9.

7 Vibration in Concrete Structures

9.7.1 Notation span length

ao acceleration limit Po constant force representing walking force

ap peak acceleration w uniform load, per unit length

B width of floor affected by a point load (see wp effective distributed weight of participants
9.7.6.2) per unit area

E dynamic modulus of elasticity static modu-
lus per ACI 318 x 1.2 (see Ref. 2)
f forcing frequency, Hertz (see Table 9.7.3)
fd driving frequency of equipment, Hertz
fn natural frequency of fundamental mode of
vibration, Hertz (cycles per sec)
fstep step frequency
g acceleration due to gravity, 386 in./sec2
(9,800 mm/sec2)
i number of harmonic (see Table 9.7.3)
I gross moment of inertia
k a dimensionless constant (1.3 for dancing,
1.7 for lively concert or sports event, 2.0 for
aerobics)
K a constant, given in Table 9.7.1
wt effective total distributed weight per unit
area (weight of participants plus weight of
floor system)
W weight of floor panel affected by a point load
(see Section 9.7.6.2)
i dynamic coefficient (see Table 9.7.7.2)
modal damping ratio (fraction of critical
damping)
f static deflection of floor system caused by
weight of equipment, including inertial block,
at location of equipment
g instantaneous deflection of a supporting
girder
i static deflection of isolator
j instantaneous simple-span deflection of a
floor panel due to dead load plus actual (not
code) live load

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9.7.2 Human Response to Building
Vibrations
This section is a condensation of the material
contained in Ref. 1, which is based on information in
Refs. 2 to 6.
Limits are stated as a minimum natural fre-
quency of a structural system. These, in turn,
depend on the permissible peak accelerations (as a
fraction of gravitational acceleration), on the mass
engaged during an activity, the degree of continuity
of the floor system, the environment in which the
vibration occurs, the effectiveness of interaction
between connected structural components, and the
degree of damping. Much vibration theory derives
from experience with steel and wood floors. In gen-
eral, floor vibrations are much less likely to be a
problem with stiffer, more massive, concrete floors.
Some building types common in precast con-
struction are not dealt here, because of a lack of
source information. Choice of limits for usage not
listed may be selected, with judgment, from other
types listed here.
It must be emphasized that the calculations pre-
sented are very approximate. The actual natural fre-
quency of a floor can be estimated to a reasonable
degree of accuracy, but the calculation of the
required frequency is based on damping and on
human response, both of which are subject to much
variation. When in doubt about the acceptability of a
proposed floor system, the best way to decide is to
compare it to existing similar systems that are known
to be acceptable or unacceptable, using the same
method of analysis.
9.7.3 Types of Vibration Analysis
Three types of vibration analysis are described.
These analyses differ because the inputs causing
the vibration differ.
9.7.3.1 Walking
As a walking person’s foot touches the floor, a
vibration of the floor system is caused. This
vibration may be annoying to other persons sitting or
lying in the same area, such as an office, a church,
or a residence. Although more than one person may
be walking in the same area at the same time, their
footsteps are normally not synchronized. Therefore,
the analysis is based on the effect of the impact of
the steps of individual walking persons.
9.7.3.2 Rhythmic Activities
In some cases, several or many people may
engage in a coordinated activity that is at least par-
PCI Design Handbook/Sixth Edition
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tially synchronized. Spectators at sporting events,
rock concerts, and other entertainment events often
move in unison in response to music, a cheer, or
other stimuli. The people engaged in the rhythmic
activity have a higher level of tolerance for the
induced vibrations, while those nearby will have a
lower level of tolerance.
9.7.3.3 Mechanical Equipment
Mechanical equipment may produce a constant
impulse at a fixed frequency, causing the structure
to vibrate.
9.7.3.4 Analysis Methods
Each of the three input types described above
requires a somewhat different solution. But, all
require knowledge of an important response
parameter of the floor system, its natural frequency
of vibration.
9.7.3.5 Using Consistent Units
All the equations in this section are
dimensionally correct. Provided one is careful to be
sure that the units used cancel out to produce the
desired units for the answer, a correct result will be
obtained using either customary or SI units.
9.7.4 Natural Frequency of Vibration
The natural frequency of a floor system is
important in determining how human occupants will
perceive vibrations. It has been found that certain
frequencies seem to set up resonance with internal
organs of the human body, making these
frequencies more annoying to people.
The human body is most sensitive to
frequencies in the range of 4 to 8 Hertz (cycles per
sec). This range of natural frequencies is commonly
found for typical floor systems.
9.7.4.1 Computing the Natural Frequency
The natural frequency of a vibrating beam is
determined by the ratio of its mass (or weight) to its
stiffness. The deflection of a simple span beam is
also dependent on its weight and stiffness. A simple
relationship exists between deflection and natural
frequency of a uniformly loaded simple span beam
on rigid supports: [2,3]
g
fn 0.18 (Eq. 9.7.4.1)
j
9–67
Figure 9.7.4.1 Natural frequency of selected floor units

9.7.4.2 Computing Deflection system may then be estimated by the following

formula: [2,3]
The deflection, j , for a uniformly loaded
simple span floor unit is: g
fn 0.18 (Eq. 9.7.4.3)
5w 4 j g
j (Eq. 9.7.4.2)
384EI For concrete floor systems supported on walls,
Many vibration problems are more critical when may be assumed to be zero. For concrete floor
g

the mass (or weight) is low. When computing j, use systems supported by concrete girders, g is nor-
a minimum realistic live load when computing w, not mally small, and is often neglected, unless the gird-
the maximum live load. ers are unusually long or flexible. For concrete floor
For continuous spans of equal length, the units supported on steel beams, the beam deflection
natural frequency is the same as for simple spans. can have a significant effect, and should usually be
During vibration, one span deflects down while the included in computing fn.
adjacent spans deflect upward. An inflection point
exists at the supports, and the deflection and natural 9.7.4.4 Minimum Natural Frequency
frequency are the same as for a simple span.
Floors with natural frequencies lower than 3
For unequal continuous spans, and for partial
Hertz are not recommended, because people may
continuity with supports, the natural frequency may
more readily synchronize their actions at lower
be increased by a small amount. Refs. 2 and 3
frequencies. [3]
suggest how this increase may be computed.
9.7.4.5 Graphs of Natural Frequency
9.7.4.3 Effect of Supporting Girders
Eqs. 9.7.4.1 and 9.7.4.2 may be combined to
The deflection of beams or girders supporting produce the following Eq. 9.7.4.4, for a floor unit on
the floor system also affect the natural frequency of stiff supports:
the floor system. The simple-span deflection, g, of
1.58 Elg
the floor girder may be calculated in the same fn (Eq. 9.7.4.4)
manner as j. The natural frequency of the floor
2 w

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 Figure 9.7.4.1 shows the relation between span When designing concrete floor systems of long-span
and expected natural frequency for various topped or slender proportions, this section may be used to
floor units given in Chapter 2. evaluate their serviceability with respect to
vibrations.
9.7.5 Damping
9.7.6.1 Minimum Natural Frequency
Damping usually is expressed is a fraction or
percent of critical damping. Real building structures An empirical formula, based on resonant effects
have damping from 1 percent to a few percent of of walking, has been developed to determine the
critical. minimum natural frequency of a floor system needed
to prevent disturbing vibrations caused by walking:
9.7.5.1 Types of Damping [4]
K
Damping is not a well understood phenomenon. fn 2.86 ln (Eq. 9.7.6.1)
In the literature, differing methods are used for W
calculation. This section and its references are
based on modal damping. Do not mix values of The constant 2.86 has the units 1/sec.
damping from other sources with damping values in
the equations of this section, as they may be based
on a different calculation method. 9.7.6.2 Effective Weight

The effect of an impact such as a footfall is

9.7.5.2 Estimation of Damping strongly influenced by the mass (or weight) of the
structure affected by the impact. This weight, W, is
Damping of a floor system is highly dependent
normally taken as the unfactored dead load (per
on the non-structural items (partitions, ceilings, furni-
square foot) of the floor units plus some (not full
ture, etc.) present. The modal damping ratio of a
code) live load, multiplied by the span and by a
bare structure can be very low, on the order of 0.01.
width B. For solid or hollow-core slabs, which are
Non-structural elements may increase this, up to
stiff in torsion, it is recommended to take B equal to
0.05.
the span. [2] For double tees, it is recommended to
The results of a vibration analysis are highly
take B varying from 0.8 for 18-in. double tees with
influenced by the choice of the assumed damping,
3-in. topping to 0.6 for 32-in. double tees with 3-in.
which can vary widely. Yet, this choice is based
topping. [5] For continuous spans, W may be
more on judgment than science.
increased 50 percent. [2,3] At an unstiffened edge
of a floor, the width B used for estimating floor
9.7.6 Vibrations Caused by Walking system weight should be halved. [2]
Vibrations caused by walking are seldom a
problem in concrete floor systems because of their 9.7.6.3 Recommended Values
mass and stiffness. When using concrete floor
systems of ordinary proportions, it is usually not The recommended values of K and for use in
necessary to check for vibrations caused by walking. Eq. 9.7.6.1 are given in Table 9.7.6.1 below.

Table 9.7.6.1 Values of K and for use in Eq. 9.7.6.1 (based on Table 3 of Ref. 4)

K
Occupancies Affected by the
Kips kN
Vibrators
0.02a
Offices, Residences, Churches 13 58 0.03b
0.05
c

Shopping Malls 4.5 20 0.02

Outdoor Footbridges 1.8 8 0.01

a. For floors with few non-structural components and furnishings, open work area, and churches.
b. For floors with non-structural components and furnishings, cubicles.
c. For floors with full-height partitions.

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 Table 9.7.7.1 Recommended acceleration limits
Example 9.7.6.1 for rhythmic activities (based on

11/24/04 CJP FINAL PREPRESS REVIEW

Vibrations Caused by Walking Table 2-3, Ref. 2)

Occupancies Affected Acceleration Limit,

by the Vibration Fraction of Gravity, ao/g
Given:
10DT32+2 (see Chapter 2) Office or residential 0.004 – 0.007
Open office area : 60-ft span Dining 0.015 – 0.025
Weightlifting 0.015 – 0.025
Rhythmic activity only 0.04 – 0.07
Problem:
Check for vibration caused by walking.
9.7.7.1 Harmonics
Solution:
Use Eq. 9.7.6.1 to find minimum required fn: A harmonic of a frequency is any higher fre-
quency that is equal to the first or fundamental
frequency multiplied by an integer. If the
K
fn 2.86 ln (Eq. 9.7.6.1) fundamental frequency of a floor system is equal to
W a harmonic of the exciting frequency, resonance
may occur.
Estimate:
0.02 (Table 9.7.6.1)
9.7.7.2 Recommended Minimum Natural
K 13 kips (Table 9.7.6.1) Frequency

Estimate effective weight W: The following design criterion for minimum

w 89 psf + 10 psf assumed natural frequency for a floor subjected to rhythmic
superimposed excitation is based on dynamic response of the floor
system to dynamic loading: [2, 3]
Estimate effective width B 0.6 36 ft:
k i wp
W w (B)( ) 0.099 kips/ft2 (36)(60) fn f 1 (Eq. 9.7.7.1)
ao / g wt
214 kips
Note that in this case, it was not necessary to
See Table 9.7.7.1 for limiting values of ao/g and
convert ft to in., because the ft units cancel out.
Table 9.7.7.2 for i and f.
The computation of the natural frequency of the
Minimum requirement from Eq. 9.7.6.1: floor system fn is done as discussed in Section 9.7.4.
If rhythmic activities take place on the upper floors of
13 a tall building, it is sometimes necessary to take the
fn 2.86 ln 3.18 Hertz elastic shortening of the columns into effect, in a
0.02(214)
manner similar to Eq. 9.7.4.3 for girder flexibility.
This is discussed in Ref 7.
From Figure 9.7.4.1 for a 10DT32+2 with a 60 ft Recommended values for all of the parameters
span, the expected fundamental frequency is 3.8 on the right side of Eq. 9.7.7.1 are given in Tables
Hertz, which is greater than the required minimum 9.7.7.1 and 9.7.7.2, except for wt, which includes the
value of 3.18 Hertz. actual distributed dead weight of the floor system.
Note that Eq. 9.7.7.1 uses the distributed weight wt,
not the total weight of a panel W that was used in
9.7.7 Design for Rhythmic Excitation Eq. 9.7.6.1.
Rhythmic excitation occurs when a group of
people move in unison to a cadence. A resonance 9.7.7.3 Higher Harmonics
can occur when the input frequency is at or near the
fundamental frequency of vibration, and the Eq. 9.7.7.1 will always require a higher natural
fundamental frequency of the floor must be frequency fn than the forcing frequency f. Thus, a
sufficiently higher than the input frequency to crucial decision is the determination of whether the
prevent resonance. forcing frequencies for higher harmonics need be

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Table 9.7.7.2 Estimated loading during rhythmic events (based on Table 5.2, Ref. 3)

Forcing Dynamic Dynamic Load

Weight of Participants,* wp
Activity Frequency Coefficient iw p
f, Hertz psf kPa i psf kPa

Dancing:
First Harmonic 1.5 – 3 12 0.6 0.5 6 0.3

Lively concert or
sports event:
First Harmonic 1.5 – 3 30 1.5 0.25 8 0.4
Second Harmonic 3–5 30 1.5 0.05 1.5 0.07

Jumping exercises:
First Harmonic 2 – 2.75 4 0.2 1.5 6 0.3
Second Harmonic 4 – 5.5 4 0.2 0.6 2.4 0.1
Third Harmonic 6 – 8.25 4 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.02

* Based on maximum density of participants on the occupied area of the floor for commonly encountered conditions. For special events, the
density of participants can be greater.

considered. Eq. 9.7.7.2 gives the peak acceleration floor systems, requiring a stiffer floor than needed
ap/g for a condition of resonance: [3] for supporting gravity loads.

ap 1.3 i wp
(Eq. 9.7.7.2)
g 2 wt
In applying Eq. 9.7.7.2, Ref. 3 recommends a
value for the damping ratio as follows. “Because
participants contribute to the damping, a value of
approximately 0.06 may be used, which is higher
than … for walking vibration.”
If the damping ratio or the total distributed
weight, wt, is high enough, the dynamic load iwp
from Table 9.7.7.2 for higher harmonics may result
in a peak acceleration ap/g within the acceleration
limits ao/g given in Table 9.7.7.1. If this is so, that
harmonic need not be considered.
Most topped or pre-topped concrete floors
weigh 75 psf or more. For these floors, the weight,
wt, is such that the resonant acceleration at the third
harmonic frequency will usually be within limits.
Usually, only the first and second harmonics need
be considered for topped concrete floors.
9.7.7.4 Adjacent Activities
A space with a quiet activity may be located
next to a space with rhythmic activity. In such
cases, it is desirable to have a rigid wall between the
two spaces, supporting the floor system in each
space. If this is not practical, the acceleration limits
for the quiet activity should be used in combination
with the rhythmic loading for the rhythmic activity.
This combination can often be critical for concrete
9.7.8 Stadium Seating
Precast, prestressed concrete seating slabs,
such as that shown in Example 9.7.8.1, are often
used in stadiums and arenas. They are usually
manufactured in units that are two or three seats
wide. Connections are usually provided between the
upper and lower units, to prevent differential
deflection of the adjacent units.
These seating slabs are subjected to rhythmic
excitation, as a crowd responds in unison to a cheer
or song. The response of the seating slabs is
different from that of an ordinary flat floor. The
seating slabs have a three-dimensional nature, and
vibrate and deflect about their weakest principal
axis, as shown in the example. Furthermore, the
bays in stadiums are often of non-uniform width.
This causes each seating slab to have a different
span and thus, a different natural frequency. This
helps to prevent resonance.
Fifty-six different seating slabs made by PCI
members have been examined. All are known to
have satisfactory performance in service. This exam-
ination produced the following recommendations:
1. The slabs should be sufficiently interconnected,
with a minimum of three connections per bay, to
prevent differential deflection between adjacent
units. If people sit on one slab, with their feet
resting on another slab below, they are much
more sensitive to differential deflections of the
two units.

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Example 9.7.8.1
Stadium Seat

Given:
Stadium seat section shown below
fc 5000 psi (Normal Weight Concrete)
E 4031 ksi 1.2 4837 ksi
w 474 lb/ft
Imin 12,422 in.4 on inclined weak axis

Problem:
Find maximum span governed by vibration.

Solution:
Use Eq. 9.7.7.1 to find minimum natural frequency:
k i wp
fn f 1
ao / g wt
where k 1.7 for sports events.
Refer to Tables 9.7.7.1 and 9.7.7.2.

For first harmonic use the following assumptions:

Forcing frequency f 2.5 Hertz (Table 9.7.7.2)

Acceleration limit ao/g 0.06 (Table 9.7.7.1)
Weight of participants wp 30 psf (Table 9.7.7.2)
Dynamic load i w p 8 psf (Table 9.7.7.2)

64
Dynamic load component in weak direction 8 cos31.8°) 36.3 lb/ft
12

64
Total weight (a measure of mass) 474 lb/ft + 30 ft 634 lb/ft
12

Note that the mass is not reduced by cos 31.8 degrees, because mass is the same in all directions.
For bays of uniform width (Figure 9.7.8.1)

1.7 36.3
fn 2.5 1 4.0 Hertz
0.06 634

Find maximum span from Eq. 9.7.4.4:

1.58 EIg 1.58 4837(12,422)(386) 1,047,000
fn 2
max
w 2
max
0.634 /12 2
max
1,047,000 1,047,000
2
max 261,750 in.2
fn 4.0
max 261,750 512 in. 43 ft

For bays of non-uniform width (Figure 9.7.8.1), assume fn 0.75(4) 3 Hertz

1,047,000
max 591 in. 49 ft
3.0

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Figure 9.7.8.1 Uniform and non-uniform width
bays in a stadium
2. For bays of uniform width with an angle in plan,
, less than 5 degrees (see Figure 9.7.8.1), the
minimum natural frequency requirement for the
first harmonic should be satisfied. For bays of
non-uniform width with an angle in plan, , of 5
degrees or more, the minimum frequency
compressor weight might be needed. For high
pressure fans, one to five times the fan weight is
usually sufficient.
A floor supporting resiliently mounted
equipment must be stiffer than the isolation system.
If the static deflection of the floor approaches the
static deflection of the mounts, the floor becomes a
part of the vibrating system, and little vibration
isolation is achieved. In general, the floor deflection
should be limited to about 15 percent of the
deflection of the mounts.
Simplified theory shows that for 90 percent
vibration isolation, a single resilient supported mass
(isolator) should have a natural frequency of about
one-third the driving frequency of the equipment.
The natural frequency of this mass can be
calculated by: [8]
g
fn 0.16 (Eq. 9.7.9.1)
i
From the above, the required static deflection of
an isolator can be determined as follows:
fd g
fn 0.16
3
i

requirement may be reduced 25 percent. g

or i 0.23 (Eq. 9.7.9.2)
fd2
3. For interconnected units, the minimum natural
frequency requirement for the second harmonic and f 0.15 i (Eq. 9.7.9.3)
need not be applied. Apparently, vibration in a
diagonal plane caused by the second harmonic
of the input motion is not occurring in these Example 9.7.9
seating slabs. Vibration Isolation

9.7.9 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical

Equipment Given:
A piece of mechanical equipment has a
Vibration produced by equipment with unbal- driving frequency of 800 cycles per min.
anced operating or starting forces can usually be
isolated from the structure by mounting on a heavy Problem:
concrete slab placed on resilient supports. This type Determine the approximate minimum
of slab, called an inertia block, provides a low center deflection of the isolator and the maximum
of gravity to compensate for thrusts, such as those deflection of the floor system that should be
generated by large fans. allowed.
For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a
“housekeeping” slab is sometimes used below the Solution:
resilient mounts to provide a rigid support for the
Use Eq. 9.7.9.2:
mounts and to keep them above the floor so they
are easier to clean and inspect. This slab may also fd 800/60 13.33 Hertz
be mounted on pads of precompressed glass fiber g 386 in./ sec 2
i 0.23 0.23
or neoprene. (fd )2 (13.33 Hertz)2
The natural frequency of the total load on
0.50 in.
resilient mounts must be well below the frequency i

generated by the equipment. The required weight of

an inertia block depends on the total weight of the From Eq. 9.7.9.3:
machine and the unbalanced force. For a long- f 0.15(0.5) 0.075 in.
stroke compressor, five to seven times the

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9.7.10 References
1. Mast, R. F., “Vibration of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Floors,” PCI JOURNAL, V. 46, No. 6,
November-December 2001, pp. 76-86.
2. ATC, ATC Design Guide 1, Minimizing Floor
Vibration, Applied Technology Council,
Redwood City, CA, 1999, 49 pp.
3. AISC/CISC, Steel Design Guide Series 11.
Floor Vibrations Due to Human Activity,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chi-
cago, IL, 1997.
4. Allen, D. E., and Murray, T. M., “Design
Criterion for Vibrations Due to Walking,”
Engineering Journal, Fourth Quarter, 1993,
American Institute of Steel Construction, pp.
117-129.
9–74 PCI Design Handbook/Sixth Edition
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
5. Chen, Y., and Aswad, A., “Vibration Character-
istics of Double Tee Building Floors,” PCI
JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 1, January-February
1994, pp. 84-95.
6. Murray, T. M., “Floor Vibrations: Tips for
Designers of Office Buildings,” Structure, Fall
2000, National Council of Structural Engineers,
Washington, DC, pp. 26-30.
7. Allen, D. E., “Building Vibration From Human
Activities,” Concrete International, V. 12, No. 6,
June 1990, pp. 66-73.
8. Harris, C. M., and Crede, C. E., Shock and
Vibration Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1976.