Chapter 1

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

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Fundamentals of Organization Behavior

1. Introduction :

 Definition - The study and application of knowledge of how people act or

behave within the organization. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in
all types of organization such as business, government, schools and service
organizations – Keith Davis and John Newstorm.

 Goals of Organizational Behavior

 To describe systematically how people behave under variety of
conditions
 To understand why people behave as they do
 To predict future employee behavior
 To control at least partially and develop some human activity at work

 Why Study Organizational Behavior?

 Allow People understand, analyze, and describe behavior in
organizations
 Allow Managers to improve, enhance, or change work behaviors so that
individuals, groups and whole organizations ca n achieve goals.

2. Understanding Organizational Behavior :

 Key Elements /Forces affecting Organizational Behavior

A. People - Make up the internal system of Organizations. This system is

consisting of individuals and groups. Groups are dynamic, they form

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 ,change and disband while people are living, thinking, feelings who
work in the organization to achieve their objectives
B. Structure - Defines the formal relationship and use of people in
organizations. Different jobs are required to accomplish all of an
organization’s activities.
C. Technology - Provides the resources with which people work and
affects the task that they perform. Allows people to do more and work
better but increased in technological advancements increased pressure
on OB to maintain the delicate balance between technical and social
systems
D. Environment - All organizations operate with an internal and external
environment and a single organization does not exist alone. Its part of
larger system that contains may other elements such as government,
family and other organizations. Numerous changes in the organizations
such as Globalizations demands changes to survive in the competition
of resources, power, market etc.

 2 Basic Concepts of Organizational Behavior

A. Nature People

a. Individual Differences - Each person is substantially different

from all others in terms of their personalities, needs and etc.
b. Perception - is the unique way in which each person sees,
organizes and interprets things based on their background of
individual differences
c. Whole Person - People function as total human beings
d. Motivated Behavior - Individual’s behavior are guided by their
needs and the consequences that results from their acts

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 e. Desire to involve - Many employees actively seek opportunities at
work to become involved in relevant decisions, thereby contributing
their talents and ideas to the organization’s success.
f. Value of person -People want to be treated with care, dignity
and respect and increasingly they are demanding such treatment
from their employers

B. Nature of Organization

a. Social System - Sociology tells that organizations are social

systems. Just have people have psychological needs they also have
social roles and status. Their behavior is influenced by their group as
well as their by their individual drives
b. Mutual Interest – Organizations need people, and people need
organizations. Organizations have a human purpose and are formed
or maintained on the basis of mutuality of interest.
c. Ethics – is the use of moral principles and values to affect the
behavior of individuals and organizations with regard to choices
between what is right and wrong. In order to ensure a higher
standard of ethical performance by managers and employees
companies have established codes of ethics, publicized statements
of ethical values and set up internal procedures to handle
misconduct.

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 Historical Development of Organizational Behavior

By looking back at the history of organizational behavior, you gain a great deal of insight
into how the field got to where it is today. Three individuals are important who promoted
ideas which had major influence in shaping the direction and boundaries of
Organizational Behavior (OB). They are: Adam Smith, Charles Babbage and Robert
Owen.

Adam Smith, in his discussion made in “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776, brilliantly
argued on the economic advantage that organization and society would reap from the
division of labor — called work application in an industry. He illustrated it with the help
of an application in an industry. He concluded that division of labor raises the
productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity by saving time that is
commonly lost in changing tasks and by encouraging the creation of labor saving
inventions and machinery. The result of his theory was seen in 20th century in the form
of extensive development of assembly — line production process.

Charles Babbage, a British mathematics professor, in his book, “On the Economy of
machinery and manufacturer” published in 1832 added to Smith’s list of the advantage
that accrued from division of labor, the following:

i. It reduces the time needed for learning a job.

ii. It reduces the waste of material during the learning stage

iii. It allows for the attainment of high skill levels.

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iv. It allows a more careful matching of people’s skills and physical abilities with specific
tasks.

Babbage also proposed that the economics from specialization should be as relevant to
doing mental work as physical labor . This is reflected in industry in the form of
specialization in accounting, taxation, marketing and organizational behavior.

Robert Owen, a Welsh entrepreneur, was one of the first industrialists to recognize
how the growing factory system was demeaning workers. He argued that money spent
on improving labor was one of the best investments that business executives can make.
He argued for regulating hours of work for all, child labor too, public education, company
furnished meals at work and business involvement in community projects.

1. Classical Era

 It covered the period from 1900 to 1930 approximately when the first general
theory of management began to evolve. The major contributors were Fredric
Taylor, Henry Fayol, Max Weber, Mary Parker Follett and Chester Barnard.

2. Scientific Management

 It was Fredric Taylor who noticed that employees use vastly different techniques
to do the same job — which he improved. At his time, there were no clear
responsibilities laid for workers and management. The work done by workers was
very slow. Worker’s output never matched their abilities and attitudes. No
effective work standards existed. Taylor made a mental revolution among both
the workers and management by defining clear guidelines for improving
production efficiency. The four principles of management that he defined are as
follows:

a. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work.

b. Scientifically select, train, teach and develop the worker.

c. Cooperate with the workers heartily so as to ensure that all work to be done is in
accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.

d. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers

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Administrative Theory

 Describes efforts to define the universal functions that managers perform and
principles that constitutes good management practices. The major contribution to
this theory was that of a French industrialist. Henry Fayol

Fayol proposed that all managers perform five management functions: Planning,
Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling. In addition, he described the
practice of management as something distinct from accounting, finance, production,
distribution and so on. He proposed 14 principles of management as below:

i. Division of labour : Specialization increases output by making employees more

efficient.

ii. Authority: Authority gives management the right to order. Authority goes with
responsibility.

iii. Discipline: Employee must obey and respect the rules. Good discipline is the result
of effective leadership.

iv. Unity of command: Every employee should receive communication from only one
person.

v. Unity of direction: Each group of organizational activities that have the same
objective should be divided by one manager using one plan.

vi. Remuneration: Wages paid to workers should be fair.

vii. Subordination of individual interest: The interest of any one employee or group
should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole.

viii. Centralisation: The optimum degree of centralization should be maintained for

each situation.

ix. Scalar chain: The Scalar chain measures the line of authority from top management
to the lowest ranks. Communication should follow this chain.

x. Order: Material and people should be in the right place at the right time.

xi. Equity: Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.

xii. Stability: High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide

personnel planning and ensure replacements.

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xiii. Initiative: Employee allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels
of effort.

xiv. Esprit-de-corps: Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the
organization.

4. Structural Theory

Simultaneously, the German sociologist Max Weber developed a theory of authority

structures and described organizational activity as based on authority relation. He was
one who looked at management and organizational behavior from a structural
perspective. Weber described an ideal type of organization that he called a bureaucracy.
The detail features of his ideal bureaucratic structure are as follows:

i. Job — specialization: Jobs are broken into simple, routine and well defined tasks.

ii. Authority hierarchy: Positions are organized in a hierarchy, each lower one
controlled by and supervised by a higher one.

iii. Formal selection: All organization members be selected on the basis of technical
qualifications demonstrated by training, education or exams.

iv. Rules and regulations: To ensure uniformity and to regulate the actions of
employees, managers must depend upon company’s rules.

v. Impersonality: Rules and controls are applied uniformly. Avoiding involvement of

personalities and personnel preferences.

vi. Career orientation: Managers are professionals and not owners of units they manage.
They work for fixed salaries and pursue their careers within their organizations.

5. ‘Social Man’ Theory

 Mary Parker Follett and Chester Barnard saw the importance of the social
aspect of organizations. Their ideas, though born in scientific management, did
not achieve any large degree of recognition until 1930’s. Mary first recognized
that, organization could be viewed from the perspective of individual and group
behavior. Her humanistic ideas have influenced the way we look at motivation,
leadership, power and authority today. Barnard saw organizations as social
systems that require human cooperation. Barnard maintained that success
depends on maintaining good relations with people and introduced the idea that
managers had to examine the environment and then adjust the organization to
maintain the state of equilibrium.

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  “The people side” of organization cames into its own during the period known
as behavioural era’. This era was marked by human relations movement and
widespread application of behavioural research. The era saw two events. The
birth of Personnel officer and the Creation of industrial Psychology’. The Wages
act of 1935 — known to be Magna Carta of labour was passed in the U.S.A. It
legitimized the role of trade unions and encouraged rapid growth in union
membership which opened new avenues to improve handling labor. This saw that
the essence of human relations movement is the belief that the key to higher
productivity is in increasing labor satisfaction. Three persons are important who
conveyed the message that human relations are most important. They were: Dale
Carnegie, Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor.

Dale Carnegie through his book ‘How to Win Friends And Influence People’ conveyed
the theme that the way to success was through winning cooperation of others. His main
advice was:

i. To make others feel important through sincere appreciation of their efforts.

ii. To strive to make good first impression.

iii. Win people to their way of thinking by letting others do the talking and never telling
a man he is wrong.

iv. Change people by praising their good traits and giving the leader the opportunity to
seek face.

 Maslow proposed a theoretical hierarchy of five Needs: Physiological, Safety,

Social, esteem and self-actualisation. He advocated the need of satisfaction of
each before turning to the next one. He believed that self- actualization — that is,
achieving one’s full potential — was the summit of a human beings existence.
Managers who accepted his theory, altered their organizations and management
practices.

 McGregor is best known for his formulation of two sets of assumptions — known
as Theory X and Theory Y. The former assumes that people have little ambition,
dislike work, want to avoid responsibility and need to be closely directed to work
effectively. The latter assumes that people can exercise self-direction, accept
responsibility and consider work to be as natural as rest or play. McGregor
believed that theory Y assumptions better captured the true nature of workers
and guided management better.

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Organizational Behavior Today

We learn over a period of many years that, organizational behavior must be studied and
applied in a contingency framework. At present, the emphasis should be on refining
existing theories, clarifying previous assumptions and identifying relevant contingency
variables.

Limitations of Organizational Behavior

 Behavioral bias

 Law of diminishing returns

 Unethical practices and manipulation of people

Behavioral Bias

 is a condition which is a reflection of tunnel vision, in which people have narrow

viewpoints as if they were looking through a tunnel.

 Following the behavioral bias, people who lack system understanding may
develop a behavioral bias, which leads them to develop a narrow viewpoint that
emphasizes employee satisfaction while overlooking the broader system of the
organization in relation to all its stakeholders.

The Law of Diminishing Returns

 Overemphasis on an organizational behavior, the practice may produce negative

results, as indicated by the law of diminishing returns. It places an overemphasis
on an OB practice may produce negative results.

 It is a limiting factor in organizational behavior in the same way that it is in

economics. In economics, the law of diminishing return refers to a declining
amount of extra outputs when more of a desirable input is added to an economic
situation.

Unethical Manipulation of People

 A significant concern about organizational behavior is that its knowledge and

techniques can be used to manipulate people unethically as well as to help them
develop their potential.
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  People who lack respect for the basic dignity of the human being could learn
organizational behavior ideas and use them for selfish ends.

 They could use what they know about motivation or communication in the
manipulation of people without regard for human welfare. People who lack ethical
values could use people in unethical ways.

Conclusion:

 The philosophy of organizational behavior is supportive and oriented toward

human resources. It takes to improve the human environment and help people
grow toward their potential. However, the knowledge and technique of this
subject may be used for negative as well as positive consequences.

 This possibility is true of knowledge in almost any field, so it is no special

limitation of organizational behavior. Nevertheless, we must be cautious so that
what is known about people is not used to manipulate them.

 The possibility of manipulation means that people in power in organizations must

maintain high ethical and moral integrity and not misuse their power.

 Without ethical leadership, the new knowledge that is learned about people
becomes a dangerous instrument for possible misuse.

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 Chapter 2

Models of Organizational Behavior

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 CHAPTER 2

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Organizational Behavior – Our inherent power of generalization helps us to

predict the behavior of other people, however sometimes our generalizations and
predictions fail. This happens as we fail to analyze and go into the depth of the
patterns that are affecting the behavior of people at that particular time or period.
This calls for understanding and following the systematic approach to the study of
the organizational behavior. The study helps in increasing our predictive ability to
understand the behavior of the people particularly in the group or an organization,
and how their behavior impacts the performance of an organization.

The organizational behavior revolves around three main theoretical

approaches: cognitive, behaviorist and social learning frameworks. These
frameworks became the basis on which the organizational behavior model
operates. The cognitive theory was developed by Edward and depends on the
expectancy and incentive concepts while behaviorist framework created by Ivan
Pavlov and John B.Watson relies on observation power. While, the social theory
depends on how the connection is created between the stimulus and resp onse.

In management, the focus is on the study of the five organizational behavior

models:

FIVE (5) MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

THE AUTOCRATIC MODEL

THE SUPPORTIVE MODEL

THE CUSTODIAL MODEL

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 THE COLLEGIAL MODEL

THE SYSTEM MODEL

1. AUTOCRATIC MODEL

This model came about during the industrial revolution, in the 1800’s and
1900’s. It depends on power. The manager has the power to demand “you
do this or else” –and an employee who does not follow orders is punished.

The manager has formal, official, authority over employees.

This model assumes that employees have to be directed and pushed into
doing the work. In this model, management does the thinking, employees
obey orders and depend on the manager. Employees are tightly controlled.
The manager can hire, fire and “perspire” them.

Employees may obey managers but employees may not respect

management.

Typically, employees receive minimum pay for minimum expected

performance. Employees may have lower skills. Often, employees work in
the authority model because they have to....to provide subsistence for
themselves and their families.

Its weakness is that it leads to “micro management”. With micro

management, managers control all details of daily operations. Managers
control time and processes, they put their needs above those of employees,
they insist on complicated approval processes for even the small est things
and closely monitor all results.

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 The problem with the autocratic model and micro management is that
it leads to low employee morale, poor decision-making (no one will make a
decision because he/ she is afraid of the decision being over turned) and
high turnover. As well, employees kept quiet about hating the workplace,
they certainly made their feelings known at home and in the community.

This model can get things done BUT it has high human costs. It can be
useful in crisis situations, within armies or with short-term employees.
(Newstrom 34). The autocratic model was acceptable 100 years ago.
However, today’s understanding of people’s needs as well as changing
society values show better ways of to organize behavior.

2. CUSTODIAL MODEL

In the late 1800’s, employers realized that employees might work

better if their basic needs more satisfied, if they were more secure and had a
better quality of work life. This was called paternalism-taking care of
employees by providing them with benefits to meet their security needs.

The custodial approach depends on economic resources –money for

wages and benefits -to motivate employees. The company has to have enough
money to cover these costs. By the 1930’s most employers were offering
welfare programs...for example, housing, medical care and insurance, fewer
working hours sick pay, pensions and paid vacation time off.
The problem with the custodial model is that it leads to dependence on
the organization by the employee because of the security offered. Employees do
not want to leave the organization, not so much because they like the job, but
because they like or depend on the benefits that go with it. They cannot afford to

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 quit. In this model, employees may focus on economic rewards. They may be
reasonable content, but may not be highly motivated–just passively cooperative.

Companies that adopt the custodial approach normally have a lower staff
turnover. However, employees do not produce their best work and are not
motivated to grow to their full potential. The custodial model is a good
foundation for organizations to grow to the next approach. ( Newstrom 35)

3. SUPPORTIVE MODEL

The supportive model came from research done in the 1920’s and
1930’s. It depends on leadership, not authority or money. Through leadership,
managers provide a work situation in which employees can develop.

The supportive model assumes that employees want to work and will
take responsibility. Employees are encouraged to be involved in the organization.
Employees are more strongly motivated because their status and recognition
needs are better met than with earlier models.

The supportive approach is not about money, but about the way people
are treated at work. A supportive manager helps employees solve problems and
accomplish their work. However, some managers may agree with the model but
not actually practice it at work.

This model is followed widely, especially in the West, because it responds

to employee drives for complex needs. It is especially useful in production work

places. Employees in developing countries are aware of management

practices around the world and are demanding more modern
approaches.

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 4. COLLEGIAL MODEL

This model began about 50 years ago. Collegial means people working
together cooperatively. In this model, management builds a feeling of
partnership with employees. The environment is open and people participate.

The collegial model is about team work. Managers are coaches to help
build better teams. Employees are responsible –they feel obliged to others on the
team to produce quality work. Employees must be self-disciplined. Many
employees feel satisfied that they are making a worthwhile contribution. This
leads to self-actualization and moderate enthusiasm in the way they perform.

The collegial model is especially useful for creative work, like

marketing or communications or in thinking environments, like education or
planning. (Newstrom 38)

5. THE SYSTEM MODEL

This is the most recent model. In this model, people want more than
money, job security and cooperative teams. Employees today want trust, an
ethical workplace, managers who show care and compassion and a workplace
that has a sense of community.

The system model focuses on “identifying developing and managing

the strengths within employees”. Managers focus on “helping employees
develop feelings of hope, optimism, self-confidence, empathy, trustworthiness,
esteem, courage, efficacy and resiliency.”

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 In the system model, “Managers protect and nurture their employees...to
develop a positive workplace culture which leads to organizational success and
committed employees.”

Both managers and employees need social intelligence in this model with
managers as facilitators. (Newstrom 39).

In the system model, managers and employees see the mutual benefits
and obligations they share in the complex system (the organization). Everyone
has psychological ownership for the organization, its products and services.
Everyone feels possessive, responsible and “at home” in the
organization.

Employees can reach a state of self-motivation. Their highest order needs

are met. They have passion and commitment to organizational goals, not just
their own personal wants and needs

Summary of the 5 Models of Organization Behavior

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Sources

https://www.educba.com/organizational-behavior-model/

https://www.mbaknol.com/human-resource-management/models-of-
organizational-behaviour/

https://studylib.net/doc/7036656/five-models-of-organizational-behavior

MODELS OF ORGANZATONAL BEHAVOR

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 Chapter 3
Managing Communication

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COMMUNICATION

 It is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another.

 It is a process of exchange facts, ideas, opinions and a means that individuals or
organizations share the meaning and understanding with one another.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

 If there is no communication, employees cannot know their co-workers are doing,

management cannot receive information inputs, and supervisors and team leaders cannot
give instructions.

Figure No. 01: Two-way Communication Process

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Figure No. 2: Communication Model

Two-way Communication Process

1. Develop an Idea – the sender wishes to transmit.

2. Encode – the process of conversion of subject matter into symbols.
3. Transmit – method used to exchange/transmit the message.
4. Receive – the initiative transfers to the receiver who tunes into the received message.
5. Decode – the process of conversion of subject matter into symbols.
6. Accept – the process of conversion of subject matter into symbols.
7. Use – the process wherein the receiver will use the information receive.
8. Provide Feedback – receiver acknowledge the message and responds to the sender.

Potential Problems in Communication

 Polarized
 Defensive Reasoning
 Cognitive Dissonance
 Face Saving
 Self Concept

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Communication Barriers

 Personal Barriers
Are communication interferences that arise from human emotions, values, race,
sex, socioeconomic status and the other factors.

Psychological Distance – a feeling of being emotionally separated between people

that is similar to actual physical distance.

 Physical Barriers
Are communication interferences that occur in the environment in which
communication takes place.

 Semantic Barriers
Arise from limitations in the symbols with which we communicate.

Jargon – the language used for a particular activity or by a particular group of

people.

Interference – interpreting a symbol on the basis of our assumptions instead of

facts.

Types of Communication Symbols

 Words – are the main communication symbols used.

Social Cues – are positive or negative bits of information that influence how
people react to communication.

Readability – the process of making writing and speech more understandable.

 Pictures – used to clarify word communication.

 Action – also known as non verbal communication.

Body Language – important part of non verbal communication by which people

communicate meaning to others with their bodies in interpersonal interaction.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

 Vertical Communication – Communication that flows up and down the organization,

usually along formal reporting lines.

 Downward Communication – Occurs when information flows down the hierarchy from
superiors to subordinates.

Prerequisites and Problems:

 Communication Overload – employees received more communication

inputs than they can process or more than they need.

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  Acceptance of Communication

 Acknowledge legitimacy of the sender to send a message

 Perceived competence of the sender relative to the issue
 Trust in the sender as a leader and as a person
 Perceived credibility of the message received
 Acceptance of the tasks and goals that the communication is
trying to accomplish
 Power of the sender to enforce sanctions on the receiver
either directly or indirectly
Communication Needs:

 Job Instruction
 Performance Feedback
 News
 Social Support

 Upward Communication – is the process of information flowing from the lower levels of
a hierarchy to the upper levels.

Nature - participative and appellative

Flow - subordinate to superior
Purpose - to make complaints or appeal, give feedback and suggestions
Examples - reports, direct letters and proposals

 Other Forms of communication

 Formal Communication

 Formal Channels are followed

 Generally in writing
 Responsibility can be fixed
 Formed to serve organizational needs

 Informal Communication

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  No line of authority is followed
 Usually oral
 Responsibility fixation is difficult
 Formed to serve personal needs

 Written Communication
 Involves any type of message that makes use of the written word.

 Non-Verbal Communication
 Refers to a wide array of behaviors by which we communicate
messages without the use of the voice (McDermott, 2008)

 is when information is transferred from sender to receiver without the

use of words (Lord Et. Al., 2012)

KINESICS

 is the study of how we use body movement and facial

expressions.

HAPTICS

 is the study of touch.

 Touch is the first type of non-verbal communication we

experience as humans and is vital to our development and health
(Dolin & Booth-Butterfield; Wilson, et al., 1993)

PROXEMICS

 is the study of how our use of space influences the way we

relate to each other.

Edward Hall (1996) developed four categories of space:

 Intimate Space – consists of space that ranges from

touch to 18 inches.

 We use intimate space with those whom we are close

(family members, close friends, and intimate partners)

 Personal Space – ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet and is

reserved for conversations with non-intimate others
(friends and acquaintances)

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  Social Space – extends from 4 to 12 feet and is used for
small group interactions

 Public Space – extends beyond 12 feet and is most often

used in public speaking or social situations.

CHRONEMICS

 is the study of how people use time.

PARALANGUAGE

 Is the term we use to describe vocal qualities such as pitch,

volume, inflection, the rate of speech and rhythm.

ARTIFACTS

 The things we own, use or wear. (Hairstyle, clothing, jewelry,

and automobiles)

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 Chapter 4

Social Systems and Organizational Culture

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WHAT IS A SOCIAL SYSTEM?
A social system is a complex set of human relationships interacting in many ways.
Within a single organization, the social system includes all the people in it and their
relationships to one another and to the outside world.

Two points stand out in the complex interactions among people in a social
system.
 First, the behavior of one member can have an impact, directly or indirectly,
on the behavior of any other. Although these impacts may be large or small,
all parts of the system are mutually interdependent.
 A second important point revolves around a system’s boundaries. Any social
system engages in exchanges with its environment, receiving input from it and
providing output to it.

Social systems are, therefore, open systems that interacts with its surroundings.

SOCIAL EQUILIBRIUM
A system is said to be in social equilibrium when its interdependent parts are in
dynamic working balance. Equilibrium is a dynamic concept, not a static one. Despite
constant change and movement in every organization, the system’s working balance can
still be retained.

FUNCTIONAL AND DYSFUNCTIONAL EFFECTS

If the effects of change are favorable for the system, it has a functional effect.
When the action or change creates unfavorable effects, such as a decline in productivity,
for the system it has a dysfunctional effect.

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SOCIAL CULTURE
An environment of human-created beliefs, customs, knowledge and practices is
called social culture. Culture is the conventional behavior of society, and influences all
actions of a person even though it seldom enters into conscious thought.
Social culture are often portrayed as consistent within a nation, thereby producing
a so-called national culture. At the simplest level, national cultures can be compared on
the bases of;
 How their members relate to each other
 Accomplish work, and
 Respond to change.

Social cultures can have a dramatic effects on behavior at work. Some of the
ways in which cultures differs include:
 patterns of decision making
 respect for authority
 treatment of females and
 accepted leadership styles.

Knowledge of social cultures is especially important because managers need to

understand and appreciate the backgrounds and beliefs of all members of their work
unit. People learn to depend on their culture. It gives them stability and security,
because they can understand what is happening in their cultural community and know
how to respond while in it.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Employees in almost any organizations are divided into subgroups of various
kinds. Formation of groups is determined by two broad sets of conditions.
 First, job-related (organizationally created) differences and similarities, such as:
 type of work,
 rank in the organization, and

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  physical proximity to one another,
sometimes cause people to align themselves into groups.
 A second set of non-job related conditions (those related to culture, ethnicity,
socioeconomics, sex and race) arise primarily from an individual’s personal
background; these conditions are highly important for:
 legal,
 moral, and
 economic reasons.

This cultural diversity or rich variety of differences among people at work, raises
the issues of fair treatment for workers who are not in positions of authority. Problems
may persists because of a key differences in this context between discrimination and
prejudice. Discrimination is generally exhibited as an action Prejudice is an attitude.

VALUING DIVERSITY
A promising approach to overcoming discriminatory practices actually attempts to
change the underlying attitudes. Prejudicial stereotypes develop from unfounded
assumptions about others and from their overlooked qualities. Differences need to be
recognized, acknowledged, appreciated, and used for collective advantage.

SOCIAL CULTURE VALUES

Work ethic means, that they view work as very important and as desirable goal
in life. They tend to like work and derive satisfaction from it.
They usually have a stronger commitment to the organization and to its goals
than do other employees. These characteristics of the work ethic make it highly
appealing to employers. In spite of its prevalence, the work ethic is a subject of
continuing controversy.
Second, the general level of the work ethic has declined gradually over many
decades. The decline is most evident in the different attitudes between younger and
older workers. According to research: First, the proportion of employees with a strong

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work ethic varies sharply among sample groups. Differences depend on factors such as
personal background, type of work performed, and geographical location.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Every action that organization take involves cost as well as benefits. In recent
years there has been a strong social drive to improve the cost-benefit relationship to
make it possible for society to gain benefits from organizations and for the benefits to be
fairly distributed.
Social responsibility is:
o The recognition that organizations have significant influence on the social
system; and
o That this influence must be properly considered and balanced in all
organizational actions. The presence of strong social values such as social
responsibility has a powerful impact on organizations and their actions.

ROLE
A role is the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others.
Role reflect a: person’s position in the social system, with its accompanying 
 Rights
 Obligations
 Power and
 Responsibility

In order to be able to interact with one another, people need some way of
anticipating other’s behavior. Role performs thin function in the social system. A person
has roles both on the job and away from it. One person performs the occupational role
of worker, the family role of parent, the social role of club president, and many others.
In those various roles, a person is both buyer and seller, supervisor and subordinate,
and giver and seeker of advice.

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 Each role calls for different types of behavior. Within the work environment alone,
a worker may have more than one role, such as a worker in group A, a subordinate to
Supervisor B, a machinist, a member of a union, and a representative on the safety
committee

ROLE PERCEPTION
Activities of managers and workers alike are guided by their role perceptions, that
is, how they think they are supposed to act in their own roles and how others should act
in their roles. Since managers perform many different roles, they must be highly
adaptive (exhibiting role flexibility) in order to change from one role to another quickly.
Supervisors especially need to change roles rapidly as they work with both
subordinates and superiors, and with technical and nontechnical activities. When two
people, such as a manager and an employee, interact, each one needs to understand at
least three role perceptions. For a manager, the three roles are as follows: First there is
the manager’s role perception as:
1. Required by the job being performed.
2. Then there is the manager’s perception of the role of the employee being
contacted.
3. Finally there is the manager’s perception of his or her role as likely to be
seen by the employee.

Obviously, one cannot meet the needs of others unless one can perceive what
they expect.30.
The key is for both parties to gain accurate role perceptions for their own roles
and for the roles of the other. Reaching such an understanding requires studying the
available job descriptions, as well as opening up lines of communication to discover the
other’s perceptions. Unless roles are clarified and agreed upon by both parties, conflicts
will inevitably arise

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MENTORS
A mentor is a role model who guides another employee (a protégé) by sharing
valuable advice on roles to play and behaviors to avoid. Mentors teach, advise, coach,
support, encourage, act as sounding boards, and sponsor their protégés so as to
expedite their career progress.

The advantages of successful mentoring programs include:

 stronger employee loyalty
 faster movement up the learning curve
 better succession planning through development of replacements, and
 increased level of goal accomplishments.

Some organizations actually assign protégés to various mentors, but this practice
can create problems of resentment, abuse of power, and unwillingness to serve. As a
result, other firms simply encourage employees to seek out their own mentors

ROLE CONFLICT
When others have different perceptions or expectations of a person’s role, that
person tends to experience role conflict. Such conflict makes it difficult to meet one set
of expectations without rejecting another

ROLE AMBIGUITY
When roles are inadequately defined or are substantially unknown, role ambiguity
exists, because people are not sure how they should act in situations of this type. When
role conflict and role ambiguity exist, job satisfaction and organizational commitment will
likely decline.
On the other hand, employees tend to be more satisfied with their jobs when
their roles are clearly defined by job descriptions and statements of performance
expectations. A better understanding of roles helps people know what others expect of

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them and how they should act. If any role misunderstanding exists when people interact,
then problems are likely to occur.
STATUS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

STATUS - Status is social rank. It is the amount of the recognition, honor, esteem,
and acceptance given to a person.

Terms to remember:
 Status System/hierarchy
 Status anxiety
 Status deprivation

Status Relationship (Effect of Status)

High status people –

 More influential –
 Received more privileges –
 More participative in group activities –
 Interact more –
 Opportunities for a better role in an organization

Status Symbols – these are the visible, external things that attach to a person
or workplace and serve as evidence of social rank and are most in evidence
among different levels of managers.

Typical Symbols of Status

 Furniture
 Interior decorations
 Location of workplace
 Facilities at workplace
 Quality and newness of equipment used

Typical Symbols of Status

 Type of clothes normally worn

 Privileges given
 Job title or organizational level

 Employees
 Degree of financial discretion
 Organizational membership

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 Sources of Status

 Person’s abilities
 Job skills • Type of work
 Amount of pay
 Seniority
 Age
 stock options
Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture – it is a set of shared values and norms that characterise a

particular organization.

Organizational culture - is a set of shared mental assumptions that guide

interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for
various situations. (Ravasi and Schultz (2006)

Importance of Organizational Culture

 Gives an organizational identity to employee

 Provides a sense of security to its members
 Helps newer employees interpret what goes on inside the organization
 Helps stimulate employees enthusiasm for their tasks

Characteristics of Cultures

 Distinctive
 Stable
 Implicit
 Symbolic
 No one type is best
 Integrated
 Accepted
 A reflection of top management
 Subcultures
 Of varying strength

Communicating and Changing Culture

People are generally more willing to adapt and learn when they want to
please others, gain approval and learn about their new work environment.
Socialization affects employees. Individualization affects the organization.

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 Four Combinations of Socialization and Individualization

 Conformity
 Creative Individualism
 Rebellion
 Isolation

Synthesis

“Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes. Don't resist them; that only
creates sorrow. Let reality be reality. Let things flow naturally forward in whatever
way they like.” Lao Tzu

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 Chapter 5

Motivation

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 MOTIVATION

Introduction

Motivation is a process that has a physical or psychological needs that the behavior or
the campaign, which aims to target active from the outset. Manager for each employee
is expected to show an increase in productivity and quality. To get to the worker’s
behavior is very important. Employee behavior depends on the environment in which
they reside. Finally, an employee behavior may be a function of innate drive or feel the
need and opportunity he or she needs in the workplace or the disk is completed.

Motivational Drives

Achievement

 How to recognise the Achievement Motive in a person

They like working by themselves and making their own decisions

They like realistic challenges and getting things done

They do not work well under close supervision

 How to deal with them and arouse their Motivation

Be factual, to the point and straightforward, minimise discussions

Use a business-like approach, no unproductive encounters or 'passing the time of

day'

Offer ideas and suggestions and avoid telling them precisely what to do

Let them play a significant role in making the decision as this will commit
them to it

Affiliation

 How to recognise the Affiliation Motive in a person

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 They seek the company of others and seek to make friends

They are eager to interact and need to be liked as a person

They are warm and can appear non-assertive

They may talk at length about family, friends and outside interests and engage in
social ritual

 How to deal with them and arouse their motivation

They respond to warm human qualities, a smile and interest in family, social
activities

Be prepared to spend time developing a warm relationship with them as they will
do things for people they like

They are motivated by friendship and relationships and do things for people they
relate to on a personal basis

Power

 How to recognise the power motive in a person

They tend to be firm, direct and competitive, and they try to be persuasive in
their dealings

Thy like to impress and may express their status needs by displaying objects,
such as trophies, medals and works of art

Like to act as a representative and spokesman for other people and to give advice

 How to deal with them and arouse their motivation

Treat them as important people and recognise and refer to their status objects

They are impressed by manner of dress, the size of the office, club membership,
salary, type of car and status achievements of the people they associate with

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Ask their advice and opinion on matters, and listen to their point of view.

They pay particular attention to the manner of presentation of reports of discussions,

they like things to 'look good' as well as be good.

Human Needs

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Behavior modification is a treatment approach which is focused on

changing behavior. This method is based on the work of B.F. Skinner, a well known
psychologist who developed the operant conditioning theory -- which suggests that
behavior can be modified by consequences and through reinforcement. The major goal
of behavior modification is to replace undesirable behaviors with acceptable ones. An
underlying theme is the belief that how people react to an object or event can be

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modified by learning. This technique can be used in all age groups, and can be applied
to a wide range of settings.

Factors that affect Motivation

 leadership style,

 the reward system,

 the organizational climate

 the structure of the work.

Reference

 https://www.siliconbeachtraining.co.uk/blog/mclelland-motivational-drives

 https://www.google.com/search?q=model+of+motivation

https://www.livestrong.com/article/105661-behavior-modification

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 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
(Chapter IV)

MAJOR PROCESS THEORIES

Process (or cognitive) theories of motivation focus on conscious human decision

processes as an explanation of motivation. The process theories are concerned with
determining how individual behavior is energized, directed, and maintained in the
specifically willed and self-directed human cognitive processes. Process theories of
motivation are based on early cognitive theories, which posit that behavior is the result
of conscious decision-making processes. The major process theories of motivation are
expectancy theory, equity theory, goal-setting theory, and reinforcement theory.

 GOAL-SETTING THEORY

In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to
be done and how much efforts are required to be put in.
Hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because it's much more of an
accomplishment to achieve something that you have to work for.

The goal-setting theory posits that goals are the most important factors affecting the
motivation and behavior of employees. This motivation theory was developed primarily
by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham. Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance of
specific and challenging goals in achieving motivated behavior. Specific goals often
involve quantitative targets for improvement in a behavior of interest. Research indicates
that specific performance goals are much more effective than those in which a person is
told to "do your best." Challenging goals are difficult but not impossible to attain.
Empirical research supports the proposition that goals that are both specific and
challenging are more motivational than vague goals or goals that are relatively easy to
achieve.

Several factors may moderate the relationship between specific and challenging goals
and high levels of motivation. The first of these factors is goal commitment, which
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simply means that the more dedicated the individual is to achieving the goal, the more
they will be motivated to exert effort toward goal accomplishment. Some research
suggests that having employees participate in goal setting will increase their level of goal
commitment. A second factor relevant to goal-setting theory is self-efficacy, which is the
individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete a particular task. If individuals
have a high degree of self-efficacy, they are likely to respond more positively to specific
and challenging goals than if they have a low degree of self-efficacy.

 EXPECTANCY THEORY

In the early 1960s, Victor Vroom applied concepts of behavioral research conducted in
the 1930s by Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman directly to work motivation. Basically,
Vroom suggested that individuals choose work behaviors that they believe lead to
outcomes they value. In deciding how much effort to put into a work behavior,
individuals are likely to consider:

 Their expectancy, meaning the degree to which they believe that putting forth
effort will lead to a given level of performance.
 Their instrumentality, or the degree to which they believe that a given level of
performance will result in certain outcomes or rewards.
 Their valence, which is the extent to which the expected outcomes are
attractive or unattractive.

All three of these factors are expected to influence motivation in a multiplicative fashion,
so that for an individual to be highly motivated, all three of the components of the
expectancy model must be high. And, if even one of these is zero (e.g., instrumentality
and valence are high, but expectancy is completely absent), the person will have not
motivation for the task. Thus, managers should attempt, to the extent possible, to
ensure that their employees believe that increased effort will improve performance and
that performance will lead to valued rewards.

 EQUITY THEORY

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Adams’ Equity Theory

Balancing Employee Inputs and Outputs

Adams' Equity Theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between an employee's inputs
(hard work, skill level, acceptance, enthusiasm, and so on) and an employee's outputs
(salary, benefits, intangibles such as recognition, and so on).

According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and
productive relationship is achieved with the employee, with the overall result being
contented, motivated employees.

Understanding the Theory

Adams' Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral
psychologist, who developed his job motivation theory in 1963. Much like many of the
more prevalent theories of motivation (such as Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory), Adams' Equity Theory acknowledges that
subtle and variable factors affect an employee's assessment and perception of their
relationship with their work and their employer.
The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in relation to
their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the
outputs. Employees can be expected to respond to this is different ways, including de-
motivation (generally to the extent the employee perceives the disparity between the
inputs and the outputs exist), reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme
cases, perhaps even disruptive.

According to the equity theory, individuals are motivated to reduce perceived inequity.
Individuals may attempt to reduce inequity in various ways. A person may change his or
her level of effort; an employee who feels under-rewarded is likely to work less hard. A
person may also try to change his or her rewards, such as by asking for a raise. Another

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option is to change the behavior of the reference person, perhaps by encouraging that
person to put forth more effort. Finally, a person experiencing inequity may change the
reference person and compare him or herself to a different person to assess equity. For
managers, equity theory emphasizes the importance of a reward system that is
perceived as fair by employees.

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 Chapter 6
Appraising and Rewarding
Performance

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 Chapter 6

Appraising and Rewarding Performance

In the 19th and EARLY 20th centuries employees were presumed to want primarily
money; therefore, money was believed to produced direct motivation. The more money
offered, the more motivation. Roethlisberger and his followers successfully buried this
idea by showing that economic rewards operated through the attitudes of the workers in
the social system to produce an indirect incentive.

• The chapter focuses;

1. First on how incentives are combined with other parts of wage administration
to build a complete reward system that encourages motivation.

2. Then on, money as a means of rewarding employees, motivational models

applied to pay, cost-reward comparisons, and behavioral considerations in
performance appraisal.

3.Finally, on incentive pay, an approach in which each worker’s pay varies in

relation to employee or organizational performance.

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 A COMPLETE PROGRAM

This program has three incentive foundations;

• 1. Base pay
• 2. Performance Rewards
• 3. Profit Sharing

* Each can contribute something to the employee’s economic satisfaction.

Based pay-Motivate employees to progress jobs of higher skill and responsibilty.

Performance rewards-Is an incentive to improve performance on the job.

Profit sharing-Motivates workers toward teamwork to improve an organization’s

performance.

Other payments

Primarily non-incentive in nature, are added to the incentive foundation.

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 • Seniority pay-adjustment are made up to reward workers for extended service
and to encourage them to remain with their employer.
• Sacrifice reward-if an employer asks workers to sacrifice by working overtime
or working on their day off, the workers may be paid extra for the convenience.
• Nonwork award-are given for periods when an employee does not work, such
as vacations, holidays and layoffs subject to guaranteed pay

Money As a Means of Rewarding Employees

Money is important to employees for a number of reasons.

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 Cost of performance in relation to reward for employee

Certainly ,money is valuable because of the goods and services that it will
purchase. All of us have seen its importance as a status symbol for those who have it
and can thus save it, spend it conspicuously, or give it away generously. Money has
status value when it is being received and when it is being spent. It represents to
employees what their employer thinks of them. It is also an indication of one employee’s
status relative to that of other employees. It has about as many values as it has
possessors.

Application of the Motivational Models

• A useful way to think about money as a reward is to apply it to some of

the motivational models. Such as;

• Drives- Achievement-oriented employees maintain a symbolic scorecard in their

minds by monitoring their total pay and comparing it with that others.
• Needs-In the Herzberg model, pay is view as a hygiene factor, although it may
have at least short-term motivational value as well.
• Expectancy

Valence x expectancy x instrumentality=motivation

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 This means that if money is to act a strong motivator, an employee must want
more of it (valence), must believe that effort will be successful in producing
desired performance (expectancy), and must trust that the monetary reward will
follow better performance (instrumentality).

Additional Considerations in the Use of Money

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards:

Money is essentially an extrinsic reward rather than an intrinsic one, so it is easily

administered in behavior modification programs.

However, it also has all the limitations of extrinsic benefits. No matter how closely
management attaches pay to performance, pay is still something that originates
outside the job and is useful only away from the job. Therefore, it tends to be less
immediately satisfying than intrinsic job rewards.

For example; the personal satisfaction of a job well done is a powerful motivator
for many people

APPRAISAL PHILOSOPHY

A generation ago, appraisal programs tended to emphasize employee traits, deficiencies

and abilities, but modern appraisal emphasizes present performance and future goals. Modern
philosophy also stresses employee participation in mutually setting goals with the supervisor and
knowledge of results. Thus the hallmarks of modern appraisal philosophy are as follows.

1. Performance Orientation - it is not enough for employees to put forth effort; that
effort must result in the attainment of desired outcomes
2. Focus on goals or objectives – employees need to have a clear idea of what
they are supposed to be doing and the priorities among their tasks as the saying
goes, “If you know where you want to go, you are more likely to get there”;
3. Mutual goal setting between supervisor and employee – this is the belief
that people will work harder for goals or objectives that they have participated in setting.

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 4. Clarification of behavioral expectations – this is often done via a behaviorally
anchored rating scale (BARS), which provides the employee and manager with concrete
examples of various levels of behaviors.
5. Extensive feedback systems - employees can fine-tune their performance better if
they know they are doing in the eyes of the organization.

Definition of Performance Appraisal

According to Newstrom, “It is the process of evaluating the performance of employees,

sharing that information with them and searching for ways to improve their performance”.

According to Edwin Flippo, “Performance Appraisal is the systematic, periodic and impartial
rating of an employee’s excellence, in matters pertaining to his present job and his potential for
a better job.”

According to Dale Beach, “Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the

individual with regards to his or her performance on the job and his potential for development.”

FUNCTIONS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal is undertaken for the following reasons:

 To give employees feedback on performance;

 To identify the employee’s developmental needs;

 To make promotion and reward decisions;

 To make demotion and termination decisions;

 To develop information about the organization’s selection and placement decisions

CRITERIA FOR PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

In performance appraisal, there are certain criteria that are used. The three most popular sets of
criteria are:

1. Individual task outcomes

2. Behavior

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 3. Traits (good attitude, showing confidence, being dependable, looking busy, possessing a
wealth experience)

THE PROCESS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal is a process in an organization whereby each employee is evaluated to

determine how he or she is performing. It consists of the following steps:

1. Establishment of performance standard

2. Mutually set measurable goals

3. Measure actual performance

4. Compare actual performance with standards

5. Discuss the appraisal with the employee

6. If necessary, initiate corrective actions

METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Essay Appraisal – is a performance appraisal method whereby an appraiser writes a narrative

about the employee. The employee’s strengths and weaknesses are described and
recommendations for development are indicated.

Critical Incident Appraisal - is a performance appraisal method which requires effective or

ineffective performance for each employee being appraised.

An example of a good critical incident:

June 7 – Pedro arrived thirty minutes early for work and there were five customers who were
already waiting to be served. Pedro promptly fixed his wares and started serving the customers.
He was polite and smiling.

An example of a bad critical incident:

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July 1 – Pedro took a ten minute personal call on his cell phone. Three of the waiting customers
could not afford to wait and left without being served by Pedro.

Checklist – is a performance appraisal method wherein the evaluator uses a list of behavioral
descriptions and checks off those behaviors that apply to the employee.

Adjective Rating Scale – also known as the graphic rating scale is a performance appraisal
method that lists a number of traits and a range of performance for each. The traits listed are
assumed to be necessary to successful job performance.

The quality of work is the accuracy, skill and completeness of work; quantity of work is the volume of work done in a
normal weekday; job knowledge is information pertinent to the job that an individual should have for satisfactory job
performance; dependability is following directions and company policy without supervision.

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Individual Ranking – method which requires the evaluator merely to list the employees in
order from highest to lowest. This method does not show the difference between the first and
second, or between the second and third.

Paired Comparison – is an appraisal method whereby subordinates are placed in all possible
pair and the superior must choose which of the two in each pair is the better performer

APPRAISAL INTERVIEW

A session in which the supervisor provides:

 Feedback to the employee on past performance

 Discusses any problem

 Invites a response

 Opportunity to motivate the employee

CONDUCTING THE APPRAISAL INTERVIEW

The appraisal interview is the most important and, in some cases, the most difficult part
of the appraisal process. The tone that is set by the supervisor is critical to the overall
effectiveness of the meeting. The ultimate goal is to reinforce and praise all of the positive
performance, and to provide constructive criticism and guidance on the performance that needs
improvement.

Following are some tips for a successful appraisal meeting:

 Provide the employee with advance notice of the appraisal interview. Select a time that
is convenient for both of you and allow sufficient time so that you are not rushed.

 Choose a location that is private and free from interruptions.

 Be prepared. Review the completed appraisal form and all relevant material. Think
through what you want to emphasize and what specific points you should make.

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  Develop a friendly, constructive and supportive atmosphere to relieve tension and put the
employee at ease. Make sure that outside interruptions are avoided.

 Discuss the appraisal. Recognize the employee’s strengths and how they benefit

 Involve the employee in the appraisal discussion. Encourage two-way conversation and
LISTEN to what the employee has to say.

 Use feedback that is clear and to the point

 Provide guidelines for further training and development.

 Be sensitive to the impact you have on the employee. Everyone needs to maintain self-
respect. Keep the discussion job-centered and avoid comments on the employee’s
personality. So not compare the employee to other, specific employees.

 If necessary, plan for a follow-up meeting.

 Summarize your discussions

 End the meeting on a positive note. Be supportive and show that you are committed to
the employee’s success.

 Allow the employee an opportunity to add comments to the end of the performance
appraisal.

 Remember - performance appraisals are only one step in the on-going, year round
partnership between supervisors and employees which constitutes the Performance
Management process.

Economic Incentive System

- a system that induce a high level of individual, group, or organizational performance

by making an employee’s pay contingent connected with their performance

Wage incentives - form of merit incentive providing more pay for more production

- additional wage payments intended to stimulate improved work performance

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Profit Sharing - a system that distributes to employees some portion of the profits of the
business

• Aims to recognize mutual interests

• Work better for fast growing, profitable organizations

Gain Sharing - an incentive plan in which employees or customers receive benefits directly as a
result of cost-saving measures that they initiate or participate in.

 Inventory levels

 Labor hours per unit of production

 Usage of materials and supplies

 Quality of finished goods

Skilled-Based Pay - is a salary system that determines an employee's pay based on his or her
knowledge, experience, education or specialized training. Depending on the company, the
employee might also receive a higher salary for earning formal certification in his or her industry.

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 Chapter 7
Leadership and Empowerment

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CHAPTER 7 – LEADERSHIP AND EMPOWERMENT

Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss Leadership and Empowerment
2. Analyze Nature of Leadership
3. Discuss Behavioral Approaches to Leadership Style
4. Analyze Approaches to Leadership Style
5. Discuss Emerging Approaches to Leadership

LEADERSHIP
- the process of encouraging and helping others to work enthusiastically toward
objectives (Keith Devis)
- the process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically
toward the achievement of the group goal (Koontz and Donnell)

EMPOWERMENT
- a management practice of sharing information, rewards and power with employees
so that they can take initiative and make decisions to solve problems and improve
service and performance.
- is based on the idea that giving employees skills, resources, authority, opportunity,
motivation as well holding them responsible and accountable for outcomes of their
actions, will contribute to their competence and satisfaction.

NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
1. Leadership derives from power and is similar to, yet distinct from, management. In
fact, “leadership” and “management” are different. There can be leaders of completely
unorganized groups, but there can be managers only of organized groups. Thus it can
be said that a manager is necessarily a leader but a leader may not be a manager.

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2. Leadership is essential for managing. The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys
to being an effective manager because she/he has to combine resources and lead a
group to achieve objectives.

3. Leadership and motivation are closely interconnected. By understanding motivation,

one can appreciate better what people want and why they act as they do. A leader can
encourage or dampen workers motivation by creating a favorable or unfavorable working
environment in the organization.

4. The essence of leadership in followership. In other words, it is the willingness of

people to follow a person that makes that person a leader. Moreover, people tend to
follow those whom they see as providing a means of achieving their desires, needs and
wants.

5. Leadership involves an unequal distribution of power between leaders and group

members. Group members are not powerless; they can shape group activities in some
ways. Still, the leader will usually have more power than the group members.

6. Leaders can influence the followers’ behavior in some ways. In fact, leaders can
influence workers either to do ill or well for the company. The leader must be able to
empower and motivate the followers to the cause.

7. The leader must co-exist with the subordinates or followers and must have the clear
idea about their demands and ambitions. This creates loyalty and trust in subordinates
for their leader.

8. Leadership is to be concerned about values. Followers learn ethics and values from
their leaders. Leaders are the real teachers of ethics, and they can reinforce ideas. It is
very important for leaders to make positive statements of ethics if they are not
hypocritical.

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9. Leading is a very demanding job for both physically and psychologically. The leader
must have the strength, power, and ability to meet the bodily requirements; zeal,
energy, and patience to meet the mental requirements for leading.

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLES

Leadership involves an interpersonal relationship between a leader and
subordinates in which the behavior of the leader towards the subordinates constitute the
most critical element. The good behavior of the leader raises the morale, builds up
confidence and spirit among the team members and lack of good behavior will discard
him as a leader.

4 Leadership Styles Based On Authority

1. Autocratic Leadership - relies on

coercion, and its style is paternalism,
arbitrariness, command and compliance. The
autocratic leader gives orders which must be
obeyed by the subordinates. He determines
policies for the group without consulting
them and does not give detailed information
about future plans, but simply tells the group
what immediate steps they must take.

Advantage of Autocratic Leadership:

It is the speed with which decision can be made; the leader does not have to
obtain group members’ approval before deciding.
Disadvantage of Autocratic Leadership:
Autocratic leadership does have a negative impact on group-morale. Members
may resent the way in which decisions are made and thus support them in only a
minimal fashion.

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2. Democratic Leadership - style of
leadership that uses legitimate power. A
democratic leader usually gives instructions
only after consulting with the group. He sees
to it that policies are worked out in group
discussion and with the acceptance of the
group. Democratic Leaders solicit employees’
participation and respects their opinions.

Advantages of Democratic Leadership:

- It often enhances the morale of the employees.
- It increases acceptance of management’s ideas.
- It increases cooperation between management and employees.
- It leads to a reduction in the number of complaints and grievances.

Disadvantages of Democratic Leadership:

- It accounts for slow decisions, diluted accountability for decisions.
- There may be possible compromises that are designed to please everyone but does
not give the best solution.

3. Free-Rein or Laisse-Faire Leadership

- the leadership style which allows maximum
freedom to followers. It gives employees a
high degree of independence in their
operations. A free-rein leader completely
abdicates his leadership position, to give all
responsibility of most of the work entrusted to
him to the group which he is supposed to
lead, limiting his authority to maintain the

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contact of the group with persons outside the group. This is also known as the
permissive style of leadership.

Advantages of Laisse-Faire Leadership:

- Opportunity for individual development is offered to group members.
- All persons are given a chance to express themselves and to function relatively
independent.

Disadvantages of Laisse-Faire Leadership:

- It may result in the lack of group cohesion and unity toward organizational objectives.
- Without a leader, the group may have little direction and a lack of control.
- The result can be inefficiency or even worse, chaos.

4. Paternalistic Leadership - the leader assumes that his function is paternal or

fatherly. His attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and the
group as that of a family with the leader as the head of the family. The leader provides
the employees with good working conditions and employee services. This style has been
successful, particularly in Japan because of its cultural background. This mode of
leadership produces good and quick results if the followers are highly educated and
brilliant and have a sincere desire to go ahead and perform with responsibility.

TWO CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIORS

1. Task-oriented Behaviors (Initiating Structure)

- involve structuring the roles of subordinates, providing them with instructions,
and behaving in ways that will increase the performance of the group. Task-oriented
behaviors are directives given to employees to get things done and to ensure that
organizational goals are met. When leaders are task-oriented, productivity tends to be a
bit higher. In small companies, task-oriented behaviors were found to be more effective
than in large companies.

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Purpose of Task-oriented Behaviors or Initiating Structure:
(a) Establish well defined patterns of organization.
(b) Develop channels of communications and methods or procedures.
(c) To supervise the activities of employees.

2. People-oriented Behaviors (Consideration)

- include showing concern for employee feelings and treating employees with
respect. People-oriented leaders genuinely care about the well-being of their employees,
and they demonstrate their concern in their actions and decisions. Employees tend to be
more satisfied and react more positively. It emphasizes human relations.

Consideration refers to the behavior which can be characterised by:

(a) Friendliness (d) Supportivenesss
(b) Mutual Trust (e) Openness
(c) Respect (f) Concern for the welfare of the employees

CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

CONTINGENCY APPROACHES MODEL - These model states that the most

appropriate style of leadership depends on an analysis of the nature of the
situation facing the leader.

TWO CONTINGENCY MODEL

- Fiedler’s contingency model
- Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL

The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a
scientist who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.

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 The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's
effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors – "leadership
style" and "situational favorableness" (later called "situational control").

According to this model, in situations where the task is highly routine and the
leader has good relations with the employees, they may perceive a task orientation as
supportive to their job performance.

UNDERSTANDING FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL

1) LEADERSHIP STYLE
Identifying leadership style is the first step in using the model. Fiedler believed
that leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed
called Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale (see figure 1).

The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed working
with. This can be a person who you've worked with in your job, or in education or
training.

You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor, and add up your
scores. If your total score is high, you're likely to be a relationship-orientated leader.
If your total score is low, you're more likely to be task-orientated leader.

Figure 1: Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale

Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pleasant
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting

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 Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Loyal
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere
Unkind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind
Inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious

Tables from "A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness" by Professor F.E. Fiedler. © 1967. Reproduced
with permission from Professor F.E. Fiedler.

The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more
negatively, resulting in a lower score. Fiedler called these low LPC-leaders. He said
that low LPCs are very effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a
group to get tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.

However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively,

giving them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on
personal connections, and they're good at avoiding and managing conflict.
They're better able to make complex decisions.

2) Situational Favorableness
Next, you determine the "situational favorableness" of your particular situation.
This depends on three distinct factors:
 Leader-Member Relations – This is the level of trust and confidence that your
team has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence within the
group is in a more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.

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  Task Structure – This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and
structured, or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the
team and leader have little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed
unfavorably.
 Leader's Position Power – This is the amount of power you have to direct the
group, and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more
favorable your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.

Applying the Fiedler Contingency Model

Step 1: Identify your leadership style

- Think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with, either now or in
the past.
- Rate your experience with this person using the scale in figure 1, above.
According to this model, a higher score means that you're naturally relationship-
focused, and a lower score means that you're naturally task-focused.

Step 2: Identify your situation

Answer the questions:
1) Are leader-member relations good or poor?
2) Is the task you're doing structured, or is it more unstructured, or do you have
little experience of solving similar problems?
3) Do you have strong or weak power over your team?

Step 3: Determine the most effective leadership style

Figure 2 shows a breakdown of all of the factors we've covered: Leader-Member
Relations, Task Structure, and Leader's Position Power. The final column identifies the
type of leader that Fiedler believed would be most effective in each situation.

Figure 2: Breakdown of Most Effective Leader Style

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 Leader-Member Task Structure Leader's Position Most Effective
Relations Power Leader

Good Structured Strong Low LPC

Good Structured Weak Low LPC
Good Unstructured Strong Low LPC
Good Unstructured Weak High LPC
Poor Structured Strong High LPC
Poor Structured Weak High LPC
Poor Unstructured Strong High LPC
Poor Unstructured Weak Low LPC

For instance, imagine that you've just started working at a new company,
replacing a much-loved leader who recently retired. You're leading a team who views
you with distrust (so your Leader-Member Relations are poor). The task you're all doing
together is well defined (structured), and your position of power is high because you're
the boss, and you're able to offer reward or punishment to the group.

The most effective leader in this situation would be high LPC – that is, a leader
who can focus on building relationships first.

Or, imagine that you're leading a team who likes and respects you (so your
Leader-Member relations are good). The project you're working on together is highly
creative (unstructured) and your position of power is high since, again, you're in a
management position of strength. In this situation, a task-focused leadership style would
be most effective.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

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 Right in the name of this leadership theory, you can get a great indication of what
it is all about. The term 'situational' indicates that leaders should vary their approach
based on the people they are leading, and the circumstances that surround the task at
hand. Indeed, the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory is one that is based
around variable leadership, depending on a variety of circumstances. When a leader is
able to adapt to the situation as quickly as possible, everyone will benefit in the end.

Specifically, this theory has to do with the maturity of those who are being led. To
those who have worked as leaders in the past, it is no surprise that maturity should be
considered when working on finding the right leadership style. For example, someone
who is inexperienced in their field will likely lack the skills or confidence to take on tasks
that would be comfortable for a more experienced employee.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

Only when a leader is able to mold their approach to the maturity and talent of
those that make up the team will the overall performance be up to par.

The Situational Leadership Theory offers up four potential leadership styles, and
then four maturity levels that define the members of a team. Let's quickly look at each of
the four styles and levels that can then be paired up for optimal performance.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

Four Leadership Styles
The four leadership styles that are presented in this theory are Telling, Selling,
Participating, and Delegating. Starting with Telling, this is the most direct form of
leadership. The leader of the group simply tells each member what to do, and how they
would like them to do it. This approach is less collaborative, and more directive in
nature. There is very little working together between the leader and the team members,
instead the leader simply provides specific instructions for the team members to follow
through with.

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 The second leadership style, Selling, is one with a little more room for
collaboration. While the team members are still directed by the leader, the leader is
more likely to engage with the team members along the way. The 'Selling' title comes
from the idea that the leader may need to convince some of the team members to follow
his or her lead and do things in a specific way.

Moving on to the third option, Participating is a process where the leader tries to
build relationships with those on the team - really becoming part of the team. This is
quite a departure from the Telling style, as the leader will blend in more fully with those
who are working as part of the team. In fact, the leader might not even make all of the
decisions in this style, perhaps deferring at certain points to members of the team with
more experience or knowledge in a given area.

Finally, Delegating represents the leader passing on most of the responsibilities

for a given project or task to various members of the team. This style is something that
leaders of experienced teams will often use, since the employees that are being led may
not need much in the way of direction at this point in their careers.

Four Corresponding Maturity Levels

To go along with those four leadership styles, the Hersey Blanchard Situational
Leadership Theory also provides four maturity levels that describe those who are making
up the team. To identify these levels, the abbreviations M1, M2, M3, and M4 are used.
Below is a quick description of each of these four levels.

• M1. These are the least experienced of workers. At this point, they will need to
be instructed on how to do just about everything that makes up the task they are
responsible for. While this usually means a leader is dealing with younger and less
experienced employees, it could also be that the employees simply don't have much
knowledge or background in the task at hand for a specific project. This maturity level

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matches up with the Telling leadership style, as the employees at this point will require
complete direction for almost every task.

• M2. Moving up a step, these are still inexperienced people who possess only
slightly more knowledge and skill than those at the M1 level. Maturity is not only a
measure of the ability than an individual has to deal with a task, but their willingness to
take on the task in the first place. M2 team members are those who are more eager to
work on a job, even if they aren't yet ready to do it correctly without the help of the
leader of the group. The Selling leadership style is the proper match when dealing with
M2 level team members.

• M3. Getting close to the top of the scale, this group would include employees
who are excited to work on a job and have most of the skill they need to get it done
right. While they might not be able to quite get all of the job done without some help,
they can get most of the way their on their own. The Participating style is the one that
matches with M3 individuals, because they don't need full direction and are more able to
engage with the leader for positive collaboration.

• M4. At the top of the scale, those that are rated as M4 are completely capable
of handling a task - and they know that they can get the job done without the help of
the leader. Delegating is the leadership style of choice at this point simply because there
is no need to be more involved than that. The team members have confidence, and
expect to work independently.

The Hersey Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory promotes flexible leaders

that are able to match their style to the experience and ability of those they are leading.
Most people would agree that a good leader is a flexible one, and this theory falls right
in line with that manner of thinking.

Key Points

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 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory is one that is based around
variable leadership, depending on a variety of circumstances.
The four leadership styles that are presented in this theory are Telling, Selling,
Participating, and Delegating.
To go along with those four leadership styles, the Hersey Blanchard Situational
Leadership Theory also provides four maturity levels that describe those who are making
up the team.
At a maturity level of M1, team members need to be instructed on how to do just
about everything that makes up the task they are responsible for.
At a maturity level of M2, team members are those who are more eager to work
on a job, even if they aren't yet ready to do it correctly without the help of the leader of
the group.
At a maturity level of M3, team members might not be able to quite get all of the
job done without some help, but they can get most of the way their on their own.
At a maturity level of M4, team members are completely capable of handling a
task and they know that they can get the job done without the help of the leader.
The Hersey Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory promotes flexible leaders
that are able to match their style to the experience and ability of those they are leading.

SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP

*self leadership – leading oneself to perform naturally motivating tasks, as well as

managing oneself to do the work that is required but not naturally rewarding.

Employees observe their own behavior, setting their own goals, cueing
themselves to perform, rehearsing effective behavior, and administering rewards and
punishments to themselves.

Self Leadership is ‘Inside-Out’ Leadership (self leadership model)

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 Self-leaders are constantly developing, Self-awareness, Self-confidence and Self-
efficacy (self-belief).

Self-awareness is about knowing your intentions and values, as well as knowing

what can ‘push your buttons’ and derail you.

Self-confidence comes from knowing your strengths and abilities. As we take

actions and develop skills, we become more confident.

Self-efficacy is the belief that whatever comes our way, we can handle it. We can
take the feedback, accept, adjust and advance. With self-efficacy we can be more
creative and innovative.

For Self leadership to occur we have met our survival needs of food and shelter
and begin to look for meaning in our lives. The first skill of self leadership is to STOP and
STEP BACK from the things that trigger us to react; because when we react we are
being controlled by the trigger. The second skill is to consider our INTENTION. Intention
is what is important to us, our values and what we are trying to achieve. By being
intentional we can start to live a life of choice.

Intention precedes any purposeful action (behavior)- rather than a reaction.

Actions have effects which the self-leader evaluates via feedback.

Influence is the the result of purposeful action. We must positively influence

ourselves and the world around us if we are to make a change.

Impact is how intention and influence is measured in the world.

EMERGING APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

1) STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

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 A MANAGER needs to have a thorough and complete understanding of the
organization ,firm grasp of the organizations environment, recognize how the firm is
currently aligned with its environment and improve both the current alignment and
future alignment according to environmental trends and issues.

2) CROSS- CULTURAL LEADERSHIP

A person sent to overseas on work base on the needs to acclimate to the

cultural differences that exist between two countries.

As managers, you must recognize importance of individuals contribution and

rewards. You must also recognize differences in individual and group roles

3) ETHICAL LEADERSHIP

Managers should:

a) maintain high ethical standards for their own conduct.

b) exhibit ethical behavior unfailingly

c) Holds others in their organization to the same standards.

d) This style of leading fosters an environment of trust and respect with workers

and executives.

Sources :

https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm

http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/faqld/leadtheory-06.htm

https://www.selfleadership.com/what-is-

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 Chapter 8

Empowerment and Participation

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 EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION
(topic 8)

Most work organizations have a number of employees who believe that they are
dependent on others and that their own efforts will have little impact on performance.
This powerlessness contributes to the frustrating experience of low self‐efficacy – the
conviction among people that they cannot successfully perform their jobs or make
meaningful contributions. Problems with self‐efficacy are often caused by
major organizational changes that are beyond the employees’ control (such as mergers).
Problems may also stem from having to work under an authoritarian leader, with in a
reward system that fails to reinforce competence or innovation, or in a job that lacks
variety, discretion, role clarity.

Fortunately, individual perceptions of low levels of self‐efficacy can be raised by

empowering employees.

EMPOWERMENT:

- Is any process that provides greater autonomy to employees through sharing of

relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job
performance.

- It helps remove the conditions that cause powerlessness while enhancing

employee feeling of self-efficacy.

- Authorizes employees to cope with situations and enables them to take control of
problems as they arise.

FIVE BROAD APPROACHES TO EMPOWERMENT:

- Helping employees achieve job mastery.

- Allowing more control.

- Providing successful role models.

- Using social reinforcement and persuasion.

- Giving emotional support

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THE PROCESS OF EMPOWERMENT:

Remove conditions of powerlessness

- Changes

- Leadership

- Reward system

- Job

Enhance job –related Self‐ efficacy

- Job mastery

- Control and accountability

- Role models

- Reinforcement Performance

- Support

Perception of Empowerment

- Competence

- High value

- Job meaning

- Increased use of talent

Randolph’s Empowerment Model:

SHARE INFORMATION

• Share company performance information

• Help people understand the business

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• Build trust through sharing sensitive information

• Create self-monitoring possibilities

CREATE AN AUTONOMY THROUGH STRUCTURE

• Create a clear vision and clarify little pictures

• Create a new decision making rules that support empowerment

• Clarify goals and roles collaboratively

• Establish new empowering performance management processes

• Use heavy doses of training

LET TEAMS BECOME THE HIERARCHY

• Provide direction and training for new skills.

• Provide encouragement and support for change.

• Gradually have managers let go of control

• Work through the leadership vacuum stage.

• Acknowledge the fear factor

PARTICIPATION:

- It is the mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that

encourages them to contribute to group situations and share responsibility for them.

Three important ideas:

- Involvement

- Contribution

- Responsibility

MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL INVOLVEMENT

- First, and probably foremost, participation means mental and emotional

involvement rather than mere muscular activity. A person’s entire self is
involved, not just his or her skill. This involvement is psychological rather than

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 physical. A person who participates is ego‐involved instead of merely task‐
involved.

MOTIVATION TO CONTRIBUTE

A second concept in participation is that it motivates people to contribute. They are

empowered to release their own resources of initiative and creativity toward the
objectives of the organization., just as Theory Y predicts. In this way participation differs
from “consent.” Participation is more than getting consent for something that has
already been decided. Its great value is that it taps the creativity of all
employees.

Participation especially improves motivation by helping employees understand and clarify

their paths toward goals. According to the path‐goal model of leadership, the improved
understanding of path‐goal relationship produces a heightened sense of responsibility for
goal attainment. The result is improved motivation.

ACCEPTANCE OF RESPONSIBILITY

- Participation encourages people to accept responsibility in their group’s activities.

- When we talk about their organization, they begin to say ‘we’ not ‘them’.

- When they see a job problem, it is ‘our’, not ‘theirs’

Prerequisites for participation:

- Adequate time to practice

- Potential benefits greater than cost

- Relevance to employee interests

- Adequate employee abilities to deal with the subject

- Mutual ability to communicate

- No feeling to threat to either party

- Restriction to the are of a job problem

Under participation

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 - When employees want more participation than they have, they are “participatively
derived”

Over participation

- When they have more participation than they want, they are “participatively saturated”

Responsibilities of employees and managers:

- Be fully responsible for their actions and their consequences.

- Operate within the relevant organizational policies.

- Be contributing team members.

- Respect and seek to use the perspective of others.

- Be dependable and ethical in their empowered actions.

- Demonstrate responsible self-leadership.

Benefits of Participation:

- Participation tends to improve motivation because employees feel more accepted

by their employer and more actively involved in the situation.

- Once the organizational culture is changed, then the system as a whole becomes
more effective.

HOW PARTICIPATION WORKS:

SITUATION

Outcomes:
- Organization:
Higher output
Better quality
PARTICIPATIVE INVOLVEMENT Innovation
PROGRAMS - Mental
- Emotional - Employees:
Acceptance
Self-efficacy
Less Stress
Satisfaction

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Participation

What is Participation?

Mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that encourage

them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them.

Participation is…

Three Important ideas:

 Involvement ( ego)

 Contribution (creativity)

 Responsibility (build teamwork)

 INVOLVEMENT (ego)

- Participation means meaningful involvement rather than mere muscular

activity.

EGO-INVOLVED

- A person who participates

 CONTRIBUTION (creativity)

- In participation employees are empowered to release their own resources

of initiative and creativity toward the objectives of the organization.

 RESPONSIBILITY (build teamwork)

- Participation encourages people to accept responsibilities in their group’s

activities.

Benefits of Participation

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 Participation tends to improve motivation because employees feel more accepted
by their employer and more actively involved in the situation.

Benefits of Participation

1. Higher Output

2. Better Quality

3. Creativity

4. Innovation

5. Higher Motivation

6. Reduce turn – over and absences

7. Better communication

Programs for Participation

 SUGGESTION PROGRAMS

- are formal plans to invite individual employees to recommend work

improvements.

Benefits of Suggestion Programs:

1. Deliver more value for costumers

2. Boost Employee Morale & Motivation

3. Increase Revenue

4. Reduce Costs

 QUALITY CIRCLES

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 - Voluntary groups that receive training in statistical techniques and
problem solving skills to improve productivity and working conditions.

Key to Successful Quality Circles:

 Use them for measurable, short term problems

 Obtain continuous support from management

 Apply the group’s skills to problems

 Train supervisors in facilitating skills

 SELF – MANAGING TEAMS

- Natural work groups that are given a large degree of decision – making
autonomy

 EMPLOYEE OWNERSHIP PLANS

- Employees provides the capital to purchase control of an existing

operation

Important Considerations in Participation

 LIMITATIONS OF PARTICIPATIONS

a. Theory X belief

b. Lack of support from higher levels

c. Managerial fear of lost – power, status, control

d. Lack of adequate training for managers and employees

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 e. Problems encountered in early stages

f. Substantial efforts needed to implement

 MANAGERIAL CONCERNS ABOUT PARTICIPATION

- Difficulty of some managers to adjust to their new roles in a high involvement

system

- Lack of preparation either managers or employees

- Shift manager’s role from judge and critic to partners with employees

- Essence of servant leadership places the needs of others above one’s own self

 MANAGERIAL CONCERNS ABOUT PARTICIPATION

(Servant Leader’s Key Behavior)

 They listen actively

 They treat others with respect

 They seek to engage in dialogue and often paraphrase to ensure understanding

 They affirm the worth and contributions of each participant

 They are willing to admit mistakes and ask for help

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 Chapter 9

Individual and Interpersonal Behavior

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 INDIVIDUAL AND INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR

INTRODUCTION

Human Behavior has been believed to be the outcome of or response to certain

external and internal forces called stimuli.

Two views of how Human behavior occurs:

1. The Traditional view

2. The Input-Output System

The Traditional View (SOB Model)

Behavior is the response to a stimulus.

A. Situation compromising of stimulus and environment

B. Organization occurs through physiological and cognitive means

C. Behavior emerges as patterns of action as an outcome

THE INPUT-OUTPUT SYSTEM

Behavioral Scientists B J Kolasa viewed behavior from a “system” point of

view which states that OUTPUT is the outcome of INPUT on which some action
has taken place.

Input + Processing --------> Output

Stimulus + Internal/External

Processing -------------------> Response

BIOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AFFECTING BEHAVIOR

 AGE

 GENDER

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  LENGTH OF SERVICE

 MARITAL STATUS

OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

 ABILITIES

 RACE

 PERCEPTION

 ATTRIBUTION

 ATTITUDE

 PERSONALITY

NATURE OF EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND ITS EFECTS

ATTITUDES

Evaluative statements (either favorable or unfavorable) concerning objects,

people, or events.

It can be characterized in 3 ways:

First, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.

Second, attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum form very favorable to
very unfavorable.

Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has
feelings and beliefs.

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 Three Components of Attitude

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

1. The Adjustment Function

2. Ego-Defensive Function

3. The Value-Expressive Function

4. The Knowledge Function

CHANGING ATTITUDES

Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best interests

of managements to try to do so.

Some of the possible ways of changing attitudes:

 Providing new information

 Use of fear

 Resolving Discrepancies

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  Influence of friends and peers

 Co-opting

Employee Attitude And Their Effects

 Attitudes
 evaluative statements (either favorable or unfavorable) concerning objects,
people, or events.
 Reflect how one feels about something.
 ATTITUDES ex: “I like my job.”

 Attitude can be characterized in three ways:

 First, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.
 Second, attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable
to very unfavorable.
 Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has
feelings (sometimes called “affect”) and beliefs.

 Three Components of Attitude

 Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
 Cognitive Component-The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
(Evaluation)
 Affective Component -The emotional or feeling segment of an
attitude (Feeling)
 Behavioral Component- An intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something. (Action)

o Cognitive = evaluation My superior gave a promotion to a

coworker who deserved it less than me. My supervisor is
unfair.
o Affective = feeling I dislike my supervisor!
o Behavioral = action I’m looking for other work; I’ve
complained about my supervisor to anyone who would listen.
Negative attitude toward supervisor attitude
 Functions of Attitude (According to Katz)
 The Adjustment Function- Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work
environment.
 Ego-Defensive Function -Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and
self- image.
 The Value-Expressive Function- Attitudes provide individuals with a basis
for expressing their values.

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  The Knowledge Function -Attitudes provide standards and frames of
reference that allow people to understand and perceive the world around
him.

 Changing Attitudes
Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best
interests of managements to try to do so. For example, if employees believe that
their employer does not look after their welfare, the management should try to
change their attitude and help develop a more positive attitude in them. However,
the process of changing the attitude is not always easy.

 Changing Attitudes
Some of the possible ways of changing attitudes :
 Providing New Information.
 Use of Fear
 Resolving Discrepancies
 Influence of friends and peer
 Co-opting

 Important Attitudes Related to Organizations

 Job Satisfaction - Is a set of favorable or unfavorable feelings and
emotions with which employees view their work.
 Job Involvement - The degree to which a person identifies with a job,
actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-
worth.
 Organizational Commitment - The degree to which an employee
identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain
membership in the organization

 Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds
toward his or her job.
 A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the
job and vice versa.
 Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used
interchangeably.
 Often when people speak of “employee attitudes” they mean
“employee job satisfaction.”
 A pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job
experiences (Locke, 1976).
 An employee’s cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her job
 Job Satisfaction
 JOB SATISFACTION Specific Components
 Satisfaction with Pay
 Satisfaction with Promotion
 Satisfaction with Work

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  Satisfaction with Supervision
 Satisfaction with Co-workers
Organizational Commitment

 How Are Employee Attitudes Measured?

 The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes
is through attitude surveys.
 Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable
feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions. Managers
present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific
information. Individual Responses are then combined and analyzed

1. Causes of Job Satisfaction

 Most people prefer work that is challenging and stimulating. Jobs
with good compensation have average job satisfaction levels. Money
may be a motivator, but may not stimulate job satisfaction.
 There is a link between a person’s personality and job satisfaction.
Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs.
 The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance
o Satisfaction and Productivity
 Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers
are more satisfied!
 Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied
workers.
o Satisfaction and Absenteeism
 Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
o Satisfaction and Turnover
 Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
 Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out
lower performers.
o Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction
 Satisfied workers provide better customer service.

 Job satisfaction & organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

o Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the
organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the
normal expectations of their job.
o Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:
o They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.
o They are less likely to turnover, which helps build long-term customer
relationships.

 Pleasure in the Job puts perfection in the work” - Aristotle “ The best way to
appreciate your job is to imagine yourself without one.” - Oscar Wilde

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 Chapter 10

 Issues Between Organizations and Individuals

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 AREAS OF LEGITIMATE ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCE

Every organization develops certain policies and requirements for performance. If the
organization and an individual define the boundaries of legitimate influence differently, then
organizational conflict is likely to develop.

Following are sample areas of general approval of organizational influence.

 Job conduct – such as the tidiness of one’s office and one’s working hours (high
legitimacy of influence)

 Personal activities off the job – such as the church one attends, where charge accounts are
maintained, and where one goes on vacation (low legitimacy of influence)

MODEL OF LEGITIMACY OF ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCE

The model of legitimacy of organizational influence that has been developed from
research in shown Figure 10 – 1. The two key variables in the model are conduct on the job or off
of it and conduct that is job-related or not job-related.

On-the-Job High Legitimacy Moderate Legitimacy

Off-the-Job Moderate Legitimacy Low Legitimacy

Job-related Not job-related

Off-the-Job Conduct

The power of business to regulate employee conduct off the job is very limited. Certainly,
when the conduct is not job-related, there is a little reason for the employer to become involved.
On the other hand, some activities off the job may affect the employer, so questions of

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organizational influence arise. The basic relationship is as follows, “The more job related one’s
conduct is when off the job, the more support there is for organizational influence on the
employee.”

Rights to Privacy

Primary related to organizational invasion of a person’s private life and unauthorized

release of confidential information about a person in a way that would cause emotional harm or
suffering.

Business Activities that may Involve Employee Rights of Privacy

1. Lie detectors
2. Personality tests
3. Location trackers
4. Medicinal examinations
5. Treatment of alcoholism
6. Monitoring of employee lifestyles
7. Treatment of drug abuse
8. Surveillance devices
9. Computer data banks
10. Confidential records
11. Genetic screening
12. Inquiry into personal relationships

Policy Guidelines Relating to Privacy

Because of the importance of employee privacy, most large employers have developed
policy guidelines to protect it. These guidelines also help establish uniform practices and make it
easier to handle any unusual situations that may develop. Following are some of the policy
guidelines on privacy that organizations are using;

1. Relevance (only necessary & useful information)

2. Recency ( obsolete information)
3. Notice (No personal data system is unknown)
4. Fiduciary duty (keeper of the information)
5. Confidentiality (secured information)
6. Due process
7. Protection of the Psyche (inner self should not be invaded)

Surveillance Devices

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 Protection of the Psyche implies that, except for compelling reasons, there should be no
surveillance of private places such as locker rooms or secret surveillance unknown to the
employee, as with secret listening devices. Surveillance known to the employees and has a
compelling job reason usually is not considered to be an undue infringement on privacy.

Forms of Surveillance Devices

1. Electronic Sensor Devices – microcomputers in clip-on ID cards, which emit

infrared signals.
2. Electronic Monitoring – it takes many forms including automatic counting of key
strokes, remote observations of the screen’s desktop computer operators,
surreptitious readings of employee’s electronic mail, and voice recording systems.
3. Cybersurfing – activity done by employees who use work time and work
computers to surf the Web, looking for wide range of information of personal
interest.
4. Cyberloafers/Cyberslackers – called to those employees who abuses their
privileges.

Honesty Testing

 The Polygraph (Lie detector)

It is an instrument that was developed to record those changes and provide
evidence
of lying.

 Paper & Pencil Tests

It is also known as integrity tests, attempt to get the respondent to disclose
information about his or her previous prospective honesty.

Treatment of Alcoholism

Since alcoholism presents major medical and job problems, employers need to develop
responsible policies and programs to deal with it without endangering rights of privacy.

Reasons for Company Programs

 The firm and employee already have a working relationship on which they can build.
 Any success with the employee will save both a valuable person for the company and a
valuable citizen for society.
 The job appears to be the best environment for supporting recovery.

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Successful Programs

 Treat alcoholism as an illness

 Focus on the behavior caused by alcoholism.
 Provide both medical help psychological support for alcoholics.

Drug Abuse

Abuse of drugs other than alcohol particularly if used at work, may cause severe problems
for the individual, the employer and other employees.

Drug Testing

To employers, the direct consequences of employee drug abuse are enormous.

Impairment Testing

- A solution to the problem with drug testing.

- This method usually consists of a brief motor-skills test performed on a computer.

Genetic Testing

The controversy over employee privacy rights has also emerged in the area of genetic
testing. New developments in the field of genetics allow physicians to use medical tests to
accurately predict whether an employee may be genetically susceptible to one or more types of
illness or harmful substances.

Positive Side of Genetic Testing

1. Information include transferring the susceptible employees to other work areas

where they will not be exposed to the substances, providing health warnings and
developing protective measures to the shield the employees from danger.

Negative Side of Genetic Testing

1. Comes into play when a firm screens present employees or job applicants on the
basis of genetic predispositions and uses the information to discriminate against
them in an attempt to minimize the firm’s future health costs.

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Discrimination

EEO laws generally prohibit job discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin,
sex, religion, handicapped status and other factors.

Sexual Harassment
- When supervisors make employment or promotion decisions contingent on
sexual favors.
- When an employee’s colleagues engage in any verbal or physical conduct that
creates an offensive working environment.

Acquired Human-Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

- It is a deadly viral disease of the human immune system. It is contagious through
certain types of contact, incurable at this time, always fatal and spreading rapidly
in some areas of the world.

Discipline

The area of discipline can have a strong impact on the individual in the organization. It is
the management action to enforce organizational standards known and understood in advance.

Two Types of Discipline

1. Preventive Discipline – is action taken to encourage employees to follow standards

and rules so that infractions do not occur.
2. Corrective Discipline – is action that follows infraction of a rule. It seeks to
discourage further infractions so that future acts will be in compliance with
standards.

QUALITY OF WORK LIFE (QWL)

It is a term that refers to the favorableness or unfavorableness of a total job environment

for people. QWL programs are another way in which organizations recognize their responsibility
to develop jobs and working conditions that are excellent for people as well as for the economic
health of the organization.

Job Enlargement versus Job Enrichment

The modern interest in quality of work life was stimulated through efforts to change the
scope of people's job in attempting to motivate them.

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 Two Dimensions of Job Scope

a. Job Breadth - It is the number task an individual is directly responsible for.

b. Job Depth

Job Enlargement (it is a process where employees with narrow job breadth were sometimes
given
a wider variety of duties in order to reduce their monotony. It provides
breadth.)

Job Enrichment (It was developed by Frederick Herzberg on the basis of his studies indicating
that the most effective way to motivate workers was by focusing on higher –
order needs. It provides depth)

The Difference Between Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement

Higher Order

Job Enrichment Job Enrichment & Enlargement

Accent on Needs

(Focus on Depth)

Routine Job Job Enlargement

Lower Order

Few Many

Number of Tasks
(Focus on Breadth)

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Applying Job Enrichment
- Viewed in terms of Herzberg`s motivational factors, job enrichment occurs when the
work itself is more challenging, when achievement is encouraged, when there is opportunity for
growth, and when responsibility, feedback and recognition are provided.

Benefits of Job Enrichment Emerge in Three Areas;

Individual Organization Society

a. Growth
b. Self-Actualization
c. Job Satisfaction
a. Instristically motivated a. Full use of human
employees resources
b. Better employee
performance b. More effective
c. Less absenteeism and organizations
turnover, fewer grievances

CORE DIMENSIONS: A JOB CHARACTERISTICS APPROACH

Five Core Dimensions

1. Skill Variety – allows employees to perform different operations that often require
different skills.
2. Task Identity – allows employees perform complete piece of work.
3. Task Significance – refers the amount of impact as perceived by the worker, that
the work has on other people.
4. Autonomy – job characteristics that give employees some direction and control
over job-related decisions and it appears to be fundamental in building a sense of
responsibility in workers.
5. Feedback – refers to the information that tells workers how well they are
performing.

The Motivating Potential of Jobs

Job Diagnostic Survey – It is an instrument used to determine the relative presence of the
five core dimensions in jobs.

Motivating Potential Score (MPS) – It indicates the degree to which the job is perceived
to be meaningful.

Social Cues Affect Perceptions

One explanation for the lack of predicted changes form enrichment lies in the presence of
social cues, which are often rather subtle bits of information workers receive from their social
surroundings. These social cues may come from co-workers, leaders, members, customers and
family.

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DISCIPLINE
The area of discipline can have a strong impact on the individuals in the organization.

Discipline is the management action to enforce organizational standard. There are two types preventive
and corrective.

Preventive discipline is action taken to encourage employees to follow standards and rules so that
infraction do not occur. Prevention is best done by making company standards and know in advance. The
basic objective however, is to encourage employee self- discipline. In this way the employee maintain
their own discipline rather than have management impose it.

Corrective discipline is action that infraction of rule; it seeks to discipline courage further infraction so
that future acts will be in complete with standards. Typically, the corrective action is a penalty of some
type is called a disciplinary action.

The objective of disciplinary action are positive, educational, and corrective, as Follows

To reform the offender

To deters others from similar action

To maintain consistent, effective group standards.

QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

What is quality of work life (QWL)? The terms refers to the favorableness or favorableness of a
total job environment for the people. QWL programs are another way in which organization recognize
their responsibility to develops job and working condition that are excellent for people as well as for the
economics health of the organization

JOB ENLARGEMENT VERSUS JOB ENRICHMENT

The modern interest in quality of work life was stimulated though efforts to change the scope of
people’s job in attempting to motivate them.

Job scope has two dimensions- breadth and depth.

Job breadth is the number of different tasks an individual is directly responsible for. It ranges from very
narrow (one task performed repetitively) to wide (several tasks). Employees with narrow job breadth

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were sometimes given a wider variety of duties in order to reduce their monotony; this process is called
job enlargement. Another approach to changing job breadth is called job rotation, which involves
periodic assignment of an employee to completely different sets of job activities. Job rotation is an
effective way to develop multiple skills in employee, which benefits the organization while creating
greater job interest and career options for the employee.

Job enrichment takes a different approach by adding additional motivators to a job to make it more
rewarding. It was developed by Frederick Herzberg on the basis of his studies indicating that the most
effective way to motivate workers was by focusing on higher-order needs. Job enrichment seeks to add
depth to a job by giving workers more control, responsibility, and discretion over how their job is
performed.

Applying Job Enrichment

Viewed in terms of Herzberg’s motivational factors, job enrichment occurs when the work itself is more
challenging, when achievement is encouraged, when there is opportunity for growth, and when
responsibility, feedback, and recognition are provided. However, employees are the final judges of what
enriches their jobs.

Core Dimensions:
A Job Characteristics Approach
Five Core Dimension:
Skills Variety – allows employees to perform different operations that often require different skills.

Task Identity- allows employees to perform a complete piece of the work.

Task Significance- refers to the amount of impact, as prescribed by the worker, that the work has on
other people.

Autonomy- job characteristic that gives employees some discretion and control over job- related
decisions, and it appears to be fundamental in building a sense of responsibility in workers.

Feedback- refers to information that tells workers how well they are performing.

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The Motivating Potentials of Job
An instrument used to determine the relative presence of the five core dimensions in jobs is the Job
Diagnostic Survey. Before job enrichment is begun, an employer studies jobs to assess how high they are
on skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

After the data are collected, an overall index that measures the motivating potential score (MPS)
of a job may be computed. The MPS indicates the degree to which the job is perceived to be meaningful
(M, or average of skill variety, task identity, and task significance), foster responsibility (R, or autonomy),
and provide knowledge of results (KR, or feedback). The formula is

MPS= M X R X KR

Job that have been enriched to create a high MPS increase the profitability of high motivation, provided
that employees

1. Have adequate job knowledge and skills

2. Desire to learn, grow, and develop

3. Are satisfied with their work environment

Social Cues affect Perceptions

Not jobs attempts to enrich jobs have been as successful as the experiment that was just described. In
some cases employees do not report significant changes in their perceptions of the core characteristic
after job enrichment despite objective evidence that the job actually was changed. This has produced
considerable frustration for both job design specialist and managers.

The key to job enrichment lies in how employees use the social cues provided by their peers and
others to arrive at their own perception of their jobs. This activity called social information processing.

Three elements of social information processing

1. Peer may suggest which of the job characteristics really count to them

2. They may offer their personal model regarding the relative weighting of each core dimension

3. Peers may provide direct or indirect clues about their own judgment of the dimensions

THE INDIVIDUL’S RESPONSIBILITIES TO THE ORGANIZATION

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 A discussion of the individuals in the organization is incomplete if it covers only the organization’s
imposition on, and obligation to, the individuals. The employment relationship is two-way. Without
question, the organization has responsibilities to the individuals, but also- and again without question-
the individual has responsibilities to the organization employment is a mutual transaction. Each
employee makes certain membership investment in the organization and expects profitable rewards in
return. The organization also invest in the individual, and it too, expects profitable rewards.

ORGANIZATIONAL CITEZENSHIP

Applying the social exchange idea makes it evident that employee are expected to go beyond
their job description and be good organizational citizenship. This reciprocal relationship at the individual
level parallels the way the organization is expected to behave in the broader society in which it operates.

BLOWING THE WHISTLE ON UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR

Despite the best ethical codes and individual voices, unethical organizational behavior may still
arise. Being a good organizational citizen does not extend to blind conformity- supporting illegal activities
of the organization, bending to organizational pressure (as in the challenger example), or engaging in
other activities which seriously violate standard.

MUTUAL TRUST

Is joint faith in the responsibility and action of the parties involved; when it is present, each
person has strongly positive expectation that the other person do the right thing.

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 Chapter 11

Interpersonal Behavior

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Interpersonal Behavior
• Interpersonal behavior is the interaction between two or more persons
• Interpersonal behavior affects the relationships between coworker and coworker,
coworker and supervisor, and even worker and customer
• Interpersonal behavior represents a strong association among the individuals who
work together in the same workplace
Conflict in Organization
• Conflicts arises when individuals or groups encounter goals that both parties
cannot obtain satisfactorily-Chung and Megginson
• Conflict may be understood as collision or disagreement
• The struggle between incompatible or opposing needs, wishes, ideas, interests, or
people.
• May be within an individual when there is the incompatibility between his own
goals or events; may be between two individuals, when one does not see eye to
eye with another, and in the process tries to block or frustrate the attempts of
another; or between two groups in an organization.
Organizational Conflict
• Organizational Conflict or otherwise known as workplace conflict, is described as
the state of disagreement or misunderstanding, resulting from the actual or
perceived dissent of needs, beliefs, resources and relationship between the
members of the organization. At the workplace, whenever, two or more persons
interact, conflict occurs when opinions with respect to any task or decision are in
contradiction.
• Result of human interaction, that starts when one member of the organization
discerns that his/her goals, values or attitude are incompatible, with those of
other members of the organization. The incompatibility in opinions can come into
being, within a member, between two members, or between groups of the
organization.
Causes of Organizational Conflict

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 • Managerial Expectations: Every employee is expected to meet the targets,
imposed by his/her superior and when these expectations are misunderstood or
not fulfilled within the stipulated time, conflicts arises.
• Communication Disruption: One of the major cause of conflict at the
workplace is disruption in the communication, i.e. if one employee requires certain
information from another, who does not respond properly, conflict sparks in the
organization.
• Misunderstanding: Misunderstanding of information, can also alleviate dispute
in organization, in the sense that if one person misinterpret some information, it
can lead to series of conflicts.
• Lack of accountability: If in a project, responsibilities are not clear and some
mistake has arisen, of which no member of the team wants to take responsibility
can also become a cause of conflict in the organization.
Organizational Conflict
Organizational conflict can be:
Personal Conflict - one that exist between two people because of mutual dislike
Intragroup Conflict - one arising out of lack of liberty, resource, etc. in a group
Intergroup Conflict -one that exist between two groups
Conflicts in Organization
 Hierarchical Conflicts exists between various levels of the hierarchy of the
organization like a board of director and top management, middle management
with supervising personnel, management vs. Workers.
 Functional Conflict exists between various functional departments like
marketing, personnel, financial, etc.
 Relationship Conflict: The conflict arising out of interpersonal tension among
employees, which is concerned with the relationship intrinsically, not the project
at hand. Every member of an organization, possesses different personality,
conflicts at the workplace, are often caused by interpersonal issues between the
members of the organization.

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  Task Conflict: Unclear responsibility; if there is lack of clarity, regarding who is
responsible for which section of a task or project, conflict takes place.
-When there is a discord, among members regarding nature of work to be
performed.
-To avoid this situation, the roles and responsibility of the team members should
be stated clearly and also agreed upon by all.
• Process Conflict: Clashes among the team members due to the difference in
opinions, on how work should be completed.
- Share the same understanding of the situation but prefers a different and
incompatible solution to a problem.
- Conflict of Interest, when there is a disorientation between the personal goals of
the individual and the goals of the organization, conflict of interest arises, as the
individual may fight for his personal goals, which hinders the overall success of
the project
• Scarcity of Resources: One of the main reason for occurrence of conflict in an
organization is the inadequacy of resources like time, money, materials etc. due
to which members of the organization compete with each other, leading to
conflict between them.
Ways to Manage Conflicts in Organization
• Handle the conflict positively.
• Formation of official grievance procedure for all members.
• Concentrate on the causes rather than their effect, to assess conflicts.
• Parties to conflicts should be given an equal voice, irrespective of their position,
term or political influence.
• Active participation of all the parties to conflict can also help to counter it.
Potential Benefits of Conflict
• Conflicts increase awareness- Problems that exist in the organization, who are
involve, and how to solve the problem. Conflict motivates members of the
organization to consider problems. They are energized and psychologically
focused on the problems and motivated to put plans into action.

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 • Conflicts promote change- Through conflict we learn about each other‘s needs,
styles, and values. Resulted to high-quality decisions when persons express their
opposing views and perspectives. They share their information and check each
other‘s reasoning to develop new decisions.
• Conflicts stimulate interest and creativity. Being in conflict often sparks curiosity
and stimulates viewing problems from several perspectives and combining the
best of these positions to form a creative solution. Conflict is exciting as people
learn about what makes them and others angry, frustrated, and willing to fight.
Resources
• http://www.iibmindialms.com/library/management-basic-subjects/organizational-
behavior/group-dynamics/conflicts/
• https://businessjargons.com/organizational-conflict.html
• https://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/Interpersonal-Behavior-Within-
The-Organization/98513

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR
OBJECTIVES:

 To develop an understanding of Assertive Behaviour

Confronting conflict is not easy for some people. When faced with the need to negotiate
with others, some managers may feel inferior, lack necessary skills, or be in awe of the other
person’s power. Under these conditions they are likely to suppress their feelings (part of the
avoidance strategy) or to strike out in unintended anger. Neither response is truly productive.

A constructive alternative is to practice assertive behaviors. Assertiveness is the process of

expressing feelings, asking for legitimate changes, and giving and receiving honest feedback. An
assertive individual is not afraid to request that another person change an offensive behavior and
is not uncomfortable refusing unreasonable requests from someone else. Assertiveness training
involves teaching people to develop effective ways of dealing with a variety of anxiety- producing
situations.

Assertive people are direct, honest and expressive. They feel confident, gain self- respect,
and make others feel valued. By contrast, aggressive people may humiliate others, and

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unassertive people elicit either pity or scorn from others. Both alternatives to assertiveness
typically are less effective for achieving a desired goal.

Being assertive in a situation involves five stages. When confronted with an intolerable
situation, assertive people describe it objectively, express their emotional reactions and feelings,
and empathize with the other’s position. Then they offer problem-solving alternatives and indicate
the consequences (positive or negative) that will follow. Not all five steps may be necessary in all
situations. As a minimum, it is important to describe the present situation and make
recommendations for change. Use of the other steps would depend on the significance of the
problem and the relationship between the people involved.

Assertive behavior generally is most effective when it integrates a number of verbal and
nonverbal components. Eye contact is a means of expressing sincerity and self –confidence (in
many cultures), while an erect body posture and direct body positioning may increase the
impact of a massage. Appropriate gestures may be used, congruent facial expressions are
essential, and a strong but modulated voice tone and volume will be convincing. Perhaps most
important is the spontaneous and forceful expressions of an honest reaction.

1. Make eye contact, looking at another person when you are speaking is an effective way of
showing sincerity and ensures the person that you are talking to him or her.

2. A whispered monotone will seldom convince another person that you mean business, while
shouting often causes the other person to react defensively. A level, well- modulated statement is
convincing without being intimidating.

3. Your verbal messages are more effective if you are relaxed, face the person, stand or sit
appropriately close and hold your head more erect.

4. A message can get added emphasis from appropriate gestures, while nervous fidgeting or
overenthusiastic gesturing can be distracting.

5. Effective assertions require an expression that agrees with the message. It doesn’t come across
to express anger while smiling or laughing.

6. Spontaneity is important, since hesitation may diminish the effect of an assertion. However,
judgment is needed to select an appropriate occasion.

7. Express your feelings honestly and Accept Responsibility for them. It is not necessary to put
the other person down (aggressive) in order to express your feelings (assertive).

Passive Assertive Aggressive

Allow others to choose for Choose for self. Choose for others.
you. Emotionally Appropriately honest. Inappropriately honest
Characteristics dishonest. Indirect, self- Direct, self-respecting, (tactless). Direct, self-
denying, inhibited. In self-expressing, enhancing. Self-
win/lose situations you straight forward. expressive, derogatory.

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 lose. If you do get your Convert win/lose to Win/Lose situation which
own way, it is indirect. win/win. you win.
Anxious, ignored, Confident, self-
Your own Righteous, superior,
helpless, manipulated. respecting, goal
feelings in the depreciatory, controlling.
Angry at yourself and/or oriented, valued.
exchange Later: possibly guilty.
others. Later: accomplished.
Others' feelings Guilty or superior. Humiliated, defensive,
Valued, respected.
in the exchange Frustrated with you. resentful, hurt.
Lack of respect. Distrust.
Others' view of
Can be considered a Respect, trust, know Vengeful, angry,
you in the
pushover. Do not know where you stand. distrustful, fearful.
exchange
where you stand.
Outcome determined
You achieve your goal at
Others achieve their goals by above-board
others' expense. Your
Outcome at your expense. Your negotiation. Yours and
rights upheld; others
rights are violated. others rights
violated.
respected.
I have a responsibility
I should never make
to protect my own
Underlying relief anyone uncomfortable or I have to put others
rights: I respect others
system displeased... except down to protect myself.
but not necessarily
myself.
their behavior.

From: "Managing Stress before It manages You", by Steinmetz, Blankenship, Brown, Hall, and
Miller, 1980.

SYSTEMATIC ASSERTIVE SKILLS

Broken Record
Calm repetition--saying what you want over and over again. This teaches you to use persistence
without you having to rehearse arguments or angry feelings beforehand, in order to be "up for
dealing with manipulative verbal side traps, argumentative baiting, irrelevant logic, while sticking
to your desired point.

Fogging
Accept manipulative criticism by calmly acknowledging to your critic the probability that there
may be some truth in what he/she says, yet allows you to remain your own judge of what you do.
Once learned you can receive criticism comfortably without becoming anxious or defensive,
while giving no reward to those using manipulative criticism.

Free Information
Recognize simple cues given by a social partner in everyday conversation to indicate what is
interesting or important to that person. Once you learn to recognize free information when you
perceive it, it allows you to feel less shy in entering into conversation while at the same time
prompting social partners to talk more easily about themselves.

Negative Assertion
Accepting your errors and faults (without having to apologize) by strongly and sympathetically
agreeing with hostile or constructive criticism of your negative qualities. Once learned this allows

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you to look more comfortably at negatives in your own behavior or personality without feeling
defensive and anxious, or resorting to denial of real error while at the same time reducing your
critic's anger or hostility.

Negative Inquiry
Actively prompting criticism in order to use the information (if helpful) or exhaust it (if
manipulative) while prompting your critic to be more assertive, less dependant on manipulative
ploys. Once in close relationships while prompting the other person to express honest negative
feelings and improve communication.

Self - Disclosure
Accepting and initiating discussion of both the positive and negative aspects of your personality,
behavior, lifestyle, intelligence, to enhance social communication and reduce manipulation. This
allows you comfortably to disclose aspects of yourself and your life that previously caused feeling
of ignorance, anxiety, or guilt.

Workable Compromise
In using your verbal assertive skills, it is practical, whenever you feel that your self-respect is not
in question to offer a workable compromise to the other person. You can always bargain for your
material goals unless the compromise affects your personal feelings of self-respect. If the end goal
involves a matter of you self-worth, however, there can be no compromise.

Transactional analysis - life positions

Life positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and
behaviour. There are a number of ways of diagramming the life positions. Franklin Ernst drew the
life positions in quadrants, which he called the OK Corral (1971).
Blame Model
The Transactional Analysis 'Okay Corral' can be linked to 'blame'. Commonly when emotions are
triggered people adopt one of three attitudes relating to blame, which each correlate to a position
on the Okay Corral:
 I'm to blame (You are okay and I'm not okay - 'helpless')
 You are to blame (I'm okay and you are not okay - 'angry')
 We are both to blame (I'm not okay and you are not okay - 'hopeless')
None of these is a healthy position. Instead the healthy position is, and the mindset should be: "It's
no-one's fault, blame isn't the issue - what matters is how we go forward and sort things out." (I'm
okay and you are okay - 'happy')

STROKING – is defined as any act of recognition of another. It applies to all types of

recognition such as physical, verbal and nonverbal contact between people.

(a) Positive Stroke – feel good when they received, and they contribute to the recipient’s
sense of being OK.

(b) Negative Stroke – hurt physically or emotionally and make the recipient feel less OK.

(c) Mixed Stroke – sort of combination between positive and negative stroke.

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 (d) Conditional Stroke – offered to employees if they perform correctly or avoid
problems.

(e) Unconditional Stroke – presented with any connections to behavior, although they
may make a person feel good.

POWER AND POLITICS

OBJECTIVES:

 Understand the concept of power

Power is a pervasive part of organizational life, used by managers to accomplish goals and
to strengthen their own positions. Managers manipulate power to accomplish goals and strengthen
their own positions. Success or failure in using power depends on understanding what it is, how
and when to use it, and understanding its consequences.

The Concept of Power

Power and influence.

Every interaction and social relationship in an organization can be interpreted as an

exercise of power. Influence is a transaction in which person B is induced by person A to behave
in a certain way. Person A has power over person B to the extent A can get B to do something that
B would otherwise not do.

The difference between power and influence is: Power represents capability while
Influence is the exercise of that capability. Power is not an attribute; it is an aspect of a
relationship.

Contrasting Leadership and Power

Leadership focuses on goal achievement. It requires goal compatibility with followers and
focuses influence downward.

Power is used as a means for achieving goals. It requires follower dependency. It is used
to gain lateral and upward influence.

Using power.

Obtaining, maintaining, and using power are all essential to influencing behavior.
Dependency is the extent to which something person A wants can be effected by person B
determines A's dependence on B; B's power over A depends on how much A needs what B
controls.

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A .Interpersonal power—French and Raven's five power bases:

1. Legitimate power — refers to the ability to influence others because of the position one holds
in the organization. It is also called authority, or the right to command. Characteristics of
organizational authority are:
I. It is invested in a person's position.
ii. It is accepted by subordinates.
iii. Authority is used vertically; flows from the top down.

Zone of indifference -possessing formal power, or authority, does not mean that all orders will be
followed. Orders will be followed if they are acceptable to the subordinate. They lie within the
zone of indifference. Unacceptable orders, outside the zone of indifference, will not be readily
followed. The zone of indifference may be wider or narrower, depending on sources of power
other than authority. It may be shaped by cultural factors.

2. Reward power — based on a person's ability to reward a follower for compliance. It occurs
when someone possesses a resource that another person wants and will exchange that resource for
certain behavior. It supports legitimate power.

3. Coercive power — the power to punish. It is based on fear. It can come from legitimate. It can
come informally, e.g., fear of rejection by coworkers.

4. Expert power — based on an individual's special and valued expertise. The lower the
substitutability of the expertise, the greater the expert's power.

5. Referent power — based on an individual's charisma (behavioral style).

Legitimate, reward, and coercive power come from the organization; expertise and referent power
reside in the individual and are derived from personal characteristics. One or more of the five
bases of power can be used in combination. The use of the type can affect the other power bases
(e.g., the use of coercive power can reduce an individual's perceived referent and legitimate
power).Research suggests that legitimate and reward powers are positively related; coercive
power is negatively related to legitimate and reward power.

B. Power in Groups:

1. Coalitions: are Clusters of individuals who temporarily come together to achieve a specific
purpose. It seeks to maximize their size to attain influence. Coalition seeks a broad and diverse
constituency for support of their objectives. It occurs more frequently in organizations with high
task and resource inter-dependencies. It also occur more frequently if tasks are standardized and
routine.

2. Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace. Unwelcome advances, requests for

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sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature in a work environment
reasonably perceived as hostile or abusive.

C. Power in Organization

1. Structural Power
Power is frequently determined by organizational structure. Structure is the control
mechanism by which the organization is governed. Structure allocates decision-making discretion
to various positions, affects the patterns of communication and the flow in information within a
system.

Other forms of structural power exist because of:

a. Resources- Power stems from access to resources, information and support and the ability to
get cooperation in doing necessary work. A top manager has power over a lower-level manager
because he/she controls the lower-level manager's resources.

b. Decision making power — how much an individual or subunit influences decision-making

affects the amount of power acquired.

c. Information power — power accrues to those with access to important information (the basis
for decisions).

2. Interdepartmental power Subunits/departments can gain power by controlling strategic

contingencies—events that are critical in accomplishing organizational goals. Relevant to
strategic contingencies, subunit power is influenced by subunit ability to cope with uncertainty,
and its centrality and substitutability.
Coping with uncertainty — the three types of coping activities are:

a. Coping by prevention — reducing the probability that some problem will arise.

b. Coping by information — using information (e.g., forecasting) to predict if, when, and impact
of uncertainties (making them more certain).

c. Coping by absorption — directly dealing with uncertainty as it impacts the subunit.

Centrality — the degree to which a subunit is central to the organization's workflow (often
measured by the degree to which the subunit's work contributes to the organization's final
output).Research shows centrality can be a significant source of subunit power. Subunits with
centrality substantially affect other units.

Substitutability — the ability of other subunits to perform the activities of a particular

subunit. The lower a unit's substitutability, the greater its power.

3. Empowerment Conger and Kanungo define it as "a process of enhancing feelings of self-
efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster

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powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal
techniques of providing efficacy information."

Illusion of Power
Some individuals can be perceived as having more power than they really do. They create
an illusion of power. Individuals perceived to be powerful could substantially influence others.

POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION

Political Behavior

Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that
influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the
organization

Legitimate Political Behavior - Normal everyday politics

Illegitimate Political Behavior - Extreme political behavior that violates the implied rules of the
game

Politics is in the Eye of the Beholder (some examples)

Political label Effective management label

Blaming others Fixing responsibility
Kissing up Developing working relationship
Apple polishing Demonstrating responsibility
Passing the buck Delegating authority
Covering your rear Documenting decisions

Playing politics — politics and political behavior exist in every organization.

Game playing - According to Mintzberg, many individuals are adept at playing political games.
Mintzberg identifies 13 types of political games played by managers and non-managers to
accomplish various goals:
i. To resist authority (the insurgency game).

ii. To counter the resistance to authority (the counterinsurgency game).

iii. To build power bases (the sponsorship game and coalition-building game).

iv. To defeat rivals (the line-versus staff game) and bring about organizational change (the
whistle-blowing game).

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The insurgency game — played to resist authority (e.g., ordered to reprimand an employee, a
foreman does it ineffectively).

Political influence tactics.

Political tactics:

a. Consultation—seeks support through participation.

b. Rational persuasion—attempts to show a "logically" best course of action.

c. Inspirational appeals—appeals to values and ideals.

d. Ingratiating tactics—designed to make one obligated to another.

e. Coalition tactics—seeks help of others to persuade you.

f. Pressure tactics—uses demands, intimidation, or threats to gain support.

g. Legitimating—used to gain support by claiming the authority to ask for your support.

h. Personal Appeals—used to appeal to your feelings of loyalty and friendship in order to gain
your support.

Exchange tactics — promises that compliance will lead to rewards.

Some tactics work better in influencing upward, some downward, and some laterally. Managers
prefer consultation, rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals. Least appealing were pressure
tactics, upward appeals, and exchange tactics.

Defensive Behaviors - reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame or change.

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 Chapter 12

Formal and Informal Surges

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Formal and Informal Surges

Formal Surges- refers to the structure of jobs and position with clearly defined function and
relationships as prescribed by the top management.

Informal Surges- which does not appear on the organization chart, supplements the formal
organization in achieving organizational goals effectively and efficiently.

Formal Surges (according to Chester Bernard)

-defines formal surges “a system of consciously coordinated activities forces of two or

more persons. It refers to the structure of well-defined jobs, each bearing a definite measure of
authority, responsibility and accountability.

The essence of formal organization is conscious common purpose and comes into being when
persons:

-can communicate with each other

-are willing to act

-share a purpose

The formal organization is built around four key pillars. They are:

-division of labor

-scalar and functional process

-structure

-span control

Thus, a formal organization is one resulting from planning where the pattern of structure has
already been determined by the top management.

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Informal Surges (according to Chester Bernard)

-refers to the relationship between people in the organization based on personal on

personal attitudes, emotions, likes, dislikes etc. an informal organization I an organization which
not established by any formal authority but arises from the personal and social relation of the
people.

Difference between Formal and Informal Surges

Formal Surges Informal Surges

1. Formal surges are established with the
explicit aim of achieving well defined
goals.
2. Formal surges recognize certain tasks
and activities which are to be carried
out to achieve its goals.
3. The communication system in formal
surges follow certain pre-determined
patterns and path.
4. Formal surges is relatively slow to
respond and adapt to changing
situation and realities.
1.Informal surges springs on its own. Its goals
are ill defined and intangible.
2.Informal organization does not have any
well-defined tasks.
3.Informal surges, the communication pattern
is haphazard, intricate and natural.
4.Informal surges is dynamic and very
vigilant. It is sensitive to its surroundings.

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Group dynamics- concern how groups form, their structure and process how they function.
Group dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups of all
types. In an Organizational setting, group are a very common
organizational entity and the study of groups and group dynamics is an
important are of study in organizational behavior.

The following sections provide information related to group dynamics:

Group Development

- Is concerned with why and how groups develop. It suggests that group develop
based on activities, interactions and sentiments. Basically, means that when
individuals show common activities, they will have more interaction and will
develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other.

Five stages of Group Development

1. Forming- this stage is usually characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The major
goals of the group have not been established. The nature of the task or leadership of the
group has not been determined. Thus, forming is an orientation periods when members get
to know one another and share expectation about the group.
2. Storming- in this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement and
conflict. Members often challenge group goals and struggles for power.
3. Norming- this stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and share
expectation. At this stage the group members will begin to develop a feeling of group
cohesion and identity.
4. Performing- occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of cohesiveness
during this stage of development, individuals accept one another and conflict is resolved
through group discussion members of the group make decisions through a rational process
that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.

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Group Types

 Command Groups – are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a
supervisor and the subordinates that report to the supervisor.
 Task Groups – Consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members
are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time. Task
groups are commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and
assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished.
 Functional Groups- is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an
unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of
current goals and objectives.
 Interest Groups- usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal
groups. Member of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department,
but they are bound together by some other common interest.
 Friendship Groups- are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political
belief, religious values and other common bonds.

Group Structure- is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the group together and
help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be described in a variety of ways.

Among the more common considerations are

 Group Size- can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people small groups of two
to ten thought to be more effective because each member has ample opportunity to
participate and become actively involved in group.
 Group Role- are usually predetermined and assigned to members each role will have
specific responsibilities and duties. There is how ever emergent role that develop naturally
to meet the need of the groups.
 Group Norms- are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the
members of the group. Norms defined the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable
behavior.
 Group Cohesiveness- refers to the bonding of group members and their desire to remain
part of the group.

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THE NATURE OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

- A network of personal and social relations not established or required by the formal organization
but arising spontaneously as people associate with one another
- Emphasis is on people and their relationship
- Attaches to a person

FORMAL ORGANIZATION

- Emphasizes official positions in terms of authority and responsibility

- Attaches to a position

INFORMAL FORMAL
BASIC OF COMPARISON
ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION
GENERAL NATURE Unofficial Official
MAJOR CONCEPTS Power and Politics Authority and Responsibility
PRIMARY FOCUS Person Position
SOURCE OF LEADER POWER Given by the group Delegated by Management
GUIDELINES FOR BEHAVIOR Norms Rules
SOURCES OF CONTROL Sanctions Rewards and Penalties

How Does the Informal Organizations Emerge?

1. Employees act differently

2. Employees often interact with different people
3. Workers may embrace a set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments

++ LESSON FOR MANAGERS – must be AWARE of the Informal Activities, Interactions and Sentiments
of Employees

INFORMAL LEARDERSHIP

- Form of job enrichment, providing them with variety in their work day and a feeling of greater
significance
- It helps satisfy their social needs by dramatically increasing their interpersonal contacts during
the day
- A source of recognition for their esteem needs- a way of being acknowledge for their skills and
experience

++MANAGERS – can better understand the behavior of some individuals

‘- needs to learn who the KEY INFORMAL LEADER

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CAUTIONS

- Source of potential formal leaders, but it should be remembered than an informal leader does
not always make the best formal manager
- Some informal leaders fail as formal ones because they fear official responsibility
- Other informal leaders fail because their area of official managerial authority is broader and
more complex than the tiny are in which they had informal power

BENEFITS OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS

- They blend with formal systems to make an affective total system

- Lighten the work load of management
- Fill-in gaps in a manager’s abilities

POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS

BENEFITS
- Makes a more effective total system
- Lightens workload on management
- Helps get the work done
- Fills in gaps in a manager’s abilities
- Improves communication
- Provides a safety valve for employee
emotion
PROBLEMS
- Develops undesirable rumor
- Encourages negative attitude
- Resists change
- Leads to interpersonal and intergroup
conflicts
- Operates outside of management’s control

FORMAL GROUPS
COMMITTEES

- A specific type of group meeting in which members in their group role have been delegated the
authority to handle the problem at hand
- The supervisor and the member have equal committee roles

SYSTEMS FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR EFFECTIVE COMMITTEE

+ SIZE - the size of a group tends to affect the way it works

+ COMPOSITION – leaders of committee, problem-solving groups, and task forces often have the
opportunity to select the members. When doing so, the leaders need to consider various factors, such as
the committee’s objective, the member’s interest level and time available to serve and the past history of
working relationship among the potential members

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 + AGENDAS – surface agenda (official task of the group); hidden agenda (involves members’
private emotions and motives, which they have brought with them but keep hidden)

+ LEADERSHIP ROLES – two types of leadership roles: task leader and social leader

TASK AND SOCIAL LEADERSHIP ROLES

TASK ROLES
- Define problem or goal for the group
- Request facts, ideas, or opinions from
members
- Provide facts, ideas or opinions
- Clarify a confused situation; give
examples; provide structure
- Summarize the discussion
- Determine whether agreement has been
reached
SOCIAL ROLES
- Support the contributions of others;
encourage them by recognition
- Sense the mood of the group and help
members become aware of it
- Reduce the tension and reconcile
disagreements
- Modify your position; admit an error
- Facilitate participation of all members
- Evaluate the group’s effectiveness

STRUCTURED APPROACHES

COMMITTEE MEETINGS – involve open discussion of a problem or issue

FOUR (4) ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURES:

1. BRAINSTORMING – popular method for encouraging creative thinking in groups of about eight
people. It is built around four basic guidelines for participants:
a. Generate as many ideas as possible
b. Be creative, freewheeling and imaginative
c. Build upon, extend or combine earlier ideas
d. Withhold criticism of other’s ideas

2. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE – exists in name only, with members having minimal interaction
prior to producing a decision. Here are the steps that nominal groups often follow:
a. Individuals are brought together and presented with a problem
b. They develop solutions independently, often writing them on cards
c. Their ideas are shared with others in a structured format
d. Brief time is allotted so that questions can be asked - but only for clarification
e. Group members individually designate their preferences for the best alternatives by secret
ballot
f. The group decision is announced

3. DELPHI DECISION MAKING – a panel of relevant people is chosen to address an issue. Members
are selected because they are experts or have relevant information to share and available time to
do so. The major merits of the process include:

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 a. Elimination of interpersonal problems among panellists
b. Efficient use of expert’s time
c. Adequate time for reflection and analysis by respondents
d. Diversity and quantity of ideas generated
e. Accuracy of predictions and forecasts made

4. DIALECTIC DECISION MODEL – traces its roots to Plato and Aristotle. It begins with a clear
statement of a problem to be solved. Then two or more competing proposals are generated.

POTENTIAL OUTCOMES OF FORMAL GROUP PROCESSES

A. Support for Decision – people who participate in making decision feel more strongly motivated
to accept it and carry it out
B. Quality of Decision – groups often are effective problem-solving tools
C. Individual Development – participation increases the likelihood of each member’s developing
new interactive skills than can be used later in groups

WEAKNESSES OF COMMITTEES

A. SLOWNESS AND EXPENSIVENESS – meetings of all types are sometimes a slow and costly way to
get things done
B. GROUPTHINK – often led to conformity and compromise; tightly knit group to bring individual
thinking in line with the group’s thinking
C. POLARIZATION – individuals bring to the group their strong predispositions, either positive or
negative, toward the topic
D. Escalating commitment -

EMERGING DIRECTIONS

A. VARIATIONS IN THE USE OF GROUPS

B. CONTINGENCY MODELS
C. SUPPORT SYSTEMS

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 Chapter 13

Team and Team Building

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TEAM AND TEAM BUILDING

 A team is a group of individuals working together to achieve a goal

 Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy
through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize their
strengths and minimize their weaknesses.

ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT FOR TEAMS

TEAM´S ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT: Management Processes

 Extent to which management processes have helped to create a clearly defined

purpose and clear goals for the team

 Extent to which management processes have helped to create alignment between

team goals and the goals of the parent organization

 Extent to which management processes support team through the allocation of

critical resources

TEAM´S ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT: Organizational Culture

 Extent to which the culture supports positive inter-team interactions such as

communications and cooperation between teams in the organization

 Extent to which the organizational culture supports the integration of the team
into the rest of the organization

 Extent to which the organizational culture values and supports teams and team
work

TEAM´S ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT: Organizational Systems

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  Extent to which the organizational systems provide team-level feedback and
recognition

 Extent to which organizational systems provide teams with the necessary business
and technical information

 Extent to which organizational systems provide necessary training for teams

Teamwork: You’re an Essential Piece

Teamwork

 Teamwork involves helping other members of your team to achieve a common

goal effectively.

Importance of Teamwork

Teams don't work well without teamwork! Teamwork is important for the success of all
businesses. To have a meaningful and lifelong career, you need to work well with others
which is why teamwork is so important in the professional world.

Teamwork helps solve problems

 Collaboration within a group can help solve difficult problems. Brainstorming is a

good opportunity for the team to exchange ideas and come up with creative ways
of doing things. By working together, teams can find the solutions that work best.

Teamwork is a support system

 When one team member falls behind, there's another to pick up the pieces. When
work is divided up among members of a team, it gets done faster, making the
overall business operate more efficiently. Your team will develop a sense of
comradery as you work toward a common goal.

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Teamwork builds morale

 You'll feel that your work is valued when you contribute to something that
produces results. If you offer an idea that helps improve productivity, such as a
new filing system, confidence and trust is built within the team. Each team
member has something special to offer. By working together, members of a team
feel a strong sense of belonging and deep commitment to each other and the
common goal.

Team Building

 Team building is a collective term for various types of activities used to enhance
social relations and define roles within teams, often involving collaborative tasks.

Importance of Team Building

Networking, socializing, and getting to know each other better

 Socializing and making friends in the workplace is one of the best ways to
increase productivity in the office. Not only does it increase morale in the office, it
also allows for the office to work better solving everyday workplace issues.

Teamwork and boosting team performance

 Team bonding activities also improve workplace projects that involve teamwork.
After completing team building activities together, employees better understand
each other’s strengths, weaknesses, and interests. This understanding helps them
work even better together on future progress vital to a company.

Celebration, team spirit, fun, and motivation

 After any sports team wins a major championship, they celebrate and have fun.
This motivates them to want to win even more.

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Collaboration and the fostering of innovation and creativity

 People tend to have a larger imagination when they are around people they are
comfortable with. So, successful team building events not only bring people closer
together but they also lead to more successful and creative workplace ideas.

Communication and working better together

 Everybody wants a friendly work environment, where people are comfortable and
happy to talk to and work with anyone.

 Of the best reasons for team building is that the activities actually work to
accomplish improved communication.

God bless 

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 Chapter 14

Change and Its Effects

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CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS

 Managing Change
Change is everywhere. It is constant, and its phase is accelerating.
It is all around people – in the seasons, in their social environment and in their
own biological process.
Organizations are also encountering a wide variety of dramatic changes.
Managing change requires strong leadership and an understanding of how
organizational change occurs. Leaders are in the unique role of not only designing
change initiatives but enacting and communicating them to subordinates.
Managing change requires more than simple planning: the significant human
element of change resistance needs to be addressed to ensure success.

Leadership Strategies for Change

Successful change management is more likely if leaders:

 Create a definable strategy – Define measurable stakeholder aims, create a

business case for their achievement (and keep it continuously updated), monitor
assumptions, risks, dependencies, costs, return on investment, and cultural issues
affecting the progress of the associated work.
 Communicate effectively – Explain to stakeholders why the change is being
undertaken, what the benefits of successful implementation will be, and what how
the change is being rolled out.
 Empower employees – Devise an effective education, training, or skills upgrading
scheme for the organization.
 Counter resistance – Identify employee issues and align them to the overall
strategic direction of the organization. Adapt the change initiative when necessary
to mitigate discontentment.
 Support employees – Provide personal counseling (if required) to alleviate any
change-related fears.
 Track progress – Monitor the implementation and fine-tuning as required.

These six components of change are the responsibility of management to create and
implement.

 Change at work
The Nature of Change
Change is any alteration occurring in the work environment that affects the
ways which employees must act. These changes may be planned or unplanned,
catastrophic or evolutionary, positive or negative, strong or weak, slow or rapid
and stimulated either internally or externally. Regardless of their source, nature,
origin, pace or strength, changes can have profound effects on their recipients.

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 Change in the workplace is inevitable, and a manager’s role in helping his
employees embrace that change can make a difference in ensuring a smooth
transition.
Changes may lead to pressures and conflicts that eventually cause a
breakdown somewhere in the organization. An example is an employee who
becomes dissatisfied and resigns.
Organizations tends to achieve an equilibrium in their social structure – a
state of relative balance between opposing forces. This equilibrium is established
when people develop a relatively stable set of relations with their environment.
When change comes along, it requires them to make new adjustments as the
organization seeks a new equilibrium. When employees are unable to make
adequate adjustments, the organization is in a state of unbalance or
disequilibrium.
This disequilibrium highlights a dilemma for managers and their role is:
1. Introduce continual organizational changes so as to bring about a better fit
between the firm and its environment. Here, the manager’s role is to be
proactive – anticipating events, initiating change and taking control of the
organization’s destiny.
2. Restore and maintain equilibrium and personal adjustment that change
upsets. In this role the manager is more reactive – responding to events,
adapting to change, and tempering the consequences of change.

 Resistance to Change
Resistance to change consists of any employee behaviors designed to discredit,
delay or prevent the implementation of a work change. Employees resist change
because it threatens their needs for security, social interaction, status,
competence or self-esteem.

Nature and Effects

The perceived threat stemming from change may be real or imagined,
intended or unintended, direct or indirect, large or small. Regardless of the nature
of the change some employees will try to protect themselves from its effects.
Their actions may range from complaints, foot-dragging and passive resistance to
absenteeism, sabotage and work slowdown.
Although people tend to resist to change, this tendency is offset by their
desire to new experience and for the rewards that come with change. Certainly,
not all kind of changes are resisted, some are actively sought by employees.

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 One lesson for management is that change is likely to be either a success
or a problem, depending on how successfully it is managed to minimize
resistance.
Reasons for Resistance
1. They may not feel comfortable with the nature of the change itself.
2. Resistance stems from the method by which change is introduced.
3. Inequity experienced when people perceive themselves being changed while
someone else appears to gain the benefits of the change.
Types of Resistance

1. Logical Resistance. Based on disagreement with the facts, rational reasoning,

logic and science. Logical resistance arises from the actual time and effort
required to adjust to change, including new job duties that must be learned.
2. Psychological Resistance. Typically based on emotions, sentiments and
attitudes. Employees may fear the unknown, mistrust management’s
leadership, or feel their security and self-esteem are threatened.
3. Sociological Resistance. Sociological resistance also is logical, when it is seen
as a product of a challenge to group interests, norms and values.
Possible Benefits of Resistance

Resistance is not all bad. It can bring some benefits. Resistance may
encourage management to reexamine its change proposals, thus sure they are
appropriate. In this way employees operate as part of a system of checks and
balances that ensures that management properly plans and implement change. If
reasonable employee resistance causes management to screen its proposed
changes more carefully, thus employee have discouraged careless management
decisions.

Resistance also can help identify specific problem areas where a change is
likely to cause difficulties, so that management can take corrective action before
serious problem develop. At the same time management may be encouraged to
do a better job of communicating the change.

Resistance also gives management information about the intensity of

employee emotions on issues and may encourage employees to think and talk
more about a change so that they understand it better.

Implementing Change Successfully

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*Transformational Leadership Change

Management has a key role in initiating and implementing change successfully:

 Transformational Leader- is instrumental in the process”. They are managers who

initiate bold strategic changes to position the organization for its future. Transformational
leaders stimulate employees to action and charismatically model the desired behaviour.
The three stage model of transformational leadership change.
 Creating Vision- transformational leaders create and communicate a vision for the
organization. A vision is a crystallized long-range image or idea of what can and should be
accomplished.
 Communicating Charisma- is leadership characteristics that can help influence
employees to take early sustained action. Charismatic leaders are dynamic risk takers who
show their depth of expertise and well deserved self-confidence, express high performance
expectation.
 Stimulating Learning- this process is called double loop learning. Its name is derived
from the fact that way a change is handled should not only reflect current information
gathered but also prepare the participants to manage future changes even more effectively.

Three stage in Change

Behavioural awareness in managing change is aided by viewing change as three

step process.
 Unfreezing- means that old ideas and practices need to be cast aside so that new ones can
be learned.
 Changing- is the step in which the new ideas and practices are learned.
 Refreezing- means that what has been learned is integrated into actual practice.

*Manipulating the Forces- is a dynamic balance of forces supporting and restraining any
existing practices.

*Building Support for Change- a wild variety of positive activities to build support others is
such as manipulation and coercion, typically antagonize employees and sabotage the long team
success of the change program.

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  Use of group forces- effective change focuses not only on the individual but also on the
group itself. The group is an instrument for bringing strong pressure on its members to
change.
 Providing Rationale for Change- presents change on the basis of the impersonal
requirements of the situation, rather than on personal grounds.
 Participation- a fundamental way to build support for change is through participation.
 Shared Reward- another way to build employee support for change is to be sure that
there are enough rewards for employees in the change situation
 Employee Security- along with shared rewards, existing employee benefits need to be
protected. Security during a change is essential.
 Communication and Education- communication is essential in gaining support for
change. Management often does not realize that activities that help get change, such as
communication and education usually are disrupted by change.
 Stimulating Employee Readiness- it is closely related to communication is ideas of
helping employees become aware of the need for a change. This approach builds on the
premise that change is more likely to be accepted if people affected by it recognize a need
for it before it occurs.

Understanding Organization Development

Organization Development is the systematic application of behavioural science knowledge

at various levels to bring about the planned change.

Foundation of Organizational Development

 System Orientation- change is so abundant in modern society that organizations need

all their parts working together in order to solve the problems, and capitalize on the
opportunities that are brought about by change.
 Understanding Causality- is help to managers view their organizational process.

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  Assumptions Underlying Organization Development- Organizational Development
practitioners make a set of assumptions that guide their actions. Sometimes these
assumptions are implicit and need to be examined to enable double-loop learning.

Characteristics of Organization Development

 Humanistic Values- is organization development program typically are based on

humanistic values which are positive beliefs about the potential and desire for growth
among employees.
 Use of a Change Agent- is OD Program generally use one of more change agent, whose
role is to stimulate, facilitate and coordinate change.
 Problem Solving- OD emphasizes the process of problem solving. It trains participants to
identify and solve problems that are important to them.
 Experiential Learning- when participants learn by experiencing in the training
environment the kind of human problems they face on the job, the process is called
experiential learning.
 Intervention at Many Levels- the general of organization development is to build more
effective organization, ones that will continue to learn, adapt, and improve. It
accomplishes the goal by recognizing the problems may occur at the individual,
interpersonal, group, intergroup, and total organization level.
 Contingency Orientation- rely on just one or a few approaches, most OD people are
flexible and pragmatic, selecting and adapting actions to fit assessed needs.
 Summary and Application- OD process applies behavioural science knowledge and
strategies to improve an organization. It is a long range continuing effort that tries to build
cooperative work relationship through the use of a change agent.

Organization Development Process

-is a complex process. It may take a year or more to design and implement, and the
process may continue indefinitely.

The following step in Organizational Development Process

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  Initial Diagnosis- the consultant meets with top management to determine the nature of
the firm’s problems, to develop the OD approaches most likely to be successful, and to
ensure the full support of top management/
 Data Collection- surveys may be made to determine organizational climate and
behavioural problems.
 Data Feedback and confrontation- work groups are assigned to review the data
collected, to mediate areas of disagreement and to establish priorities for change.

 Action Planning and Problem solving- group use the data to develop specific
recommendation for change.

 Use of Intervention- once action planning is completed, the consultant helps the
participants select and use appropriate OD interventions.

 Evaluation and Follow up- the consultant help organization evaluate the result of its OD
efforts and develop additional programs in areas where additional result are needed.

Benefits and Limitation

-organization development is a useful organizational intervention. Its chief advantage is

that it tries to deal with changes in a whole organization or major unit of it.

Benefits of OD Limitation of OD
Change throughout organization Major time requirements
Greater motivation Substantial expense
Increase productivity Delayed payoff period
Better quality Possible failure
Higher Job Satisfaction Possible invasion of privacy
Creation of Learning individuals and groups Cultural incompatibility
Lower Turnover Difficult in evaluation

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 Chapter 15
Stress and Stress Counselling

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 Chapter 15
STRESS AND COUNSELING

GENERAL CONCEPT OF STRESS

Stress is often defined as a bodily response to

the demands of life. But there are also emotional and
mental aspects of stress. It is experienced as thoughts
and feelings as well as in the body. Another way to
define stress could be as an internal and conditioned
response to external pressures.

Stress evolved in the form of a fight or

flight response. This response was a reaction to
physical threats on one’s life. The fight or flight
response causes the physical aspects of stress, which
appear when adrenaline and cortisol are released into
the bloodstream. These hormones cause increased
blood flow, clotting, and elevated heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood sugar.

The stress response is immediate and uncontrollable. Someone with high stress levels
may experience these physical aspects several times throughout the day. Consistently high
levels of stress can cause people to develop conditions such as hypertension, stroke,
diabetes, chronic pain, and heart attacks.

Symptoms of Stress

Stress can have physical, mental, and emotional symptoms. Stress affects people on
different levels. It can help to identify which parts of ourselves are being affected by stress.
Stress can affect people on one level, such as only mentally, or on multiple levels, such as
both physically and emotionally.

Physical symptoms of stress include headaches, insomnia, fatigue, stomach aches,

body pain, acne or breakouts, digestive issues.

Mental symptoms of stress include anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, food and
eating issues, addictions and/or compulsions, substance abuse.

Emotional symptoms of stress include irritability, sadness, anger, apathy, overwhelm.

If you are worried about how any of these symptoms are affecting you, it is okay to
reach out for help. Talking with a trusted therapist or doctor about your stress can help you
learn how to manage it.
What Causes Stress?

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 Stress is not always caused by a negative event. Some positive life experiences can be
just as stress-inducing as negative ones.

The Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory indexes common stressful events and uses a
numerical value to rank them. It uses these values to determine a person’s potential for
becoming ill as a result of stress. Some common stressors in life, many of which appear on
the stress inventory, include
 Losing a job or starting a new job
 Getting divorced or going through a
breakup
 Getting married
 Being discriminated against
 Experiencing a change in financial
status
 Following the news or politics
 Having a child
 Moving
 Beginning or ending school
 Experiencing a loss
 Being diagnosed with a serious illness

For many people, these events are normal parts of life. Not everyone experiences a
divorce, marriage, or having a child. But many will experience discrimination, lose a job, go
through a breakup, or experience another major or minor event.
For most people, stress is a part of life that is not going anywhere. But it may be easier to
manage in smaller amounts, especially when other factors help mitigate it. A marriage, for
example, is generally considered to be a happy event. Though it can be stressful to plan and
prepare for the ceremony, the excitement experienced by the couple may help reduce the
physical and mental effects of their stress.

Unhealthy Coping Mechanisms For Stress

People may also develop methods for coping with stress. A coping mechanism is a
response that develops over time to help someone deal with an overwhelming external force,
like stress. Some coping mechanisms work as healthy tools for managing stress. Many others
are unhealthy and can magnify the negative effects of stress instead of reducing them.
A few examples of potentially harmful coping mechanisms for stress include:
 Drinking alcohol to excess • Gambling
 Smoking • Shopping
 Emotional eating •Self-harm
 Illicit drug use
Therapy can help people identify an unhealthy coping mechanism for stress and
develop a healthy one to use instead. If a person uses an unhealthy coping mechanism for
dealing with long-term stress, they can end up with a secondary mental health issue.

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Individuals may start using an unhealthy coping mechanism to lessen physical, mental, or
emotional pain caused by stress. However, continued self-medication or self-soothing using
the method may then lead to a reliance on it for coping with stress. In the case of addiction,
this can lead to more stressful life events, like physical illness or unemployment. Other
unhealthy coping mechanisms may cause people to develop mental health issues as a result
of feeling hopeless, isolated, or ashamed.

How Stress Affects Physical and Mental Health

Few people will deny they have been stressed at least once in their life. But for many,
stress can be ongoing and unbearable. Chronic stress can contribute to numerous mental
health and physical health issues. Research has linked high stress levels to:
 Insomnia or hypersomnia • Intimacy problems
 Feeling more or less hungry than usual • Migraine Headaches
 Self-soothing with drugs or alcohol • Chronic pain
 Changes in mood or mental health • Anger issues
 Less productivity and enjoyment at work • Depression
 Loss of enjoyment in social activities • Anxiety
 Heart attack and stroke

When these complaints occur as a result of stress, they may clear up when the
stressful situation is resolved. But they can also become serious if present long-term.
Treatment from a doctor or mental health professional may be necessary, especially if stress
persists.

Reference: https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/stress

STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE

What is Employee Stress?

Employees stress is a growing concern for organizations today. Stress can be defined as a
lively circumstance in which people face constraints, opportunities, or loss of something they
desire and for which the consequence is both unpredictable as well as crucial. Stress is the
response of people to the unreasonable/excessive pressure or demands placed on them.

Stress is not always negative. It may also bring out the best in individuals at times. It may
induce an individual to discover innovative and smarter way of doing things. This positive
dimension of stress is called as enstress. But usually, the term stress has a negative implication
and this negative aspect of stress is termed as distress. For instance - When a subordinate is
harassed or warned by his superior, unhappiness of unsuitable job, etc. We can say that “Stress
causes some people to break, and other to break records.”

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Symptoms of Stress

Some of the symptoms of stress at workplace are as follows-

 Absenteeism, escaping from work responsibilities, arriving late, leaving early, etc.
 Deterioration in work performance, more of error prone work, memory loss, etc.
 Cribbing, over-reacting, arguing, getting irritated, anxiety, etc.
 Deteriorating health, more of accidents, etc.
 Improper eating habits (over-eating or under-eating), excessive smoking and drinking,
sleeplessness, etc.

It is thus very essential to have effective stress management strategies in an organization

so that the detrimental repercussions of stress on the employees as well as their performance can
be reduced and controlled.

Sources/Causes of Stress

The factors leading to stress among individual are called as stressors. Some of the
factors/stressors acting on employees are

1. Organizational factors
With the growth in organizational stress and complexity, there is increase in organizational
factors also which cause stress among employees. Some of such factors are
a. Discrimination in pay/salary structure
b. Strict rules and regulations
c. Ineffective communication
d. Peer pressure
e. Goals conflicts/goals ambiguity
f. More of centralized and formal organization structure
g. Less promotional opportunities
h. Lack of employees participation in decision-making
i. Excessive control over the employees by the managers

2. Individual factors
There are various expectations which the family members, peer, superior and
subordinates have from the employee. Failure to understand such expectations or to convey
such expectations lead to role ambiguity/role conflict which in turn causes employee stress.
Other individual factors causing stress among employees are inherent personality traits such as
being impatient, aggressive, rigid, feeling time pressure always, etc. Similarly, the family
issues, personal financial problems, sudden career changes all lead to stress.

3. Job concerning factors

Certain factors related to job which cause stress among employees are as follows

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 a. Monotonous nature of job
b. Unsafe and unhealthy working conditions
c. Lack of confidentiality
d. Crowding

4. Extra-organizational factors
There are certain issues outside the organization which lead to stress among employees.
In today’s modern and technology savvy world, stress has increased. Inflation, technological
change, social responsibilities and rapid social changes are other extra-organizational factors
causing stress.

Strategies for Managing Stress

Stress experienced by the employees in their job has negative impact on their health,
performance and their behaviour in the organization. Thus, stress needs to be managed effectively
so as to set off these harmful consequences. Strategies for managing stress are as follows

Organizational strategies for managing stress

1. Encouraging more of organizational communication with the employees so that there is no
role ambiguity/conflict. Effective communication can also change employee views.
Managers can use better signs and symbols which are not misinterpreted by the
employees.
2. Encourage employees’ participation in decision-making. This will reduce role stress.
3. Grant the employees greater independence, meaningful and timely feedback, and greater
responsibility.
4. The organizational goals should be realistic, stimulating and particular. The employees
must be given feedback on how well they are heading towards these goals.
5. Encourage decentralization.
6. Have a fair and just distribution of incentives and salary structure.
7. Promote job rotation and job enrichment.
8. Create a just and safe working environment.
9. Have effective hiring and orientation procedure.
10. Appreciate the employees on accomplishing and over-exceeding their targets.

Individual strategies for managing stress

1. The employees should make a “to-do” list daily, prioritize the acts in the list and plan the
acts accordingly. Take regular breaks during work to relax you. By effective time
management, the employees can achieve their targets timely and can meet work pressures
and, thus, avoid stress.
2. Do hard work. Strive to achieve your goals but do not do it to the harm of family, health,
or peer.
3. Indulge in physical exercises. It helps in effective blood circulation, keeps you fit, diverts
mind from work pressures.

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 4. Encourage a healthy lifestyle. Take a regular sleep, have plenty of water, have healthy
eating habits. Promote relaxation techniques such as yoga, listening music and meditation.
5. The employees should have optimistic approach about their work. They should avoid
connections with negative approach employees.
6. The employees should have emotional intelligence at workplace. They should have self-
awareness, self-confidence and self-control at workplace.
7. The employees should build social support. They should have close connections with
trustworthy peer who can listen to their problems and boost their confidence level. This
social network will help the employees to overcome stress.
8. Employee counselling is a very good strategy to overcome employee stress. Through
counselling, employees can become aware of their strengths and how to develop those
strengths; their weaknesses and how to eliminate them; and they can develop strategies for
changing their behaviour. Employees are also given career counselling which helps in
reducing their ambiguities with regard to career.
9. Find a fun way to release stress, such as, cracking jokes, playing tennis, golf, etc.
10. Do not remain pre-occupied with yourself. Turn your focus outwards. Help others. This
will release some stress.

Reference: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/employee-stress.htm

COUNSELING

A counseling session is a meeting

between the supervisor and the employee
which may focus on a specific incident, a
particular aspect of an employee’s
performance which the supervisor has
identified as needing improvement, or the
employee’s overall performance or conduct.

Employee Counseling

Employee counseling is a psychological health care intervention which can take many
forms. Its aim is to assist both the employer and employee by intervening with an active problem-
solving approach to tackling the problems at hand.

Employee counseling gives individuals a valuable opportunity to work through problems

and stresses in a strictly confidential and supportive atmosphere. Counseling provides access to
several basic forms of helping: giving information, direct action, teaching and coaching,
advocacy, and providing feedback and advice, for example.

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 Typically, counseling involves the individual employee meeting with a psychological
adviser, usually on a one-on-one basis. It is not uncommon for the individual employee and
counselor to meet once or twice a week for several weeks. However, the number and frequency of
meetings required will depend upon the nature of the perceived difficulty and the nature of the
intervention needed.

The focus of counseling sessions is to encourage discussion of personal and work-related

difficulties. This is often followed by the adoption of an active problem-solving approach to
tackle the problems at hand.

The specific aims of employee counseling are to:

 Explore and find the key sources of difficulty

 Review the individual’s current strategies and styles of coping.
 Implement methods of dealing with the perceived problem, thereby alleviating the issue.
Often, this step may involve also improving interpersonal relations at work and/or
improving personal performance.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen strategies.

Employee Counseling Techniques

Employee counseling can do much to prevent the negative effects of stress at an individual
level and ultimately at an organizational level. The following are techniques in employee
counseling:

1. Describe the problem in a friendly manner.

2. Ask for the employee’s help in solving the problem.
3. Discuss causes of the problem.
4. Identify and write down possible solutions.
5. Decide on specific action to be taken by each of you.
6. Agree upon a specific follow-up date.

Conclusion

If employees are to function at an optimum level of well-being and competence, it is vital

that they feel supported and valued. Organizational systems are sometimes quick to make
demands and ‘hinder’ but occasionally slow to ‘help.’

Employee counseling can be a vehicle to provide help in an effective, practical way. It is

through such help that individuals are motivated to understand and realize their own career
potential, thus maximizing the chances of functioning in the best interests of the organization.

References: http://www.pgagroup.com/employee-counselling.html
https://www.slideshare.net/JohnChristianVillanueva/stress-and-counseling

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 Chapter 16

Organizational Behavior Across Culture

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ACROSS CULTURES

A global economy is now a reality, many organizations now do business in more than one
country, and these multinational organizations add powerful new dimensions to organizational
behavior. Expansion beyond national boundaries is much more than a step across a geographical
line. It is also a gigantic and sometimes frightening step into different social, legal, political and
economic environments. Communication lines are lengthened, and control often becomes more
difficult. Today’s managers must acquire both language and intercultural skills in dealing with
people - customers, suppliers, competitors, and colleagues - from other countries.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING MULTINATIONAL OPERATIONS

The people of the world are organized into communities and nations, each in its own way,
according to its resources and cultural heritage. There are similarities among nations but there are
also significant differences. The condition of work are different because of different attitudes,
values, and expectations from participants.

 Social Conditions
 Legal and Ethical Political Economic
 Political Conditions
 Economic Conditions
 Individual Differences

MANAGING AN INTERNATIONAL WORKFORCE

Whenever an organization expands its operations so that its geographic boundaries span
two or more countries, it tends to become multicultural and will then face the challenge of
blending various cultures.

 Barriers to Cultural Adaptation

- Parochialism
- Ethnocentrism
- Cultural Distance
- Cultural Shock

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  Overcoming Barriers to Cultural Adaptation
- Careful Selection
- Compatible Assignments
- Predeparture Training
- Orientation and Support in the New Country
- Preparation for Reentry

PRODUCTIVITY AND CULTURAL CONTINGENCIES

o The Challenge of Achieving Productivity

Productivity – achieving quantity and quality of results while controlling inputs –
is the central idea that the people of a country need to absorb and embrace in order to
develop the capacity to progress.
o Cultural Contingencies
- Theory Z
- Managerial Implications
- Management’s Integrating Role
- The Community Role of Expatriate Managers

CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

In addition to the desirability of learning to speak and understand the language of the host
country, expatriates also need to gain an appreciation for important differences in nonverbal
communication.

o Transcultural Managers
Transcultural employees operate effectively in several cultures. They are low in
ethnocentrism and adapt readily to different cultures without major cultural shock. They
usually can communicate fluently in more than one language.
Its leaders look to the world as an economic and social unit; but they recognize
each local culture, respect its integrity, acknowledge its benefits, and use its differences
effectively in their organization.

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SUMMARY

The world business has been transformed into a global economy. Businesses have become
multinational, extending their operations into other countries. Corporations in other countries have
begun extensive operations in the United States and elsewhere. Managers of these firms encounter
a wide variety of social, legal, ethical, political and economic environments as well as individual
differences. Among many other factors, the difficulty in understanding local views of productivity
can be a major barrier to improvement. However, when expatriate managers are effective, they
help create a training multiplier effect, providing skills which become multiplied many times in
the host country.

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Fernan L. Capistrano

Permanent Address: Dili, Gasan, Marinduque

Contact Nubmber: 09097307577
Email Address: capistrano_fernan@yahoo.com

CAREER OBJECTIVE:

To apply a job position and acquire a healthy working environment where my

trainings, knowledge and skills as a graduate of Bachelor of Science in Law Enforcement
Administration will be fully utilized, enriched and highly improved.

PERSONAL DATA:
_______________________________________________________________________

Birthdate: August 15, 1993

Birthplace: Dili, Gasan, Marinduque
Age: 25 years old
Height: 5’6
Weight: 70 kgs.
Civil Status: Single
Nationality: Filipino
Religion: Roman Catholic
Father’s Name: Ronaldo C. Capistrano (+)
Mother’s Name: Marilou L. Capistrano

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:
_______________________________________________________________________

TERTIARY: Marinduque State College

AY 2011-2014 Tanza, Boac, Marinduque
Bachelor of Science in Law Enforcement Administration

SECONDARY: Marinduque Midwest College

SY 2006-2010 Dili, Gasan, Marinduque

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PRIMARY: Gasan Elementary School
SY 2002-2008 Brgy. Dos, Gasan, Marinduque

SEMINAR AND WORK EXPERIENCES:

_______________________________________________________________________

 Seminar-Workshop on Student Publication

August 29, 2014
MSC-SAED Audio Visual Room

 Ang Pinuno: First Marinduque Leadership Masters Challenge

February 20-22, 2015
Marinduque State College (Boac Campus)

 Orientation in Human Rights Principles during the Celebration of National

Awareness Week for the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation
February 24, 2015
Marinduque State College (Boac Campus)

 Learning English Application for Pinoys Extension Program

September 29, 2016
MSC, SAEd Audio Visual Room

 On the Job Training

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Bangbangalon, Boac, Marinduque

Bureau of Fire Protection-Marinduque Fire Provincial Office

On-the-Job Training
Tampus, Boac, Marinduque

Philippine National Police-Marinduque Provincial Police Office

On-the-Job Training
Bangbangalon, Boac, Marinduque

Land Transportation Office-Boac District Office

On-the-Job Training
Bangbangalon, Boac, Marinduque
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 Bureau of Jail Management and Penology-Boac District Jail
On-the-Job Training

_____________________________________________________________

SPECIAL SKILLS:

 Have knowledge and skills in using Microsoft Office

 Good communication skills
 Good interpersonal skills

CHARACTER REFERENCES:

Mr. Junn Quirk I. Espiritu

Director, Institute of Criminal Justice Education
Contact: 0998-560-9038

Mr. Vergel L. Mayo

College Instructor 1/ Faculty Coordinator-MSC Tanza, Boac, Marinduque
Contact: 0930-964-0009

Mr. Keam Eric L. Malabayabas

College Instructor 1/Program Head, BS LEAd
09487642148

I hereby certify that above information’s are true and correct to the best of
my knowledge and belief

___________________________
(Applicant Signature)

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