Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-food-science-
and-technology

Review

Food applications of emulsion-based edible films and coatings

Sabina Galus*, Justyna Kadzin

ska
Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW (WULS-SGGW),
159c Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: An increasing awareness among consumers regarding the healthy lifestyle have prompted
Received 1 December 2014 research on novel techniques of prolonging the shelf life of food products without the necessity of using
Received in revised form preservatives. Thanks to their ability to improve global food quality, edible films and coatings have been
18 June 2015
particularly considered in food preservation. Changing mechanical and barrier properties depending on
Accepted 14 July 2015
Available online 17 July 2015
the main component in the biopolymer matrix caused an increasing interest in composite structures,
which enable to explore the complementary advantages of each component as well as to minimize their
disadvantages.
Keywords:
Edible films
Scope and approach: This review discusses the potential food applications of emulsified edible films and
Edible coatings coatings. The materials, preparation methods, and physical properties are also presented. Lipids are
Lipids usually added to edible films and coatings to impart hydrophobicity and thereby reduce moisture loss. A
Emulsion very wide range of lipid components is available including natural waxes, resins, acetoglycerides, fatty
Food coating acids, and petroleum-based, mineral and vegetable oils. The emulsification process of the lipid phase in
the aqueous phase is necessary prior to the coating application.
Key findings and conclusions: Emulsion-based edible films and coatings find application in fresh and
processed food products, fruits and vegetables, cheeses, meat, sausages and bakery products. Composite
emulsion-based edible materials produced from hydrocolloids and lipids result in better functionality
than films produced with one component, especially with respect to their water barrier properties. In
general, more research is needed to improve application processes of emulsion-based edible materials,
especially sensory aspects, to be appropriate for each product.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction particularly considered in food preservation, because of their ability

An edible coating or film could be defined as primary packaging
made from edible components. A thin layer of edible material can
be directly coated on food or formed into a film and be used as a
food wrap without changing the original ingredients or the pro-
cessing method. Edible films and coatings have been used to
improve the gas and moisture barriers, mechanical properties,
sensory perceptions, convenience, microbial protection, and pro-
long the shelf life of various food products (Debeaufort, Quezada-
Gallo, & Voilley, 1998; Krochta, 2002). Edible coatings are applied
in liquid form meanwhile edible films are obtained as solid sheets
and then applied to food products (Falguera, Quintero, Jime
nez,
Mun ~ oz, & Ibarz, 2011). Edible films and coatings have been
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sabina_galus@sggw.pl (S. Galus).
to improve global food quality (Chillo et al., 2008).
Lipid coatings have been used for centuries to protect food and
prevent moisture loss. The first recorded use was in China in the
twelfth century on lemons and oranges (Allen, Nelson, Steinberg, &
McGill, 1963). In the sixteenth century in the United States, food
products were coated with lipid coatings to control moisture loss,
and later paraffin wax, carnauba wax and emulsion oil-in-water
coatings were used for fresh fruits and vegetables (Cagri, Ustunol,
& Ryser, 2004). In the twentieth century, coatings have also been
used to prevent water loss and add shine to fruits and vegetables
(Baldwin, 1994). Shellac coatings allow candies to “melt in the
mouth and not in your hand” preventing the hand from becoming
soiled by coloring matter used for appearance or by underlying
chocolate (Dangaran, Nantz, & Krochta, 2006).
Recently, most research works from the edible materials field
have focused on composite or multicomponent films to explore the
complementary advantages of each component as well as to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.07.011
0924-2244/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
274
ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
minimize their disadvantages (Galus, Lenart, Voilley, & Debeaufort,
2013; Kurek, Galus, & Debeaufort, 2014). Most composite films or
coatings associate a hydrophilic structural matrix and a hydro-
phobic lipid compound resulting in better functionality than pure
hydrocolloid films, especially with respect to their moisture barrier
properties. Composite materials can be obtained as either bi-layers
or emulsions. In a bi-layer composite system, the lipid forms the
second layer over the polysaccharide or protein layer. In the
emulsified structure, the lipid is dispersed in the biopolymer
matrix.
The main disadvantage of bi-layers films is that the preparation
technique requires four stages: two casting and two drying stages.
This is why laminated films are less popular in the food industry
despite providing good barriers against water vapor (Debeaufort &
Voilley, 1995). Research has also shown that the bi-layer films tend
to delaminate over time, develop pinholes or cracks and exhibit
non-uniform surface and cohesion characteristics (Quezada-Gallo,
Debeaufort, Callegarin, & Voilley, 2000). The emulsified materials
are obtained during only one film-forming casting and one drying
process. Their properties depend on preparation techniques, type
and quantity of components (hydrocolloid and lipid) and their
compatibility, as well as the microstructural heterogeneity (Fabra,
Pe
rez-Masia
, Talens, & Chiralt, 2011).
Prolonging the shelf life of fresh citrus fruits by application of
lipids has been known for centuries. Nowadays, consumer demand
for ready-to-eat products with longer shelf life has prompted
research on novel techniques. Preparation of emulsion systems for
coating techniques creates opportunities to link the properties of
hydrocolloid compounds and lipid compounds, providing a
controlled, effective barrier. A number of studies have been recently
published on the incorporation of lipids into the biopolymer film
matrix including vegetable oils (Cerqueira, Souza, Teixeira, &
Vicente, 2012; Kokoszka, Debeaufort, Lenart, & Voilley, 2010;
Pereda, Dufresne, Aranguren, & Marcovich, 2014; Valenzuela,
Abugoch, & Tapia, 2013), waxes (Chiumarelli & Hubinger, 2014;
Fabra, Talens, Gavara, & Chiralt, 2012; Janjarasskul, Rauch,
McCarthy, & Krochta, 2014; Talens & Krochta, 2005;) or fatty
acids (Chiumarelli & Hubinger, 2014; Fabra et al., 2011; Jime
nez,
Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2012; Jime
nez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt,
2013a; Perdones, Vargas, Atare
s, & Chiralt, 2014; Zahedi,
Ghanbarzadeh, & Sedaghat, 2010) to cause the modification of
several properties of hydrocolloid films. However, a review on po-
tential food applications of emulsion-based films and coatings is
not available. These films can be applied to various food products in
order to improve their quality by prolong the shelf life. Thus, in this
work, the trends in the research about the different applications of
emulsion-based edible films and coatings have been reviewed, as
well as the latest advances on their composition (lipid compounds
used in the structural matrix), formation methods and functional
properties were described.
2. Components
Edible films and coatings are usually classified according to their
structural material: proteins, polysaccharides, lipids or composite.
The main advantage of such structures as potential food packaging
materials is their biodegradability. The popular proteins used as
edible films and coatings are collagen, gelatin, caseins, whey pro-
tein, corn zein, wheat gluten, soy protein, egg white protein,
myofibrillar protein, quinoa protein, and keratin. Starch, cellulose
and its derivatives, pectin, chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, pullulan
and gellan gum are the main polysaccharide materials tested as
edible packaging materials (Han & Gennadios, 2005). Plasticizers
(i.e. glycerol, sorbitol, monoglycerides, polyethylene glycol,
glucose) are often used to increase flexibility and elasticity of bio-
based materials.
Numerous compounds are used in the preparation of emulsified
edible films and coatings. Different lipids (fats and oils) are incor-
porated into film-forming solutions to form the emulsion-based
structure. However, among them animal and plant waxes, vege-
table oils and fatty acids are the most popular (Table 1). Properties
of emulsion-based edible materials depend not only on the com-
pounds used in the polymer matrix but also their compatibility and
preparation techniques. The compatibility between components, as
well as its miscibility, is directly related with the microstructure of
the films, which affects their final properties. The high degree of
components compatibility results in more cohesive, homogeneous
film structure. However, the continuous emulsified film matrix can
change to more irregular when incompatibility of used components
is observed or the lipid addition is high, due to the heterogeneous
distribution of components with areas of different mechanical
resistance. As a result of this behavior phase separation can occur, a
hydrocolloid-rich phase and a lipid-rich phase, due to the lack of
compatibility between both components. The lower structural
cohesion of emulsion-based films caused by the non-compatible
compounds was reported as an oily upper surface of the films
(Kokoszka et al., 2010; Shaw, Monahan, O'Riordan, & O'Sullivan,
2002; Yang & Paulson, 2000).
Vegetable oils (corn oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil) are
easily available, low cost, non-toxic, non-depletable and non-
volatile, and, furthermore, they are a source of monounsaturated
fatty acids, and their incorporation as edible coating to food prod-
ucts is associated with various positive health benefits (Ma et al.,
2012b). Waxes are esters of long-chain aliphatic acids with long-
chain aliphatic alcohols. They are more resistant to water diffu-
sion than most other edible film materials because of their very low
content of polar groups and their high content of long-chain fatty
alcohols and alkanes There is a variety of naturally occurring waxes,
derived from vegetables (e.g., carnauba, candelilla, and sugar cane
waxes), minerals (e.g., paraffin and microcrystalline waxes), or
animals including insects (e.g., beeswax, lanolin, and wool grease),
while some other waxes are synthetically produced, such as car-
bowaxes and polyethylene wax. The partial esters (triglycerides) or
esters (mono- and diglycerides) of fatty acids with glycerol can also
be used as edible coating materials. Long-chain triglycerides are
insoluble in water, whereas short-chain molecules are partially
water soluble. Unsaturated fatty acids have significantly lower
melting points and increased moisture transfer rates than the
corresponding saturated ones (Rhim & Shellhammer, 2005). Of the
lipids, waxes produce the best water vapor barrier properties, but
produce fragile and/or brittle films (Bourtoom, 2009).
Various essential oils (garlic, lemon, oregano, thyme, rosemary)
are often incorporated into edible films in an emulsification process
and because of their antioxidant and antimicrobial efficiency play a
role as active materials (Bakkali, Averbeck, Averbeck, & Idaomar,
2008). Emulsifiers and active surface agents such as lecithins,
mono- and di-glycerides or mono- and di-glyceride esters have
often been added to emulsion film and coating formulations to
improve their functional characteristics by stabilizing dispersed
systems and increasing the particle distribution in composite
emulsion-based edible films (Debeaufort & Voilley, 1995).
3. Formation of emulsion-based films and coatings
There are many technologies that can be used to make edible
films and coatings. The emulsification process of the lipid phase in
the aqueous phase is necessary prior to the casting for film for-
mation or coating application. Droplet size is a determining factor
for emulsion stability and also affects its viscosity and other
important properties. Different homogenization techniques are

ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin 275

Table 1
Summary of different components used as emulsified edible coatings and its applications.

Lipid compounds Hydrocolloid compounds Applications Main benefits References

Beeswax Whey protein isolate Apple antibrowning effect
rez-Gago et al. 2003
Pe
Whey protein concentrate Apple antibrowning effect
rez-Gago, Serra,
Pe
& del Río, 2006
Pectin Avocado slower rate of disease spread and respiration Maftoonazad et al. 2007
rate, reduction in fruit softening and color
changes, beneficial effect on firmness retention
Hydroxypropyl methylcelullose Mandarin reduction in weight and firmness loss Navarro-Tarazaga et al., 2008a
Plums reduction in weight loss, fruit softening and Navarro-Tarazaga et al., 2008b
bleeding, no negative impact on taste
Chitosan Strawberries decrease in the senescence and weight loss, Velickova et al. 2013
retention of the color and the texture, the
titratable acidity, pH, soluble solids and sugars,
good visual appearance and taste, enhancement
in the antimicrobial properties of chitosan,
reduction in the respiration rate
Methylcelullose Cherry tomato fruit extension of the postharvest life by the reduction Fagundes et al. 2014
of gray mold development
Beeswax, lard Gelatin, carrageenan Dry sausage reduction in weight loss Tyburcy et al. 2006,
Tyburcy & Kozyra, 2010
Candelilla wax Pea protein Brussels sprouts reduction in weight loss, retention of the vitamin Kowalczyk, 2011
C and polyphenols, limited softening during storage,
improved overall appearance, firmness and gloss
Grapes retention of the ascorbic acid and reducing sugars, Kowalczyk & Pikula, 2010
reduction in weight loss, extension of the
postharvest life, attractive gloss
Broccoli retention of the vitamin C and the color, slower Kowalczyk, Pikula,
increase in acidity, limited firmness loss & Baraniak, 2010
Candelilla wax, Mesquite gum Guava fruit extension of the shelf life, reduction in weight loss Tom
as et al. 2005
mineral oil and ethylene emission, attractive gloss, retention
of the color, limited softening and firmness loss
Persian limes reduction in weight loss, retention of the color,
squez-Molina et al. 2003
Bo
attractive gloss
Carnauba wax Cassava starch Apple increase in the water vapor resistance and Chiumarelli & Hubinger, 2012
reduction in weight loss
Pea starch, whey protein isolate Walnuts and pine nuts effectiveness in preventing oxidative and hydrolytic Mehyar et al. 2012
rancidity, improvement in smoothness, taste, and
overall appearance
Shellac, Whey protein isolate Apple attractive gloss Bai, Hagenmaier,
oleic acid & Baldwin, 2003
Acetylated Calcium or sodium Carrot increase in the water vapor resistance, reduction in Avena-Bustillos et al., 1994a
monoglicerydes, caseinate white blush and respiration rate
beeswax,
stearic acid
Acetylated Calcium caseinate Zucchini reduction in water loss Avena-Bustillos et al., 1994b
monoglicerydes Calcium or sodium caseinate Apple, celery sticks increase in the Avena-Bustillos et al. 1997
water vapor resistance, reduction in the
respiration rate
Whey protein isolate Frozen king salmon reduction in the rate of moisture loss, effectiveness Stuchell & Krochta, 1995
in delaying reducing oxidative rancidity
Corn oil Galactomannan Cheese reduction of the O2 consumption and the CO2 Cerqueira et al. 2010
production, decrease in weight loss and microbial
counts, retention of the color
Corn oil, Pectin, gelatin, sodium alginate Breakfast pork sausage reduction in water loss Liu et al. 2007
olive oil
Olive oil Whey protein concentrate Pistachio nuts reduction in the rate of oxidative rancidity, Javanmard, 2008
extension of the shelf life, glossy appearance, delay
in the formation of peroxide
Sunflower oil Chitosan Pork meat hamburgers reduction in the metmyoglobin content, smooth Vargas et al., 2011
surface, attractive gloss
Whey protein isolate Cheese reduction in the water loss, hardness, and color change Ramos et al., 2012
Gellan gum, sodium alginate Apple reduction in the ethylene production, microbiological Rojas-Graü et al. 2008
deterioration, extension of the shelf life, antibrowning
effect, maintenance of the initial firmness, retention
of the color
Corn starch Brussels sprouts reduction in weight and firmness loss, maintenance ~ a et al. 2007
Vin
of the ascorbic acid and total flavonoids, increase
in the radical-scavenging activity
Soybean oil Corn starch, methylcelullose Crackers extension of the shelf life Bravin et al. 2006
Rice bran oil Whey protein concentrate Kiwifruit reduction in the weight and texture loss, retention Hassani et al. 2012
of the color, maintenance of the overall sensory
attributes
(continued on next page)
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S. Galus, J. Kadzin
Table 1 (continued )
Lipid compounds Hydrocolloid compounds Applications
Stearic acid Sodium-carboxymethylcelulose, Asparagus
whey protein isolate, pullulan
Methylcellulose Apricot, green pepper
Soy protein isolate, pullulan Kiwifruit
Oleic acid Chitosan Strawberries
used to prepare the film-forming emulsions. Rotor-stator homog-
enizers are often used and are able to achieve a particle size of 1 mm
(Ma et al., 2012a; Vargas, Perdones, Chiralt, Ch
afer, & Gonza
lez-
Martínez, 2011). This can be further reduced by applying high-
pressure homogenizers to the system (Bonilla, Atare
s, Vargas, &
Chiralt, 2012). Microfluidization can provide emulsions with nar-
rower particle size distributions by shearing force of ultrahigh-
pressure homogenization as well as severe stress of head-on
collision (Sherwin, Smith, & Fulcher, 1998). Microfluidization and
sonification are capable to produce nanoemulsions of the size range
of 150e700 nm. The particle size decreases with increasing
microfluidization pressure and duration or with increasing sonifi-
cation time (Jafari, He, & Bhandari, 2006). Fig. 1 presents the for-
mation of emulsion and nanoemulsion layers by rotor-stator and
ultrahigh homogenization method, respectively.
Among all emulsification methods, which differences refer to
the time, rate or pressure, the rotor-stator homogenization is most
popular. The combined homogenization techniques are often used
to obtain the stable film-forming emulsion (Fabra, Jime
nez, Talens,
& Chiralt, 2015). Fabra et al. (2011) applied rotor-stator homoge-
nizer in first step and microfluidizer in second step to prepare the
sodium caseinate films containing oleic acid and stearic acid. The
intensification of homogenization conditions of film-forming
emulsion affects the size of the lipid structures in the dried films,
promoting mechanical resistance, gloss and transparency of the
films.
Hydrocolloid films are usually applied in liquid form by dipping
or spraying the food item or part of it, using a solution or a
dispersion of the polymers (Karbowiak, Debeaufort, & Voilley,
2007). To achieve a continuous layer of the film, the solvent is af-
terwards eliminated during drying at ambient or controlled con-
ditions. When producing the emulsion films, the temperature of
the solution must be above the lipid-melt temperature but below
the temperature for solvent volatilization of the structural network.
The preparation of the emulsion films requires only one casting and
one drying stage.
The formation of coating directly from film-forming solutions is
the simplest way to obtain coated products. The material will
absorb an appropriate amount of solution necessary to form the
desired layer, which when dried forms a protective layer at the food
surface. Therefore, surface properties play a key role in the coating
application. To achieve success in coating operations, specific pa-
rameters dealing with the base product to be coated (i.e.
Emulsion layer
Water transfer:
Technique: Rotor-stator homogenization
Fig. 1. Emulsion layers formation.
Main benefits References
retention of the color Tzoumaki et al. 2009
reduction in the water loss Ayranci & Tunc, 2004
decrease in the senescence and water loss Xu et al. 2001
enhancement in the antimicrobial properties Vargas et al. 2006
of chitosan, reduction of the respiration rate,
extension of the shelf life
composition, shape, density), processing equipment (i.e. contin-
uous/batch, temperature, static/dynamic), and the coating formu-
lation (i.e. solvent, composition, viscosity) have to be taken into
account (Debeaufort & Voilley, 2009).
4. Functional properties
Edible films and coatings have similar functions as those of
conventional packaging, including as barriers against water vapor,
gases, and flavor compounds and improving structural integrity
and mechanical-handling properties of foods. Although edible films
and coatings are not meant to entirely replace conventional pack-
aging, the efficiency of food protection can be enhanced by
combining primary, edible packaging and secondary nonedible
packaging (Debeaufort et al., 1998). Because of the wide variety of
chemical compositions and structures of emulsion-based materials
(polysaccharides, proteins and lipids), various film-forming be-
haviors may occur during film formation. The functional properties
of lipids are dependent on their chemical structures (Rhim &
Shellhammer, 2005) and their polarity, which depends on the
distribution of chemical groups, the length of aliphatic chains, and
the presence and degree of unsaturation. Therefore, unsaturated
fatty acids are less efficient at controlling moisture transfer because
of their higher polarity when compared to saturated ones
(Morillon, Debeaufort, Bond, Capelle, & Voilley, 2002). Certainly,
properties of emulsified films should be controlled. Proteins and
polysaccharides generally form films with good mechanical prop-
erties, but they are poor moisture barriers, because of their hy-
drophilic nature. Conversely, lipids give rise to good moisture
barriers (Hambleton, Perpin ~ an-Saiz, Fabra, Voilley, & Debeaufort,
2012).
Emulsified films show better mechanical properties in com-
parison with pure lipid layers. Generally, vegetable oils and other
liquid lipid substances form layers on the hydrocolloid surface as a
bi-layer or multilayer and are not able to form separate films. On
the other hand, waxes form solid but brittle and breakable films.
The emulsification process gives the possibility to obtain films with
desired mechanical properties. Most of the research describing
inclusion of lipid substances in film-forming solutions is focused on
improving the moisture barrier efficiency of composite films due to
the fact that emulsified films formed as coatings of food surfaces do
not require the mechanical properties of stand alone films used as
wraps, pouches, or casings. In general, mechanical properties of
Nanoemulsion layer
Ultrahigh pressure homogenization

ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
emulsified films are similar to those of pure hydrocolloid matrix
and are modified by lipid type and concentration (Hopkins, Chang,
Lam, & Nickerson, 2015). The structure and stability of an emulsion
are key parameters strongly affecting mechanical properties of
emulsified films.
The transparency of edible coatings is an important parameter
since it is a key to good acceptance by consumers and it has a direct
impact on the coated product appearance. The lipid fraction and
droplet particle size distribution in film-forming emulsions plays
an important role in optical properties of dried films. Generally,
emulsified films present high lightness values with a slightly
decreasing tendency correlated with the increasing concentration
of lipid (Hopkins et al., 2015; Monedero, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt,
2010; Pereda, Aranguren, & Marcovich, 2010). The high trans-
parency of emulsion-based films is associated with a greater ho-
mogeneity in the film structure (Ortega-Toro, Jime
nez, Talens, &
Chiralt, 2014). The lipid droplets dispersed in the film matrix
affect transparency by preventing light transmission through the
film (Pereda, Amica, & Marcovich, 2012). Therefore, the high in-
crease in opacity values is observed due to the addition of lipids to
hydrocolloid films (Guerrero, Nur Hanani, Kerry, & de la Caba, 2011;
Ma et al., 2012b; Pereda et al., 2010; Pereda et al., 2012; Shaw et al.,
2002; Yang & Paulson, 2000). Villalobos, Chanona, Herna
ndez,
Gutie
rrez, and Chiralt (2005) pointed out that the presence of a
non-miscible, lipid phase promotes opacity as a function of the
differences in the refractive index of the phases, as well as con-
centration and particle size distributions.
Barrier properties of emulsion-based films, as well as hydro-
colloid films, depend on temperature and relative humidity. Oxy-
gen permeability increases slightly at lower relative humidity and
decrease sharply at high (>0.75%) humidity conditions (Guilbert,
Gontard, and Gorris (1996). Miller and Krochta (1997) pointed out
that the hydrophobic compounds are more permeable to gases due
to their greater chemical affinity and solubility. Therefore, the in-
crease in oxygen permeability is observed as a result of addition of
lipid to hydrocolloid films (Habmleton, Debeaufort, Bonnotte, &
Voilley, 2009; Navarro-Tarazaga, Massa, & Pe
rez-Gago, 2011;
Jime
nez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2013b). However, the carbon di-
oxide permeability of emulsion-based films depends strongly on
chemical composition of lipids. Ayranci and Tunc (2001) noticed
that addition of palmitic and stearic acid to cellulose films caused
the decrease in carbon dioxide transmission when addition of
lauric acid showed an opposite effect. This phenomenon can be
explained by the shorter hydrocarbon chain length of lauric acid
which makes attraction forces between lauric acid molecules
weaker.
The water vapor permeability of films plays an important role in
deteriorative reactions of foods; therefore, it is the most extensively
studied property of films (Rao, Kanatt, Chawla, & Sharma, 2010).
Generally, most papers report a decrease in water vapor perme-
ability due to the hydrophobic character of lipids and among them
waxes are the best moisture barriers (Bourtoom, 2009). Anker,
Berntsen, Hermansson, and Stading (2002) reported 0.5 (emul-
sion) and 70 (bi-layer) times reduction of water vapor permeability
when the acetylated monoglyceride was added to whey protein
films. Emulsion-based films are a less efficient water barrier than
bilayer films, as a homogeneous distribution of lipids is not ach-
ieved. However, they exhibit good mechanical strength and require
a simple process for their manufacture and application, whereas
multilayer films require a complex set of operations that depend on
the number of coatings. The smaller the size of particles or lipid
globules and the more homogeneously they were distributed, the
lower water vapor permeability was observed in emulsion-based
films (Debeaufort & Voilley, 1995; Pe
rez-Gago & Krochta, 2001).
Emulsion stability is promoted since the flocculation rate decreases
277
and creaming is inhibited when solvent evaporates. As was
mentioned in previous section, the intense of homogenization af-
fects the decrease of lipid particle size in emulsions, which is
correlated with reduction of water vapor permeability of dried
films (Fig. 1). The principle benefit of the barrier films or coatings
could be improved by enhancing the coating properties by pre-
paring nanosized emulsions to fabricate nanocomposite films that
exhibit better barrier, mechanical and functional properties and
thus maintain the quality of the fresh produce for longer time (Kalia
& Parshad, 2015).
The glass transition temperature which can define the stability
of edible films is strongly dependent on film composition and
moisture content (Jime
nez et al. (2013a). Generally, glass transition
temperature of an amorphous material decreases as water content
increases (Hambleton et al., 2012). Zahedi et al. (2010) showed that
the glass transition temperature of the pistachio globulin protein
film was not considerably affected by fatty acid addition. However,
Jime
nez et al. (2013a) presented decreasing values of glass transi-
tion as a result of addition the fatty acids to starch films. The dif-
ferences in these behaviors can be explanted by film composition as
well as measurement conditions.
In general, lipid films lack the structural integrity of protein or
polysaccharide films (Gontard, Marchesseau, Cuq, & Guilbert,
1995). The addition of lipids induces the development of a het-
erogeneous film structure featuring discontinuities in the polymer
network (Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2008). Therefore, incorporation of
lipids into hydrophilic protein or polysaccharide films to decrease
their barrier properties can negatively affect film strength as
expressed by tensile or puncture strength measurements (Weller,
Gennadios, & Saraiva, 1998). However, composite films made
from both hydrocolloids and lipids may have an advantage. Com-
posite films or coatings show a heterogeneous structure, which
means that, they are composed of a continuous matrix with some
inclusions such as lipid globules in the case of an emulsion, or solid
particles in the case of non-soluble substances (Debeaufort et al.,
1998).
The functional properties of emulsion-based films obtained by
casting methods might be different from those coatings created on
the food surface. However, edible film or coating as an intervening
layer should adhere easily to the surface, and should not crack or
develop undesirable sensory characteristics during storage.
5. Application to fruits and vegetables
Nowadays, consumers expect not only local products but also
exotic ones on the market. Unfortunately, a long period of storage
and transport conditions have a negative influence on the quality of
such products. In order to prolong the shelf life of exotic and
tropical fruit and vegetables, they are candied, dried or osmotically
dehydrated. Such preserved fruit, e.g. plums, apricots, raisins or
dactyls, are characterized by a high content of carbohydrates and a
low (due to evaporation) content of water. Such product properties
favor sticking and agglomeration, which is perceived by consumers
as a drawback. Moreover, the change in water content negatively
influences on product properties. Water desorption makes the
product less flexible and hard, while water absorption creates
favorable conditions for microorganisms’ development, increase in
enzyme activity or the mobility of oxidation reactants. Some
studies have shown that coating consisting of waxes, starches,
pectins, cellulose derivatives or proteins can provide proper pro-
tection from such processes (Hagenmaier & Baker, 1993).
Fruits or vegetables stored for a long time are coated with for-
mulations containing lipids (paraffin, natural waxes) incorporated
with chemical substances such as fungicides or growth regulators.
However, before market distribution or processing these
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ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
substances should be removed by rinsing or cleaning (Hall, 2012).
Edible coatings with lipids reduce the moisture loss of fruits and
vegetables, which can also cause high financial losses for producers.
Fruits and vegetables can be coated with stand alone films pre-
formed by casting or extrusion processes. However, most applica-
tions are based on the formation of the film layer directly on the
surface of the product by dipping or spraying the coating solution
(Dea, Ghidelli, Pe
rez-Gago, & Plotto, 2011).
Eating fresh, unprocessed fruit and vegetables is considered to
be the best for human health. Unfortunately, the perishability and
the seasonality of fruit and vegetables as well as consumers' de-
mands and eating habits cause increasing producers’ interest in
processed and preserved products rather than fresh and unpro-
cessed ones. Therefore, edible films and coatings have been applied
to various steps of processing. The success of edible layers for fresh
products strongly depends on the control of internal gas compo-
sition (Dhall, 2013). During storage in raw materials such as fruit
and vegetables there still occur life processes such as water loss
(transpiration), respiration, ripening and over-ripeness. All those
processes limit the shelf life of fruit and vegetables to a few or
several days under normal conditions. Generally, the incorporation
of lipids to edible coatings applied to fresh fruits or vegetables has a
role of minimizing the moisture loss. In the literature, the moisture
loss of apple slices as a typical model fruit coated with protein or
polysaccharide coatings containing lipids was observed to be
decreased significantly in comparison to control ones (Falguera
et al., 2011).
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a tissue
and its evaporation causing the wilting and the loss of turgor. The
loss of water from fresh fruits and vegetables results the weight loss
and shriveling leading to unsaleable loss during retail marketing
and a direct financial loss (Caleb, Mahajan, Fahad, Al-Said, & Opara,
2013). Therefore, the application of edible coatings containing
lipids is interesting process to limit those undesirable changes and
extend the shelf life of whole or cut produce. Guilbert (1988) re-
ported that the use of coating based on casein and carnauba wax
diminish the loss of water in papaya creating a barrier around the
product which prevents the loss of water vapor. Similar results
were reported by others (Avena-Bustillos, Krochta, Saltveit, &
Rojas-Villegas, 1994b; Avena-Bustillos, Krochta, & Saltveit, 1997;
Ayranci & Tunc, 2004).
Respiration involves the oxidation of carbohydrates to produce
carbon dioxide, water and heat. This undesirable process causes a
decrease in the carbohydrate content and weight loss. There is also a
risk of a negative change in their color, undesirable odor and taste,
and a decrease in nutritional value resulting in product decay. Barrier
properties of edible films and coatings can be evaluated by the
respiration rate of coated products and by the water vapor resistance
(Vargas, Pastor, Chiralt, McClements, & Gonza
lez-Martínez, 2008).
When using edible films and coatings on minimally processed fruit
and vegetables, a modified atmosphere can be created around the
product reducing the respiration rate and, as a result, the metabolic
processes (Rojas-Graü, Tapia, & Martín-Belloso, 2008). In that case,
protein and multicomponent coatings are especially applied, which
as hydrophilic ones are a great barrier to nonpolar substances such as
oxygen or carbon dioxide. Velickova, Winkelhausen, Kuzmanova,
Alves, and Mold~ ao-Martins (2013) proved that the incorporation of
beeswax into coatings based on chitosan causes a significant
decrease in the respiration rate of strawberries, even to 227.9 ml
CO2$kg
1 h
1 for samples coated with composite-emulsion films. A
decrease in the respiration rate was also observed for strawberries
coated with chitosan-oleic acid coatings (Vargas, Albors, Chiralt, &
Gonza
lez-Martínez, 2006), mandarins coated with
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-beeswax-fatty acid film (Navarro-
Tarazaga, del Río, Krochta, & Pe
rez-Gago, 2008a), plums coated
with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-beeswax film (Navarro-
Tarazaga, Sothornvit, & Pe
rez-Gago, 2008b) and carrots with
caseinate-stearic acid coatings (Avena-Bustillos, Cisneros-Zevallos,
Krochta, & Saltveit, 1994a).
Two main features of minimally processed food are high water
activity (aw > 0.94) and high biochemical activity resulting from
mechanical damage caused during, for example, peeling or slicing.
High water activity limits the use of hydrocolloid coatings, which
being soluble may disintegrate and lose their properties. Lipid-
based coatings seem to be a good solution due to their stability.
Nevertheless, they can negatively influence the sensory properties
of food, for example, leading to a waxy sensation. That is why there
are still some studies which aim to create composite edible films
and coatings protecting fruit and vegetables adequately and at the
same time having no negative impact on product properties. Pe
rez-
Gago, Serra, Alonso, Mateos, and del Río (2003) analyzed the effect
of whey protein isolate-beeswax emulsion coatings on fresh-cut
apples. The results showed that coated apples had a higher color
parameter L* and presented a lower browning index than uncoated
apples, indicating that whey proteins exert an antibrowning effect
and increasing beeswax content decreased enzymatic browning. In
later research, Pe
rez-Gago, Serrab, & del Río (2006) proved that
incorporation of ascorbic acid or 0.5% L-cysteine to whey protein
concentrateebeeswax emulsion coatings reduced enzymatic
browning of ‘Golden Delicious’ apples significantly, compared to
the use of the antioxidants alone. There was also a sensory evalu-
ation of coated apples. The results indicated the need to reduce
emulsion coating viscosity by decreasing emulsion solid content
and increasing beeswax content. Velickova et al. (2013) reported
that coatings based on chitosan prolonged the shelf-life of coated
strawberries for 7 day at temperature 20  C and relative humidity of
53%. The incorporation of beeswax as a component in emulsion
coating or as a separate layer had a beneficial impact on weight loss
reduction, respiration rate, retention of firmness and color, as well
as retention of the titratable acidity, pH, soluble solids and sugars.
An effect against fungal infection was also noticed. During the
sensory evaluation strawberries coated with chitosan and com-
posite coating obtained higher overall acceptance and intention to
buy. However, it must be said that the sensory properties of the
three-layer waxy coatings on strawberries were disliked by the
panelists, although they maintained the best quality of the fruit
during the storage period.
Edible coatings containing natural resins such as shellac have a
glossy effect on the surface of fruits (apples or citrus fruits) and also
play an additional attractive role when used (Hall, 2012). Chauhan,
Raju, Asha Singh, & Bawa (2011) reported limitation of color,
firmness and microbial changes of apple slices coated with a
coating formulation containing cassava starch, carnauba wax and
stearic acid during 30 days at 6 Chiumarelli and Hubinger (2012)
or coatings based on carrageenan, caseinate, pectin, or alginate
incorporated with acetylated monoglycerydes (Falguera et al.,
2011). Bo
squez-Molina, Guerrero-Legarreta, and Vernon-Carter
(2003) observed the potential to reduce the natural decay rate of
Persian limes when the mesquite gum-candelilla wax-mineral oil
coatings were used. Similar formulation, improved by addition of
glycerol and calcium, caused about 30% lower weight loss of guava
fruit during storage for 15 days (Toma
s, Bo

squez-Molina, Stolik, &
S

anchez, 2005). Similarly, slices of apples, banana and avocado
coated with a formulation of candelilla wax and mineral oil showed
acceptable quality during 6 days of refrigerated storage
conditions (Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2007).
Grape fruits coated with a formulation of pea protein isolate,
sorbitol and candelilla wax and stored for 11 days had a signifi-
cantly higher content of ascorbic acid and reducing sugars, and
lower weight losses, which caused the freshness of the fruits to be

ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
kept longer. The additional benefit of coating was an attractive
sheen of the fruit surface (Kowalczyk & Pikula, 2010). Xu, Chen, and
Sun (2001) applied emulsion coatings based on pea protein, pul-
lulan and stearic acid to kiwi fruits stored at 15  C and 50% of
relative humidity. After 54 days of storage the moisture loss of
coated fruits was 1.78% lower than uncoated ones.
Ayranci and Tunc (2004) observed that the application of coat-
ings based on methylcellulose, polyethylene glycol and stearic acid
decreased moisture loss of apricot and green pepper from 19.8 to
7.82% and from 5.02 to 2.87%, respectively, when stored at 25  C and
84% relative humidity. The moisture loss was also decreased when
the same formulation was applied to cauliflower and mushrooms
(Ayranci & Tunc, 2003).
Application of coatings based on pea protein, sorbitol and can-
delilla wax to Brussels sprouts resulted in a reduction in mass loss
and helped to maintain the vitamin C, polyphenols, and firmness
during storage (Kowalczyk, 2011). The same formulation used on
broccoli heads showed higher values of vitamin C and lower texture
softening during storage (Kowalczyk & Pikula, 2010). The use of
caseinate coatings with acetylated monoglycerides significantly
reduced moisture loss of zucchini (Avena-Bustillos et al.,1994b) and
celery sticks (Avena-Bustillos et al., 1997) during storage. Fagundes,
Palou, Monteiro, and Pe
rez-Gago (2014) noted the reduction of
moisture loss and maintenance of firmness of cold stored cherry
tomato fruits when antifungal hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-
beeswax edible coatings were used. Additionally, no negative ef-
fect on physicochemical characteristic and sensory attributes was
observed. Brussels sprouts coated with corn starch-sunflower oil
coating showed the reduction of loss of moisture, vitamin C and
polyphenols, and maintenance of color and firmness during 42 days
of storage at 0  C (Vin~ a et al., 2007). Tzoumaki, Biliaderis, and
Vasilakakis (2009) presented a beneficial impact of whey protein-
stearic acid coatings on the quality parameters of asparagus
spears by retarding moisture loss, reducing hardening in their basal
part and slowing down the development of purple color. A com-
posite coating of whey protein concentrate and rice bran oil with
glycerol as a plasticizer effectively preserved the color, firmness,
taste, and the overall acceptability of kiwi fruits during storage
(Hassani, Garousi, & Javanmard, 2012). Avocados coated with a
composite coating based on pectin, beeswax and sorbitol sustained
a significantly slower rate of disease severity of Lasiodiplodia the-
obromae and respiration rate. The associated quality changes of
texture and color were also much lower in coated fruits as
compared with the control (Maftoonazad, Ramaswamy,
Moalemiyan, & Kushalappa, 2007).
6. Application to meat and meat products
Meat is characterized as a food with tissue structure and is often
treated by different kinds of technological processes which favor
the development of microorganisms. Bacteria of the species Listeria
monocytogenes are especially inconvenient for the food industry.
They have a the tendency to create biofilms and the ability to
produce stress proteins at subtle dose limit values and conse-
quently immunize themselves against subthreshold doses. Hydro-
colloid coatings based on cellulose derivatives, alginates and gums
with addition of acids (acetic or lactic) or substances with antimi-
crobial activity can inhibit the development of such microorgan-
isms effectively (Debeaufort et al., 1998). Edible films and coatings
may be applied to meat and meat products by foaming, dipping,
spraying, casting, brushing, individual wrapping or rolling. Foam
application is used for emulsion coatings, where a foaming agent is
added to the coating or foam is created by compressed air. Meat
may be coated with protective foam as it moves over rollers
(Ustunol, 2009).
279
Frozen meats, poultry, and fish coated in oil-in-water emulsions
prepared at 60e80  C by blending an animal fat or vegetable oil
with water, emulsifiers and/or preservative agents did not show
substantial dehydration during storage. The control of moisture
loss and freezer burn in refrigerated or frozen meats during storage
were reported by using before processing aqueous emulsion coat-
ings with long chain saturated fatty acids or alcohols (Gennadios,
Hanna, & Kurth, 1997).
Vargas, Albors, and Chiralt (2011) applied chitosan-sunflower oil
edible films with acetic or lactic acid to cold-stored pork meat
hamburgers to extend their shelf life. However, it was noted that
the addition of sunflower oil caused a reduction in the antibacterial
effect of pure chitosan films against coliform microorganisms. The
decrease in the antibacterial activity of edible films can be
explained by the dilution effect of chitosan, thus being less available
for organisms.
Meat texture is influenced not only by the presence of different
kinds of proteins but also by the water content. Food texture is one
of the basic criteria used by consumers to assess the freshness and
the quality of food products. Therefore, there is a need to limit
water loss during the storage of meat. Stuchell and Krochta (1995)
created coatings consisting of whey proteins and mono-
acylglycerols and proved their ability to limit water loss and the
oxidation changes of fat in salmon. Similar results were obtained by
Vargas, Albors, Chiralt, and Gonza
lez-Martínez (2009) and Vargas,
Albors, et al. (2011), who proved that the incorporation of sun-
flower oil or unsaturated fatty acids into chitosan matrix leads to a
reduction in the water vapor permeability of edible films.
Go€g
üş, Bozoglu, and Yurdugül (2004) used that emulsion
aqueous coating based on vegetable oil and beeswax for refriger-
ated chicken meat with a yogurt dip and observed a delay of the
growth of both Gram positive and Gram negative (S. typhimurium
and Pseudomonas spp.) spoilage flora on coated meat.
Coating the sausage surface allows to control product weight
loss to a certain degree, which can be an alternative to vacuum
packaging of dry sausages. Liu, Kerry, and Kerry (2006) produced
films/casings using pectin and gelatin/sodium alginate blends
containing vegetable oils (corn oil and olive oil) using extrusion
technology. The research showed that quality and stability of films/
casings were greatly enhanced by addition of oils. These casings
were used for breakfast pork sausage (Liu, Kerry, & Kerry, 2007).
Tyburcy, Jankiewicz, Kozakowska, and Cegiełka (2006) observed
that efficiency of carrageenan-gelatin protective coatings against
weight loss on dry hot-smoked sausage when the solution was hot-
emulsified with lard. The efficiency was increased with an
increasing amount of lard up to 40%, which was the maximal
addition due to the limitation of emulsion stability. The replace-
ment of half of the lard content with beeswax reduced adhesion
and additionally improved barrier properties. In the next study, the
addition of lard, as an ingredient prone to oxidation changes, was
decreased by addition of sorbitol or beeswax. However, the ob-
tained casings were characterized by cracking (Tyburcy,
Trzepanowski, & Cegiełka, 2007). Due to these results, emulsion
formulations with varied content of glycerol and carrageenan with
pre-drying of the coating on the kabanosy sausage surface were
used. Carrageenan concentration had a significant effect on the
amount of emulsion adsorbed on the sausage surface but little in-
fluence on the barrier capacity. Casings with glycerol addition at
both 5 and 10% levels had no visible cracks and were easily removed
from the sausage surface during 15 days of storage Pre-drying of
coated sausages reduced peeled product weight loss after storage
(Tyburcy & Kozyra, 2010).
Appearance is the most important aspect for consumers to buy
meat and meat products. The incorporation of sunflower oil into
chitosan-based films led to an increase in the gloss of pork meat
280
ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
hamburgers, especially when acetic acid was used as a solvent. The
phenomena of creaming and coalescence of the oil droplets during
film drying explain the increase in gloss related to the addition of
sunflower oil. This consequently led to reduction of the increase in
specular reflectance in the air-film interface and surface roughness,
which was possible thanks to the ability of oil to fill the small
surface voids generated during the film formation. Generally, the
smoother the surface, the higher the gloss. On the other hand, the
use of edible coatings can also have a negative impact on the
appearance of coated products. Pork meat hamburgers coated with
chitosan films were characterized by a higher metmyoglobin con-
tent after 4 days of storage compared to uncoated samples. It is
commonly known that metmyoglobin is formed in a low oxygen
atmosphere. This means that the chitosan film is a good barrier to
oxygen. It was reported that the incorporation of sunflower oil
caused a reduction in metmyoglobin content of hamburgers
compared to those coated with pure chitosan films. Addition of a
lipid component led to an increase in oxygen permeability (Vargas,
Albors, et al. (2011).
7. Application to cheeses
Cheese is the most diverse group of dairy products, character-
ized by different formats, textures, aromas and flavors, with com-
plex composition. The shelf life of cheeses is limited due to the
uncontrolled and extensive fungal and bacterial development on its
surface, which may reduce the quality. Antimicrobial coatings
applied to the cheese surface is one way to limit negative changes
which can be promoted during handling and storage. These edible
hydrocolloid coatings can also replace nonedible commercial layers
such as paraffin or polyvinyl acetate. Ramos et al. (2012) applied
antimicrobial emulsified coatings to full-fat cheese using whey
protein isolate, glycerol, guar gum, sunflower oil and Tween20
together with several combinations of antimicrobial compounds as
natamycin, lactic acid or chitooligosaccharides. Application of these
coatings limits growth of pathogenic or contaminant microorgan-
isms and reduces water loss, hardness, and color change during 60
days of storage, whereas commercial nonedible coatings inhibited
only yeasts and molds. Further, emulsified coatings also influence
the cheese gas exchange. Galactomannan coatings plasticized with
glycerol containing corn oil significantly reduced the O2 con-
sumption and CO2 production rates on semi-hard “Regional”
cheese. Additionally, it was shown that application of this coating
reduces the water loss, hardness and the color change during
storage (Cerqueira et al., 2010).
8. Application to bakery products
Bakery and extruded products such as biscuits, snacks, and
breakfast cereals are characterized by crispy texture, due to the low
moisture content. Loss of crispness and softening during storage
under higher relative humidity conditions are caused by increasing
water content. Application of emulsified coatings from corn starch,
methylcellulose and soybean oil to crackers stored at 65, 75, and
85% relative humidity confirmed the potential of edible packaging
to reduce the hydration kinetics in high relative humidity, and
become an integral part of the food (Bravin, Peressini, & Sensidoni,
2006). Talens, Pe
rez-Masía, Fabra, Vargas, and Chiralt (2012)
described the effectiveness of edible coatings based on caseinates
or chitosan in partially dehydrated pineapple for its use in dry fruit-
cereal products. Emulsion coatings based on chitosan/oleic acid,
sodium caseinate/beeswax/oleic acid, and sodium caseinate/cal-
cium caseinate/beeswax/oleic acid were analyzed as a protective
layers for pineapples to avoid the cereals to reach the critical
moisture content during storage time. The result showed that
caseinate-based emulsion coatings extend the shelf life of the
pineapple-cereal multicomponent system.
9. Application to nuts
Lipid oxidation on nuts may be prevented by using effective
barrier such as edible coatings which separate the nuts from at-
mospheric oxygen. Mehyar, Al-Ismail, Han, and Chee (2012) noted
the effectiveness of emulsion coatings based on pea starch, whey
protein isolate and carnauba wax in preventing the oxidation and
hydrolytic rancidity of walnuts and pine nuts. Additionally, all
coated nuts provided positive sensory preference compared to the
control. Similar results were also presented by Javanmard (2008)
when whey protein concentrateeolive oil emulsion coatings were
used on the pistachio kernels.
10. Active emulsified films and coatings
Emulsified films and coatings including active ingredients, such
as flavors, antimicrobials, antioxidants, bioactive compounds or
nutraceuticals, can be used as an alternative to preserve food
products. Active compounds can be incorporated directly into the
polymer matrix or can be encapsulated to better protect their ac-
tivity and properties (Desorby & Debeaufort, 2012). Among the
substances with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, benzoic
acid, sorbic acid, lysozyme, potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate,
calcium lactate, calcium ascorbate, and plant-derived secondary
metabolites, such as essential oils, are used to prevent deterioration
of food products. Generally, active compounds are incorporated
into pure hydrocolloid matrix, but the formation of active layers as
emulsified structures is also presented. Recent studies have shown
that essential oils play an effective role as antimicrobial agents;
therefore plant essential oils and their components have been
widely reported. Additionally, these substances are compatible
with the sensory characteristics of many food products. The
emulsified films based on pectin and cinnamon leaf oil at 36.1 g/l
resulted in the development of a film antioxidant and antibacterial
properties. The results showed that application of these coatings to
fresh-cut peaches had a beneficial effect, decreasing bacterial
growth against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus and
L. monocytogenes, and increasing its antioxidant status and odour
acceptability (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2012). In general, essential oils
exhibit antimicrobial activity against pathogenic microorganisms
but their low water solubility limits their application in foods. To
improve water dispersion and protect essential oils from degrada-
tion, nano-sized emulsions emerge as a viable alternative. Nano-
emulsions containing essential oils and polysaccharides could be
used to form edible films with functional properties (Acevedo-Fani,
Salvia-Trujillo, Rojas-Graü, & Martín-Belloso, 2015). Salvia-Trujillo,
Rojas-Graü, Soliva-Fortuny, and Martín-Belloso (2015) showed that
edible coating with lemongrass essential oil droplets in the nano
range exhibited faster and greater inactivation of E. coli O157:H7
during storage compared with conventional emulsions. Addition-
ally, nanoemulsion-based coatings with lemongrass essential oil at
0.5 and 1.0% completely inhibited the natural microflora of fresh-
cut Fuji apples within 2 weeks.
Antioxidants are added to emulsified coatings to protect against
oxidative rancidity, degradation, and discoloration of certain foods.
Ascorbic acid is extensively used to avoid enzymatic browning of
fruits or vegetables. Olivas, Rodrigues, and Barbosa-C
anovas (2003)
observed the retardation of browning of pear wedges when
emulsified coatings based on methylcellulose and stearic acid
incorporated with ascorbic acid and potassium sorbate were
applied. A similar formulation based on methylcellulose, stearic
acid, polyethylene glycol and ascorbic acid applied to apricots and

ska / Trends in Food Science & Technology 45 (2015) 273e283
S. Galus, J. Kadzin
green peppers delayed weight loss and lowered vitamin C loss
(Ayranci & Tunc, 2004). The results showed that emulsified films
and coatings have been recognized for more innovative uses
beyond their current uses. Those materials may not only improve
moisture barrier efficacy or other functional properties but also
have a high potential to carry active ingredients that can extend
product shelf life and reduce the risk of pathogenic growth on food
surfaces. Research on active hydrocolloid films is increasingly re-
ported, but specific studies on active emulsified films and coatings
and application on food products are rather limited, and conse-
quently their industrial implementation is still incipient.
11. Future trends
Nowadays, a great discussion exists about the potential appli-
cations of edible materials on food products. Generally, the main
efforts are focused on finding the correct combination between the
food product and coating formulation. Emulsified layers provide a
lot of advantage, especially by limiting moisture loss of coated fruits
and vegetables. New formulations should be analyzed concerning
the incorporation of functional compounds to create multicompo-
nent layers with combined properties. Nevertheless, more research
is needed to develop stable products during longer time of storage.
Some research showed the limit of negative changes of coated
products during short time (a few days), however this time can be
effectively prolonged by using also appropriate packaging
technology.
There is a lack of information regarding stability of emulsion and
lipid oxidation, and its possible effect on sensory attributes of
coated products. New lipids, with high stability, as well as new
hydrocolloids based on non-conventional sources should be
analyzed as potential ingredients of emulsified coatings. Addi-
tionally, the adaptation of coating technology to industrial equip-
ment and possibilities is the important aspect. An film-forming
emulsion with lipids of high melting temperature need to be pre-
pared at specific conditions which can generate new costs for
producers and have to be taken into account.
Further, to assess the final quality of the coated products and
evaluate the real effectiveness of emulsified films and coatings, a
sensory analysis should be investigated during time storage in or-
der to evaluate if the coating does not change taste and flavor in the
final coated product. Nevertheless, recent studies showed that the
small lipid particle size in nanoemulsions enhance physicochemical
film properties and may improve biological activity of lipophilic
compounds by increasing the surface area per unit of mass, which
consequently leads to lower doses of active compounds. In this
sense, nanoemulsions may be used for edible film and coating
preparations as a new generation of active packaging.
12. Conclusions
Because of numerous potential applications and properties,
emulsion-based films and coatings have gained lot of attention.
These layers are obtained during only one film-forming casting and
one drying process; therefore this systems shows potential for use.
Emulsion-based films and coatings have proved to be effective to
increase stability of a variety of fresh or processed fruits, vegetables,
meat and other food products. Selection of the appropriate emul-
sified layers for a specific product depends on its nature, charac-
teristics, costs, specific needs, and benefits that this technology can
offer to the consumers and the manufacturers. Composite
emulsion-based edible materials produced from hydrocolloids and
lipids result in better functionality than films produced with one
component, especially with respect to their water barrier proper-
ties. Generally, more research is needed to improve application
281
processes of emulsion-based edible materials, especially sensory
aspects, to be appropriate for each product. New advancement have
to be welcomed for improving functionality and performance of
emulsion-based films and coatings to develop new genre of edible
materials that can better maintain the shelf life and naturalness of
the food products.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Min-
istry of Science and Higher Education through Project IP2011
013371.
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