontinence, fever, increased blood pressure, increased
respiration, decreased sensitivity and reaction to light, decreased heart rate, cyanotic (blue)
facial complexion, red facial complexion, seizures, convulsions, and delirium.

Patients experiencing any of the above symptoms are advised to discontinue the herbs and
seek any necessary symptomatic treatment, as well as medical advice in severe cases.

Classification

Red ginseng
Red ginseng (traditional Chinese: 紅蔘; simplified Chinese: 红参; pinyin: hóng shēn; Hangul:
홍삼; Hanja: 紅蔘; RR: hong-sam), P. ginseng, has been peeled, heated through steaming at
standard boiling temperatures of 100 °C (212 °F), and then dried or sun-dried. It is frequently
marinated in an herbal brew which results in the root becoming extremely brittle.

Fresh ginseng
Fresh ginseng is the raw product. Its use is limited by availability.

White ginseng
White ginseng, native to America, is fresh ginseng which has been dried without being heated. It
is peeled and dried to reduce the water content to 12% or less. White ginseng air-dried in the
sun may contain less of the therapeutic constituents. It is thought by some that enzymes
contained in the root break down these constituents in the process of drying. Drying in the sun
bleaches the root to a yellowish-white color.

Wild ginseng
Harvested ginseng in Germany
Wild ginseng grows naturally and is harvested from wherever it is found. It is relatively rare, and
even increasingly endangered, due in large part to high demand for the product in recent years,
which has led to the wild plants being sought out and harvested faster than new ones can grow
(it requires years for a root to reach maturity). Wild ginseng can be either Asian or American,
and can be processed to be red ginseng.

Woods-grown American ginseng programs in Vermont, Maine, Tennessee, Virginia, North

Carolina, Colorado, West Virginia and Kentucky, and United Plant Savers have been
encouraging the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure
from any remaining wild ginseng, and they offer both advice and sources of rootlets.
Woods-grown plants have a value comparable to wild-grown ginseng of similar age.

Partially germinated ginseng seeds harvested the previous Fall can be planted from early
Spring until late Fall, and will sprout the following Spring. If planted in a wild setting and left to
their own devices, they will develop into mature plants which cannot be distinguished from
native wild plants. Both Asian and American partially germinated ginseng seeds can be bought
from May through December on various eBay sales. Some seed sales come with planting and
growing instructions.

P. quinquefolius American ginseng (root)

Originally, American ginseng was imported into China via subtropical Guangzhou, the seaport
next to Hong Kong, so Chinese doctors believed American ginseng must be good for yang,
because it came from a hot area. They did not know, however, that American ginseng can only
grow in temperate regions. Nonetheless, the root is legitimately classified as more yin because
it generates fluids.

Most North American ginseng is produced in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and British
Columbia and the American state of Wisconsin. P. quinquefolius is now also grown in northern
China.

The aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows 6″ to 18″
tall, usually bearing three leaves, each with three to five leaflets two to five inches long.

Samovar

Russian samovar

A samovar (Russian: самовар, IPA: [səmɐˈvar] ( listen); literally "self-boil", Azerbaijani:

samovar, Turkish: semaver) is a heated metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water
in and around Russia as well as in other countries: in Central Europe, South-Eastern Europe ,
the Eastern Europe, Iran, Kashmir and the Middle-East. Since the heated water is typically used
to make tea, many samovars have a ring-shaped attachment (Russian: конфорка) around the
chimney to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate.

Though traditionally heated with coal or charcoal, many newer samovars use electricity to heat
water in a manner similar to an electric water boiler. Antique samovars are often prized for their
beautiful workmanship.

Samovars are typically crafted out of plain iron, copper, polished brass, bronze, silver, gold, tin,
or nickel. A typical samovar consists of a body, base and chimney, cover and steam vent,
handles, faucet and key, crown and ring, chimney extension and cap, drip-bowl, and teapot. The
body shape can be an urn, krater, barrel, cylinder, or sphere. Sizes and designs vary, from
large, "40-pail" ones holding 400 litres (110 US gal) to those of a modest 1 litre (0.26 US gal)
size.[citation needed]
A traditional samovar consists of a large metal container with a faucet near the bottom and a
metal pipe running vertically through the middle. The pipe is filled with solid fuel which is ignited
to heat the water in the surrounding container. A small (6 to 8 inches) smoke-stack is put on the
top to ensure draft. After the water boils and the fire is extinguished, the smoke-stack can be
removed and a teapot placed on top to be heated by the rising hot air. The teapot is used to
brew a strong concentrate of tea known as заварка (zavarka). The tea is served by diluting this
concentrate with кипяток (kipyatok) (boiled water) from the main container, usually at a
water:tea ratio of 10:1, although tastes vary.

History

The first historically recorded samovar-makers in Russia were the Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan
Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich. From their childhood they were engaged in metalworking
at the brass factory of their father, Fyodor Ivanovich Lisitsyn. In 1778 they made a samovar, and
the same year Nazar Lisitsyn registered the first samovar-making factory in Russia. They may
not have been the inventors of the samovar, but they were the first documented
samovar-makers, and their various and beautiful samovar designs became very influential
throughout the later history of samovar-making.[2][3] These and other early producers lived in
Tula, a city known for its metalworkers and arms-makers. Since the 18th century Tula has been
also the main center of Russian samovar production, with tul'sky samovar being the brand mark
of the city. A Russian saying equivalent to "carrying coal to Newcastle" is "to travel to Tula with
one's own samovar". By the 19th century samovars were already a common feature of Russian
tea culture. They were produced in large numbers and exported to Central Asia and other
regions.

The samovar was an important attribute of a Russian household and particularly well-suited to
tea-drinking in a communal setting over a protracted time period. The Russian expression "to
have a sit by the samovar" means to have a leisurely talk while drinking tea from a samovar.
This compares with the German Kaffeeklatsch, Swedish fika or Turkish nargile culture.

In everyday use samovars were an economical permanent source of hot water in older times.
Various slow-burning items could be used for fuel, such as charcoal or dry pinecones. When not
in use, the fire in the samovar pipe faintly smoldered. As needed it could be quickly rekindled
with the help of bellows. Although a Russian jackboot сапог (sapog) could be used for this
purpose, bellows were manufactured specifically for use on samovars.

Iran

Samovar culture has an analog in Iran and is maintained by expatriates around the world. In
Iran, samovars have been used for at least two centuries (roughly since the era of close political
and ethnic contact between Russia and Iran started), and electrical, oil-burning or natural
gas-consuming samovars are still common. Samovar is pronounced samāvar in Persian. Iranian
craftsmen used Persian art motifs in their samovar production. The Iranian city of Borujerd has
been the main centre of samovar production and a few workshops still produce hand-made
samovars. Borujerd's samovars are often made with German silver, in keeping with the famous
Varsho-Sazi artistic style. The art samovars of Borujerd are often displayed in Iranian and
Western museums as illustrations of Iranian art and handicraft.

Kashmir

A samovar (Kashmiri: samavar) is a traditional Kashmiri kettle used to brew, boil and serve
Kashmiri salted tea (Noon Chai) and kahwa. Kashmiri samovars are made of copper with
engraved or embossed calligraphic motifs. In fact in Kashmir, there were two variants of
Samovar. The copper Samovar was used by Muslims and that of Brass was used by local
Hindus called Kashmiri Pandit. The brass Samovars were nickel-plated inside. Inside a samovar
there is a fire-container in which charcoal and live coals are placed. Around the fire-container
there is a space for water to boil. Tea leaves, sugar, cardamom, and cinnamon are put into the
water.

Teas for Rest and Get Some Sleep

● Chamomile (with Anise)
● Eleuthero​ (Tension Tamer)
● Lotus

Chamomile

Chamomile

Chamomile or camomile (/ˈkæməˌmaɪl, -ˌmiːl/ kam-ə-myl or kam-ə-meel) is the common name

for several daisy-like plants of the family Asteraceae that are commonly used to make herb
infusions to serve various medicinal purposes. Popular uses of chamomile preparations include
treating hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers,
gastrointestinal disorders, and haemorrhoids. Camomile tea is also used to treat skin conditions
such as eczema, chickenpox and psoriasis.

Etymology

The word "chamomile" derives, via French and Latin, from Greek χαμαίμηλον (khamaimēlon),
i.e. "earth apple", from χαμαί (khamai) "on the ground" and μῆλον (mēlon) "apple". The more
common British spelling "camomile," is the older one in English, while the spelling "chamomile"
corresponds to the Latin and Greek source. The spelling camomile more accurately
corresponds to the more immediate derivation from French.

Medical use
German Chamomile has been used for treatment of inflammation associated with hemorrhoids
when topically applied. There is level B evidence that German chamomile possesses
anti-anxiety properties and could be used to treat stress and insomnia.

Pharmacology
Major chemical compounds present within chamomile include apigenin and alpha-bisabolol.
Other compounds in chamomile include: sesquiterpenes, terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins
such as herniarin and umbelliferone, phenylpropanoids such as chlorogenic acid and caffeic
acid, flavones such as apigenin and luteolin, flavanols such as quercetin and rutin, and
polyacetylenes. Apigenin has demonstrated chemopreventive effects against cancer cells in the
laboratory, and alpha-bisabolol has been shown to have antiseptic properties, anti-inflammatory
properties, and reduces pepsin secretion without altering secretion of stomach acid.

Anticancer effect – Studies have shown that chamomile extracts have in vitro growth inhibitory
effects on cancer cells in skin, prostate, breast, ovarian, prostate cancer cell lines with minimal
effects on normal cells.

Anticoagulant effect – Coumarin compounds in chamomile such as herniarin and umbelliferone

may have blood-thinning properties. However, the mechanism is not well understood.

Antiinflammatory effect – Several chemical constituents of chamomile such as bisabolol,

chamazulene, apigenin, and luteolin possess anti-inflammatory properties although the exact
mechanism is not well characterized.

Antispasmodic/antidiarrheal effects – Bisabolol and flavonoids have demonstrated

antispasmodic effects in animal experiments. In human studies, chamomile tea in combination
with other herbs (vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) was shown to be effective in treating colic
in children. Flavonoids and coumarins are considered smooth muscle relaxants.

CNS/sensory effects - Chemical compounds present within chamomile bind to GABA receptors,
modulate monoamine neurotransmission, and have neuroendocrine effects.

Drug interactions
Apigenin and other compounds may interact with medications causing drug-drug interactions,
some of the possible interactions include those with antiplatelet agents, anticoagulant agents,
and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Apigenin was found to interact with antiarrhythmic
agents and antihypertensive agents in animal research. Other interactions include those against
sedative agents, antibiotic agents, and anti-anxiety agents. Remarkable symptoms are
exacerbation of effects of these agents that are used in combination with chamomile.

Adverse reactions
People who are allergic to ragweed (also in the daisy family) may also be allergic to chamomile,
due to cross-reactivity. However, there is still some debate as to whether people with reported
allergies to chamomile were actually exposed to chamomile and not a plant of similar
appearance.

Pregnancy / Lactation
Because chamomile has been known to cause uterine contractions that can invoke miscarriage,
the U.S. National Institutes of Health recommends that pregnant and nursing mothers not
consume Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile).

Cosmetic applications
Chamomile is frequently added to skin cosmetics to serve as an emollient, and for its
anti-inflammatory effects. Chamomile is also often used to enhance the color of blonde hair.

Agriculture
The chamomile plant is known to be susceptible to many fungi, insects, and viruses. Fungi such
as Albugo tragopogonis (white rust), Cylindrosporium matricariae, Erysiphe cichoracearum
(powdery mildew), and Sphaerotheca macularis (powdery mildew) are known pathogens of the
chamomile plant. Aphids have been observed feeding on chamomile plants and the moth
Autographa chryson causes defoliation.

Eleuthero

Eleutherococcus senticosus is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to
Northeastern Asia. It is often colloquially referred to as Siberian ginseng, eleuthero or ciwujia. E.
senticosus has a history of use in traditional Chinese medicine where it is known as cì wǔ jiā (刺
五加).[1] In regard to the species's scientific name, Eleutherococcus (from Greek) means
"free-berried," and senticosus, from the Latin word sentis (thorn-bush, briar) is an adjective
meaning "thorny" or "full of briers or thorns."

Synonyms

Eleutherococcus senticosus has been marketed in the United States as Siberian Ginseng
because it is believed to have similar herbal properties to those of Panax ginseng. It belongs,
however, to a different genus in the family Araliaceae, and it is currently illegal in the United
States to market eleuthero as Siberian Ginseng, since the term "ginseng" is reserved for the
Panax species.

Growth
The herb grows in mixed and coniferous mountain forests, forming low undergrowth or is found
in groups in thickets and edges. Eleutherococcus senticosus is sometimes found in oak groves
at the foot of cliffs, very rarely in high forest riparian woodland. Its native habitat is East Asia,
China, Japan, and Russia. E. senticosus is broadly tolerant of soils, growing in sandy, loamy,
and heavy clay soils with acid, neutral, or alkaline chemistry and including soils of low nutritional
value. It can tolerate sun or dappled shade and some degree of pollution. E. senticosus is a
deciduous shrub growing to 2m at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 3. It flowers in July in most
habitats. The flowers are hermaphroditic and are pollinated by insects.

Alternative medicine

Eleutherococcus senticosus is promoted for having a wide range of health benefits, including
boosting mental performance and making chemotherapy more effective; such claims are,
however, not supported by Western medical evidence.

In Chinese herbology, Eleutherococcus senticosus is used in an attempt to treat bone marrow

suppression caused by cancer chemotherapy or radiation, angina, hypercholesterolemia, and
neurasthenia with headache, insomnia, and poor appetite.

Chemical constituents
The major constituents of Eleutherococcus senticosus are ciwujianoside A-E, eleutheroside B
(syringin), eleutherosides A-M, friedelin, and isofraxidin.

Lotus

J Agric Food Chem. 2015 Oct 28;63(42):9277-85. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04141. Epub 2015
Oct 16.
Lotus Leaf Alkaloid Extract Displays Sedative-Hypnotic and Anxiolytic Effects through GABAA
Receptor.
Yan MZ1,2, Chang Q1, Zhong Y1,2, Xiao BX1, Feng L1, Cao FR1, Pan RL1, Zhang ZS2, Liao
YH1, Liu XM1.
Author information
Abstract
Lotus leaves have been used traditionally as both food and herbal medicine in Asia. Open-field,
sodium pentobarbital-induced sleeping and light/dark box tests were used to evaluate
sedative-hypnotic and anxiolytic effects of the total alkaloids (TA) extracted from the herb, and
the neurotransmitter levels in the brain were determined by ultrafast liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The effects of picrotoxin, flumazenil, and
bicuculline on the hypnotic activity of TA, as well as the influence of TA on Cl(-) influx in
cerebellar granule cells, were also investigated. TA showed a sedative-hypnotic effect by
increasing the brain level of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and the hypnotic effect could be
blocked by picrotoxin and bicuculline, but could not be antagonized by flumazenil. Additionally,
TA could increase Cl(-) influx in cerebellar granule cells. TA at 20 mg/kg induced anxiolytic-like
effects and significantly increased the concentrations of serotonin (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic
acid (5-HIAA), and dopamine (DA). These data demonstrated that TA exerts sedative-hypnotic
and anxiolytic effects via binding to the GABAA receptor and activating the monoaminergic
system.
Sweeteners

Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig. 2015;66(3):195-202.

Natural sweeteners in a human diet.
Grembecka M1.
Author information
Abstract
Sweeteners, both natural and artificial, play an important role in a human diet as well as are of
great importance to the food industry and dieticians. Many people associate sweet taste with
sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar. However, there are many sweet substances
that food manufacturers add to food products because none of them is ideal for all applications.
Besides sucrose there are also other sugars such as glucose and fructose that originate both
from natural sources such as fruits and honey or from added sugars. Among sweeteners there
are also compounds which have a sweet taste and contain no calories or those which
sweetness is so intense so can be used at very low concentrations, thus, their impact on the
total caloric value of the product is negligible. They can be classified due to their origin (natural
or synthetic agents), the technological function (sweeteners and fillers), texture (powders and
syrups), and nutritional value (caloric and non-caloric). Natural sweetening substances include
carbohydrates, sugar alcohols, thaumatin and stevia. Besides providing well tasting foods, they
might have an impact on products' texture, color, preservation and caloric value. Sugar alcohols,
which belong to carbohydrates, are both natural sugar substitutes and food additives. They are
becoming more and more popular among consumers mainly due to their lower caloric values
and glycemic indexes as well as anticariogenic effects. Sugar alcohols are often combined with
other sweeteners to enhance food products' sweetness. Stevia, which is 200 times sweeter than
sucrose, is a non caloric substance whereas thaumatin, a sweet protein, provides 4 kcal/g but
characterizes with sweetness about 2000 times higher than sucrose (on a weight basis).
PMID: 26400114

Indian J Pharmacol. 2016 May-Jun;48(3):237-40. doi: 10.4103/0253-7613.182888.

Artificial sweeteners as a sugar substitute: Are they really safe?
Sharma A1, Amarnath S1, Thulasimani M1, Ramaswamy S1.
Author information
Abstract
Nonnutritive sweeteners (NNS) have become an important part of everyday life and are
increasingly used nowadays in a variety of dietary and medicinal products. They provide fewer
calories and far more intense sweetness than sugar-containing products and are used by a
plethora of population subsets for varying objectives. Six of these agents (aspartame,
saccharine, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame-K, and stevia) have previously received a
generally recognized as safe status from the United States Food and Drug Administration, and
two more (Swingle fruit extract and advantame) have been added in the recent years to this
ever growing list. They are claimed to promote weight loss and deemed safe for consumption by
diabetics; however, there is inconclusive evidence to support most of their uses and some
recent studies even hint that these earlier established benefits regarding NNS use might not be
true. There is a lack of properly designed randomized controlled studies to assess their efficacy
in different populations, whereas observational studies often remain confounded due to reverse
causality and often yield opposite findings. Pregnant and lactating women, children, diabetics,
migraine, and epilepsy patients represent the susceptible population to the adverse effects of
NNS-containing products and should use these products with utmost caution. The overall use of
NNS remains controversial, and consumers should be amply informed about the potential risks
of using them, based on current evidence-based dietary guidelines.

Food Funct. 2016 Apr;7(4):2107-13. doi: 10.1039/c5fo01586c.

Stevia rebaudiana ethanolic extract exerts better antioxidant properties and antiproliferative
effects in tumour cells than its diterpene glycoside stevioside.
López V1, Pérez S1, Vinuesa A2, Zorzetto C3, Abian O4.
Author information
Abstract
Steviol glycosides are currently being used as natural sweeteners by the food industry and
Stevia rebaudiana has long been used as a sweet plant in South America for patients suffering
from diabetes. In this study, a Stevia rebaudiana ethanolic extract (SREE) was prepared,
analysed and tested for antioxidant activity in terms of free radical scavenging properties and
antiproliferative effects in cervix (HeLa), pancreatic (MiaPaCa-2) and colonic (HCT116) cancer
cells. The antiproliferative mechanism was confirmed by testing the effects on cyclin D1-CDK4.
Bioassays were also performed for the diterpene glycoside stevioside. Our results demonstrate
that the extract acts as an antioxidant being able to scavenge free radicals, but this activity was
not due to stevioside. The extract also induced cell death in the three cell lines, being more
active against cervix cancer cells (HeLa); however, the concentration of stevioside needed to
produce antiproliferative effects was higher than the amount of steviol glycosides found in a
lower dose of extract inducing cell death. In addition, the extract clearly inhibited CDK4 whereas
stevioside did not, concluding that the antiproliferative activity of stevia may be due to inhibition
of cyclin-dependent kinases performed by other compounds of the extract.

Front Biosci (Elite Ed). 2016 Jan 1;8:351-7.

Potential biological activity of acacia honey.
Muhammad A1, Odunola OA2, Ibrahim MA3, Sallau AB3, Erukainure OL4, Aimola IA3, Malami
I5.
Author information
Abstract
Recent advances in functional foods-based research have increasingly become an area of
major interest because it affects human health and activities. Functional foods are classes of
foods with health promoting and disease preventing properties in addition to multiple nutritional
values and of such type is honey. Acacia honey is a type of honey produced by bees (Apis
mellifera) fed on Acacia flowers, hence the name. This review focuses on the potential biological
activities of Acacia honey which includes quality, antioxidant, immuno-modulatory,
antiproliferative and neurological properties at in vitro and in vivo levels. Based on our review,
Acacia honey used from various researches is of high purity, contains some bioactive
compounds ranging from vitamins, phenolics, flavonoids and fatty acids. It's highly nutritional
with strong antioxidant and immuno-modulatory potentials which may therefore be considered a
potential candidate for both cancer prevention and treatment. Neurologically, it may be
considered as a viable therapeutic agent in the management of Alzheimer's disease.

Acta Trop. 2016 Feb;154:6-18. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.10.019. Epub 2015 Oct 29.
Plants and other natural products used in the management of oral infections and improvement
of oral health.
Chinsembu KC1.
Author information
Abstract
Challenges of resistance to synthetic antimicrobials have opened new vistas in the search for
natural products. This article rigorously reviews plants and other natural products used in oral
health: Punica granatum L. (pomegranate), Matricaria recutita L. (chamomile), Camellia sinensis
(L.) Kuntze (green tea), chewing sticks made from Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.D.C.,
Diospyros lycioides Desf., and Salvadora persica L. (miswak), honey and propolis from the
manuka tree (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.), rhein from Rheum
rhabarbarum L. (rhubarb), dried fruits of Vitis vinifera L. (raisins), essential oils, probiotics and
mushrooms. Further, the review highlights plants from Africa, Asia, Brazil, Mexico, Europe, and
the Middle East. Some of the plants' antimicrobial properties and chemical principles have been
elucidated. While the use of natural products for oral health is prominent in resource-poor
settings, antimicrobial testing is mainly conducted in the following countries (in decreasing order
of magnitude): India, South Africa, Brazil, Japan, France, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, Kenya,
Switzerland, Nigeria, Australia, Uganda, and the United Kingdom. While the review exposes a
dire gap for more studies on clinical efficacy and toxicity, the following emerging trend was
noted: basic research on plants for oral health is mainly done in Brazil, Europe and Australia.
Brazil, China, India and New Zealand generally conduct value addition of natural products for
fortification of toothpastes. African countries focus on bioprospecting and primary production of
raw plants and other natural products with antimicrobial efficacies. The Middle East and Egypt
predominantly research on plants used as chewing sticks. More research and funding are
needed in the field of natural products for oral health, especially in Africa where oral diseases
are fuelled by human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS).

Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2015 Winter;4(4):162-166.

Persian Traditional Medicine and Ocular Health.
Namdar H1, Emaratkar E1, Hadavand MB1.
Author information
Abstract
The Persian Traditional Medicine (PTM) system pays special attention to disease prevention. In
PTM, physicians believe that overeating may cause accumulation of unhealthy substances in
the body and diseases called "Emtela." With respect to ocular health, foods can be categorized
as beneficial and harmful. Harmful foods such as beef, geese, eggplant, cauliflower, and cheese
can cause reduced vision. Dehydrating foods such as walnut and salty fish and hot foods such
as garlic, onion, and pepper can cause dry eye. Food items that have beneficial effects on
ocular health include thyme and saffron and fruits such as grape, fig, apple, plum, and berries.
PTM stipulates that one should not drink water with meals or immediately afterwards, since
drinking cold (icy) water causes difficulty in absorption of nutrients. Gulping water may have
harmful effects on the eyes; therefore, PTM physicians recommend drinking water at a suitable
temperature. It is not safe to drink water first at the morning. Sleeping right after eating is
harmful too. Avicenna believes that sleeping on one's belly after a full meal is very harmful for
the eyes. Galen says that old people need deep and continuous sleep more than others. From
the view of PTM, moving eyes in different directions, making delicate expressions, trying to look
at delicate and find pictures and reading small letters would remove ocular fatigue. There have
been mentions of local medicine for improving vision as well; for instance, fennel extracts,
pomegranate juice, and honey which are suitable for vision improvement. Local administration
of pomegranate blossoms is suitable for treating inflammatory reactions.

Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Apr;273(4):811-8. doi: 10.1007/s00405-014-3433-4. Epub

2014 Dec 19.
The efficacy of honey for ameliorating pain after tonsillectomy: a meta-analysis.
Hwang SH1, Song JN1, Jeong YM1, Lee YJ1, Kang JM2.
Author information
Abstract
Postoperative pain and wound healing following tonsillectomy can result in dissatisfaction for the
patient. However, there is no consensus on whether postoperatively administered honey
effectively reduces morbidity after tonsillectomy. Therefore, a systematic review with a
meta-analysis of the efficacy of honey as a treatment for postoperative pain and wound healing
was performed. Two authors independently searched the database records (MEDLINE,
SCOPUS, and Cochrane databases) dating from inception to June 2014. Studies comparing
postoperative oral administration of honey with administration of placebo where the outcomes of
interest were pain and wound healing on postoperative days were included. Baseline study
characteristics, study quality, numbers of patients in steroid-treated and control groups, and
treatment outcomes were extracted. Sufficient data for meta-analysis were retrieved from 4 trials
with a total of 264 patients. We analyzed patient-reported pain scores and quantities of
administered analgesics during the first 5 postoperative days. The pain score was significantly
decreased in the honey-treated patients in comparison with the placebo-treated patients on
postoperative day 1 only, but the analgesic intake of the honey-treated patients on the first 5
postoperative days was significantly less than that of the placebo-treated patients. In addition,
honey significantly increased tonsillectomy bed wound healing in comparison with placebo
during the first 2 weeks after surgery. This meta-analysis shows that postoperative
administration of honey after tonsillectomy significantly reduces pain and promotes wound
healing. Further trials comparing honey with good research methodology should be conducted
to confirm these results.
Medicinal Teas
● Dandelion
● Licorice
● Ginger

Dandelion
Nutr Rev. 2012 Sep;70(9):534-47. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00509.x. Epub 2012 Aug 17.
Diverse biological activities of dandelion.
González-Castejón M1, Visioli F, Rodriguez-Casado A.
Author information
1IMDEA Food Institute, CLAID-PCM Building c/Faraday 7, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid,
Spain.
Abstract
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber) is a member of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family,
native to Europe but widely distributed in the warmer temperate zones of the Northern
Hemisphere. Dandelion and its parts are habitually consumed as plant foods in several areas of
the world, where they are also employed in phytotherapy. Indeed, dandelion contains a wide
array of phytochemicals whose biological activities are actively being explored in various areas
of human health. In particular, emerging evidence suggests that dandelion and its constituents
have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities that result in diverse biological effects. The
present review provides a comprehensive analysis of the constituents of dandelion, an
assessment of the pharmacological properties of dandelion, and a description of relevant
studies that support the use of dandelion as a medicinal plant.

Licorice

Acta Pharm Sin B. 2015 Jul;5(4):310-5. doi: 10.1016/j.apsb.2015.05.005. Epub 2015 Jun 17.
The antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice, a widely-used Chinese herb.
Wang L1, Yang R1, Yuan B1, Liu Y1, Liu C1.
Author information
Abstract
Licorice is a common herb which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries.
More than 20 triterpenoids and nearly 300 flavonoids have been isolated from licorice. Recent
studies have shown that these metabolites possess many pharmacological activities, such as
antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and other activities. This paper provides a
summary of the antiviral and antimicrobial activities of licorice. The active components and the
possible mechanisms for these activities are summarized in detail. This review will be helpful for
the further studies of licorice for its potential therapeutic effects as an antiviral or an
antimicrobial agent.
Ginger

Integr Med Insights. 2016 Mar 31;11:11-7. doi: 10.4137/IMI.S36273. eCollection 2016.
The Effectiveness of Ginger in the Prevention of Nausea and Vomiting during Pregnancy and
Chemotherapy.
Lete I1, Allué J2.
Author information
Abstract
The rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (ginger) have been used since ancient times as a traditional
remedy for gastrointestinal complaints. The most active ingredients in ginger are the pungent
principles, particularly gingerols and shogaols. Various preclinical and clinical studies have
evaluated ginger as an effective and safe treatment for nausea and vomiting in the context of
pregnancy and as an adjuvant treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Here,
we provide an update and analysis of ginger use for the prevention of nausea and vomiting, with
a focus on the types and presentations of ginger available. We also examine the
pharmacokinetic properties of ginger and highlight the type and posology of ginger and its
metabolites.

Nutrients. 2016 Mar 10;8(3):156. doi: 10.3390/nu8030156.

Dietary Natural Products for Prevention and Treatment of Liver Cancer.
Zhou Y1, Li Y2, Zhou T3, Zheng J4, Li S5, Li HB6,7.
Author information
Abstract
Liver cancer is the most common malignancy of the digestive system with high death rate.
Accumulating evidences suggests that many dietary natural products are potential sources for
prevention and treatment of liver cancer, such as grapes, black currant, plum, pomegranate,
cruciferous vegetables, French beans, tomatoes, asparagus, garlic, turmeric, ginger, soy, rice
bran, and some edible macro-fungi. These dietary natural products and their active components
could affect the development and progression of liver cancer in various ways, such as inhibiting
tumor cell growth and metastasis, protecting against liver carcinogens, immunomodulating and
enhancing effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. This review summarizes the potential prevention
and treatment activities of dietary natural products and their major bioactive constituents on liver
cancer, and discusses possible mechanisms of action.

Additions
Black tea is often taken with milk
Tea is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water. These can be grouped into
flavourings added to the tea in processing before sale and those added during preparation or
drinking. The former are often floral, herbal or spice flavourings and the latter include milk,
sugar, lemon, among other things.

Milk
The addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolist Madame de
Sévigné. Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are
consumed. These include Indian masala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very
hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East
Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity. The Han
Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but the Manchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty
of the Chinese Empire continued to do so. Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British colonial
habits. Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk or yak butter and
salt. In Eastern European countries (Russia, Poland and Hungary) and in Italy, tea is commonly
served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea with milk is called a bawarka ("Bavarian style"), and is
often drunk by pregnant and nursing women. In Australia, tea with milk is white tea.

The order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic, and can vary widely
between cultures or even individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk before the tea, as
the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature the proteins found in fresh milk, similar
to the change in taste of UHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage. Others insist it is
better to add the milk after brewing the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as
possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in
a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of a good tea cannot be fully
appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and also to
ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed.[citation
needed] Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy
enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being
exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk. Higher temperature difference means faster
heat transfer so the earlier you add milk the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in
the European Heart Journal found certain beneficial effects of tea may be lost through the
addition of milk.

Others
Many flavourings are added to varieties of tea during processing. Among the best known are
Chinese jasmine tea, with jasmine oil or flowers, the spices in Indian masala chai, and Earl Grey
tea, which contains oil of bergamot. A great range of modern flavours have been added to these
traditional ones. In eastern India, people also drink lemon tea or lemon masala tea. Lemon tea
simply contains hot tea with lemon juice and sugar. Masala lemon tea contains hot tea with
roasted cumin seed powder, lemon juice, black salt and sugar, which gives it a tangy, spicy
taste. Adding a piece of ginger when brewing tea is a popular habit of Sri Lankans, who also
use other types of spices such as cinnamon to sweeten the aroma.

Other popular additives to tea by the tea-brewer or drinker include sugar, liquid honey or a solid
Honey Drop, agave nectar, fruit jams, and mint. In China, sweetening tea was traditionally
regarded as a feminine practice. In colder regions, such as Mongolia, Tibet and Nepal, butter is
added to provide necessary calories. Tibetan butter tea contains rock salt and dre, a butter
made from yak milk, which is churned vigorously in a cylindrical vessel closely resembling a
butter churn. The same may be said for salt tea, which is popular in the Hindu Kush region of
northern Pakistan.

Pouring from height

The flavour of the tea can also be altered by pouring it from different heights, resulting in varying
degrees of aeration. The art of elevated pouring is used principally by people in Northern Africa
(e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya and Western Sahara), but also in West Africa (e.g.
Guinea, Mali, Senegal) and can positively alter the flavour of the tea, but it is more likely a
technique to cool the beverage destined to be consumed immediately. In certain cultures, the
tea is given different names depending on the height from which it is poured.

In Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore and Malaysia, the practice of pouring tea from a
height has been refined further using black tea to which condensed milk is added, poured from
a height from one cup to another several times in alternating fashion and in quick succession, to
create a tea with entrapped air bubbles creating a frothy "head" in the cup. This beverage, teh
tarik, literally, "pulled tea" (which has its origin as a hot Indian tea beverage), has a creamier
taste than flat milk tea and is extremely popular in the region. Tea pouring in Malaysia has been
further developed into an art form.

Thanks for reading!

About William Jiang, MLS

Will is the author of more than 45 popular Kindle books in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and
French which have gone to #1 in the USA and have sold in Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain,
Mexico, Argentina, France, Germany, India, Australia, Italy, and Japan. He is a former
Columbia University/NYSPI Medical Library Chief, designer, and he is a speaker of English,
Spanish, French, and Portuguese.

Mr. Jiang's critically-acclaimed autobiography is A ​ Schizophrenic Will: A Story of Madness, A

Story of Hope​. Mr Jiang and his intense 20+ year struggle with schizophrenia is iconoclastic
because he challenges us to think differently about stereotypes of mental illness. His peers
would be world movers like Philip K. Dick, John Nash, and Elyn Saks. Most movies and media
news paint one-dimensional, thinly drawn caricatures of mentally ill people, instilling fear.
Refreshingly, words that could describe Mr. Jiang's life and work include: brilliant, passionate,
artistic, profound, knowledgeable, inspirational, and even "wise teacher". Mr. Jiang's magnum
opus in the field of psychiatry is ​Guide to Natural Mental Health: Anxiety, Bipolar, Depression,
Schizophrenia, and Digital Addiction: Nutrition, and Complementary Therapies​ where Mr. Jiang
shares deep insights into non-pharmaceutical natural strategies that are all-too-needed in this
world of Big Macs and XBoxes.

William Jiang BA MLS Mental Health Author and Advocate

Follow on Facebook: ​https://www.facebook.com/william.jiang.39
Facebook Group: ​Living Well With Schizophrenia
Author Blog: ​http://www.mentalhealthbooks.net

45+ Books by William Jiang, MLS in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese
Kindle Books in English

World Traveller Social Travel Guides

● Have Fun in Paris: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)
● Have Fun in London: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)
● Have Fun in New York A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Connection)
● Have Fun in Rio de Janeiro: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)
● Have Fun in Madrid: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)
● Have Fun in Miami: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)
● Have Fun in Boston: A Guide to the Living City (Have Fun World Collection)

About Health

● A Schizophrenic Will: A Story of Madness, A Story of Hope

● Guide to Natural Mental Health: Anxiety, Bipolar, Depression, Schizophrenia, and Digital
Addiction: Nutrition, and Complementary Therapies, 3rd edition
● Guide to Natural Intelligence Enhancement: The Medical Librarian's Annotated Guide
● Natural Weight Loss and Diabetes Control: The Medical Librarian's Annotated Guide
● The Medical Librarian's Guide to the Best Medicine in America
● The Medical Librarian's Guide to Better Sex and Health for Men Over 40
● A is for Anger: How to Cope- The Medical Librarian’s Annotated Guide
● MCS Cure? The Medical Librarian's Guide to Multiple Chemical Sensitivity

Fun Language Guides for English-Speakers

● Tackling Spanish The Easy Way

● Tackling French The Easy Way
● Tackling Portuguese the Easy Way
● Italian for Spanish Speakers

Literature and Poetry

● The Poet of Washington Heights: A Scrapbook of Poetry, Photography, Digital Art, and
Social Media

Kindle Books about Ecommerce - History - Library Science

● How to Shop Online like A Boss: How to do Online Consumer Shopping Right in the
United States
 ● A Historical Reader: The New York Times and Madness, 1851-1922
● The English Virtual Library

Books by William Jiang, MLS in Spanish

De Viajes

● Guía para Divertirse en Nueva York: Conozcan a los Neoyorquinos, Comer en los
Restaurantes Mejores, Hagan Shopping Como un Jefe, Disfruten Eventos Culturales
Fantásticos, y Mucho Más
● Divertirse en Hong Kong: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad
● Divertirse en París: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad
● Divertirse en Miami: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad
● Divertirse en Madrid: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad
● Divertirse en Londres: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad
● Divertirse en Río de Janeiro: Una Guía para Conocer la Vida Social de la Ciudad

Salud y Más

● Entre la Esquizofrenia y Mi Voluntad: Una Historia de Locura y Esperanza​ - Jorge

Alvarado, Traductor
● La guía del Bibliotecario Médico: Ansiedad, Depresión, Bipolar, y Esquizofrenia:
Nutrición y Terapias Complementarias​, Jorge Alvarado, Traductor
● Inglés Fácilmente
● La Guía del Bibliotecario Médico: Sobre las Ciberadicciones
● La Guía del Bibliotecario Médico: la Mejor Medicina en los Estados Unidos
● Guía para Divertirse en Nueva York: Conozcan a los Neoyorquinos, Comer en los
Restaurantes Mejores, Hagan Shopping Como un Jefe, Disfruten Eventos Culturales
Fantásticos, y Mucho Más
● Tratamiento de SQM La Guía del Bibliotecario Médico Sobre la Sensibilidad Química
Múltiple

Books by William Jiang, MLS in French

● Un Homme New Yorkais avec la Schizophrénie: Une Autobiographie

Books by William Jiang, MLS in Portuguese

● Divirta-se em Nova York: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade

● Divirta-se em Londres: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade
 ● Divirta-se em Paris: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade
● Divirta-se em Hong Kong: Um Guia para S ​ ocializar-se​ na Cidade
● Divirta-se no Rio de Janeiro: Um Guia para S​ ocializar-se​ na Cidade
● Divirta-se em Madri: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade
● Divirta-se em Miami: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade
● Divirta-se em Boston: Um Guia para ​Socializar-se​ na Cidade

A Book Teaser...

Guide to Natural Mental Health:

Anxiety, Bipolar, Depression, Schizophrenia, and Digital Addiction:
Nutrition, and Complementary Therapies, 3nd Edition
By William Jiang, MLS
Foreword to the Third Edition
By William Jiang, MLS

Mental illness is still a widespread and serious problem. Currently, the the National Institute for
Mental Health (NIMH) estimates about 26.2 percent of Americans ages 18 and older meet the
criteria for at least one serious mental disorder, more than one in four Americans. According to
another source as of 2014, the incidence of mental illness has doubled for children since the
nineties. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that by the year 2020, depression will
be the second most common cause of disability and premature death worldwide.

The statistics are grim and the problem is real and growing, but what can we do? This book
tackles that very question for those who are currently suffering and those who may wish to
avoid serious mental problems in the future. The good news is there is hope for many to better
live with, and for some, completely avoid mental problems. The book is not meant to be seen as
a panacea; rather, it offers strategies to cope with and possibly prevent mental disease that are
backed up by current medical and scientific knowledge.

Although renamed, like the first edition, this book is what librarians call an annotated
bibliography. This annotated bibliography picks the "best" information from the medical
literature, includes commentary as well as the source, title, and abstract of the article from
MEDLINE. In this case, the strength of this particular annotated bibliography is the
concentration of the knowledge of world-class experts from many medical disciplines, all in one
small volume, with​ FREE FULLTEXT f​ or further exploration often available for more in-depth
reading and learning.

This third edition includes the new topic of Digital Addiction. Complementary and alternative
treatments for Digital Addiction are not included as they would most likely resemble a mixture of
treatments for depression and anxiety, mostly. Digital Addiction is included to raise awareness
of the relatively new and increasingly problematic constellation of electronic addictions ranging
from out-of-control texting via cellular telephone to Facebook addiction to video game addiction
and beyond.
To your health!

William Jiang, MLS

I was the Chief Librarian of the New York State Psychiatric Institute Patient and Family Library,
affiliated with Columbia University, for seven years. This book focuses on the knowledge about
Complementary and Alternative Health treatments for select mental issues that I gleaned over
seven years of following the mental health literature during that time. The thrust of the book is
mental health, nutrition, and complementary therapies.

Grandma Was Right

By William Jiang, MLS

Today everything is about Facebook, Twitter, and the PlayStation 3. Yet, the incidence of
autism is rising, the incidence of depression is rising, the incidence of diabetes is rising, and the
incidence of many other illnesses are rising. I’m not saying that grandma knew everything, but
she knew what she was talking about.

Grandma said, “Go out and play!” She was so right! By going out and playing you got: one,
exercise and two, sunshine. Both exercise and sunshine have been shown efficacious for
treating depression once a person has it. Might it also not be a preventative? Kids these days
are eating too many unhealthy foods and playing their Xbox too long. So not only do they not
get exercise or Sun, they compound the problems with unhealthy foods which can cause even
more problems. Childhood obesity rates are through the roof. Johnny, get off the Xbox and go
play some basketball.

Grandma said, “People who live near the equator are happier.” She was so right. It turns out
that people in Scandinavian countries as well as other countries that don’t get enough light
suffer more from seasonal affective disorder which is a type of depression. However, there are
many people in countries that do have enough light that also suffer from a type of seasonal
affective disorder. Because they are in their offices and homes so much they don’t get enough
light, so the outcome is the same. There is an entire field that studies the effects of light on
people’s moods is called chronotherapeutics. It is a young field; but it has been shown that light
has powerful antidepressant properties and in some cases is more efficacious, faster working,
with a much better side effect profile than antidepressant drugs.

Grandma said, “Eat your fish; it's brain food.” Boy was she right! It turns out that the Omega-3 in
fish is not only good for the heart but also for the nervous system and brain. Omega-3s in fish oil
has been shown to be good for mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder;
however, less than a year ago the fish oils were shown to be efficacious in stopping
schizophrenia in its tracks for people who are at high risk of developing it. Finally, fish oil also
seems to have anti-inflammatory properties which can fight against the development of
diabetes.

Grandma said, “Go to sleep, it’s late.” Grandma was right to encourage a healthy sleep
schedule. It has been shown that children who go to sleep later than 10 o’clock at night are
prone to more psychological problems than children who go to sleep earlier. Also, in our
stressful society, it has been shown that people that get less sleep, function worse on the job.
When there is a sleep deficit for many years, it can cause lasting physical problems.

Grandma said, “Eat your veggies.” People do not get enough roughage these days. So, there
are many people who have gastrointestinal problems that might have been prevented. Not only
do the vitamins and minerals in the vegetables promote good health, the roughage is extremely
important for people with bowel disorders. Eating enough fruits and vegetables decreases an
unhealthy appetite so that people can lose unhealthy weight if they are overweight.

Call me a Luddite, but I think it’s time to get back to basics. Don't forget to give granny a call to
thank her for her wisdom.
Digital Addiction

The DSM, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, has been the standard for
psychiatric diagnosis for the psychological and psychiatric communities since the Office of the
US Surgeon General and the US Department of War published the DSM-I as a technical bulletin
in 1952. The DSM was created, in large part, to help mental health workers classify
shellshocked and otherwise mentally ill combat veterans who fought in World War II. The
Current DSM, the DSM-V, was released at the..