EE2004 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Lab #5 RLC Networks

I. Introduction

A. Phase Difference and Time Shift Relationships

There are two standard ways to measure the phase difference between two sinusoids of the same frequency by
using an oscilloscope. The first method, which requires a dual trace scope, exploits the fact that a phase
difference is equivalent to a time shift. The second method for determining the phase difference between two
sinusoids relies on the well-known Lissajous pattern and can be displayed on an oscilloscope with a x-y mode
feature.

Phase Difference in the Time Domain

2𝜋
Consider the two sine waves given below with angular frequency 𝜔 and period, 𝑇 = .
𝜔

𝑥(𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

In which the angle ∅ represents the phase difference between the two signals. We may also refer to ∅ as the
phase angle of y(t) relative to the reference signal x(t). We can rewrite y(t) as
∅
𝑦(𝑡) = sin⁡(ω (𝑡 + ))
𝜔

2𝜋
And as 𝜔 = 𝑇

𝑇
𝑦(𝑡) = sin⁡(ω (𝑡 + ∅))
2𝜋
Comparing the two signals,
𝑥(𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑇
𝑦(𝑡) = sin⁡(ω (𝑡 + ∅))
2𝜋
We can see that if ∅ is in the range of 0 < ∅ < 𝜋, y(t) is a time advanced version of x(t). The terminology we
𝑇
use is that y(t) leads x(t) by ∅ seconds. You should convince yourself of this by verifying that if y(t) takes a
2𝜋

𝑇 𝑇
certain value at time t, x(t) takes that same value at time 𝑡 + 2𝜋 ∅, i.e. 𝑥 (𝑡 + 2𝜋 ∅) = 𝑦(𝑡). In a similar way, if

∅⁡is in the range−𝜋 < ∅ < 0, then y(t) lags x(t). The figure below depicts a situation in which y(t) leads x(t) by T/4
𝜋
seconds or, equivalently, radians of phase.
2

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Figure 1 Time domain waveforms where y(t) leads x(t) by  = T/4 seconds

In general, if we let  denote the time lead of y(t) with respect to x(t), and let ∅ denote the
Corresponding phase lead, we have the simple relationships
𝑇
𝜏= ∅
2𝜋
and, correspondingly
2𝜋
∅= 𝜏
𝑇
It should be clear that the discussion above applies equally well to the case in which the amplitudes of the two
sinusoids are different. In this case, the example above would look like the following

Figure 2 Time waveforms with different amplitudes and y(t) leads x(t) by  = T/4 seconds

Phase Difference Using Lissajous Patterns

Suppose again that we are given two sine wave signals of the same frequency, but perhaps with different
amplitudes.
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐵⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

If we apply x(t) to the horizontal input of an oscilloscope in the x-y mode, and simultaneously
apply y(t) to the vertical input, then the horizontal deflection of the trace at any time instant, t, will be (𝑡) =
𝐴⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)⁡and the vertical deflection at the same time will be 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐵⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + ∅). As a function of time
both x and y will be continuously varying, the scope display will trace out a continuous path. In order to
see what this path will look like, rewrite y as

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𝑦 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡-𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

Now since 𝑥 = 𝐴⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡), 𝑤e can write

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝑥⁄𝐴

And using the trigonometric identity⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 = 1, we have

𝑥2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 = √1 −
𝐴2

After performing some algebraic manipulations, we can eliminate the time variable and arrive at the
following equation between x and y,
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 2𝑥𝑦
+ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
𝐴2 𝐵 2 𝐴𝐵

The scope trace will follow the path where the above equation is satisfied for all (x,y). The above is an
equation for an ellipse which depends on the amplitudes, A and B, and the phase difference,∅. This
elliptical path is called a Lissajous pattern. Notice that if the phase difference is ∅ = 00 ⁡then the ellipse
equation reduces to
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 2𝑥𝑦
+ − =0
𝐴2 𝐵 2 𝐴𝐵
Or
𝑥 𝑦 2 𝐵
( − ) = 0⁡⁡⁡⁡ ⇒ ⁡⁡⁡𝑦 = 𝑥
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴

and the Lissajous pattern displayed on the scope will appear as in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Lissajous pattern when phase difference between two sinusoidal waveforms is equal to zero

If the phase difference is 90-degrees (∅ = 900 ) then the ellipse equation becomes

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝐴2 𝐵 2

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and the scope displays the pattern shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Lissajous pattern when phase difference between two sinusoidal waveforms is 90-degrees

(a) (b)
Figure 5 Lissajous pattern when phase difference between two sinusoidal waveforms is (a) 180-degrees and (b) between
0-degrees and 90-degrees 𝟎 < ∅ < 𝟗𝟎

B. Underdamped Series RLC Networks

The time domain response for an underdamped circuit includes the damping factor, , and the natural resonant
frequency, d.
𝑣(𝑡) = ⁡ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴1 cos (𝜔𝑑 𝑡) + 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡))

𝜔𝑑 = √𝜔02 − 𝛼 2

1
𝜔02 =
𝐿𝐶
𝑅
𝛼=
2𝐿
The natural resonant frequency, d, creates an oscillatory behavior as the waveform approaches its steady state
condition. The resonant frequency, 0, is determined by the square-root of the LC combination. The resonant

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frequency, 0, is the one input frequency where the reactance of the capacitor perfectly cancels the reactance of
the inductance leaving an equivalent circuit with only the series resistor.

II. Experimental Procedure

A. Equipment List
 Keysight DSO-X 2002A Digital Storage Oscilloscope
 Keysight 33500B Waveform Generator
 Tektronix CDM260 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Agilent (Keysight) U1733C Handheld LCR Meter
 Breadboard
 Coaxial cable with BNC to BNC (qty 3)
 Coaxial cables with BNC to alligator clip (quantity 3)
 BNC tee
 0.01 F ceramic capacitor
 10 KΩ, 5%, ¼-½ watt resistor
 RLC Switch Box with unknown series RLC components

B. Measurements of Phase Difference In the Time Domain

As discussed in the Introduction, one method to measure the phase difference between two sinusoids of the
same frequency requires the measurement of the time shift between the two waveforms. The time shift, , can
be used to calculate the phase difference,⁡∅, using
2𝜋
∅= 𝜏
𝑇

Fortunately, most modern oscilloscopes have a measurement feature that will report the phase difference
directly on the scope display. To begin, connect a BNC-BNC cable between the function generator’s Channel 1
output to the scope’s channel 1 input. Do the same between Channel 2 for both instruments.

FUNCTION GENERATOR SETTING:

Set the generator to the default settings using “System” key and “Set to Defaults” softkey
Set function generator’s Channel 1 and Channel 2 to the following configuration:
Sine wave output (Waveform menu)
Set Output Load to High Z (impedance) (Channel # menu)
Frequency =1 kHz (Parameter menu)
Amplitude 2 V peak to peak (1 V peak) (Parameter menu)
Set Output On

Trigger: Set the scope’s trigger to Channel 1.

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Synchronize Generator’s Channel Frequencies: On the function generator, press the Channel 1 button, then
“More (1 OF 2)”, then “Dual Channel” and lastly “Freq Cpl ON”, this will lock the frequency setting between the
two output waveforms, in other words, changing the frequency setting on Channel 1 will also change the
frequency on Channel 2.

OSCILLOSCOPE SETTINGS:
On the scope, press Autoscale. At this point you should be observing two sine waves of equal amplitude and
frequency. Adjust the vertical scaling and offsets so the two waveforms overlay each other (Zero Offsets).

CALIBRATING THE PHASE OFFSET:

It is most likely that the generator is producing two waveforms with have an arbitrary phase shift between them.
Use the following procedure to align the phase between the two waveforms. Start with the scope’s MATH function
and subtract the two waveforms. If the waveforms have a phase shift between them, you should be observing
another sine wave on the scope’s Math channel.

Using the function generator’s Channel 2 Parameter, adjust the “Phase” until the Math function is zero (the two
sine waves are now considered “in-phase”. Once the waveforms are observed to be aligned, select the generator’s,
“Sync to Internal” and “Set 0 Phase”. This will calibrate the generator’s internal clocking to hold this alignment as
the in-phase condition.

LEADING AND LAGGING PHASE

With the phase properly calibrated between the two channels, adjust the phase of Channel 2 for +45
degrees (use the numeric keypad on the generator). Record the scope display. Does Channel 2 start
before Channel 1 (leading)? Adjust the phase to -45 degrees; does the Channel 2 now lag Channel 1?
Record the scope display.

Repeat the measurement for +90 and -90 degrees, Can you observe that at +/-90 degrees, the peak of
one waveform is at the zero crossing for the other (one waveform can be considered a sine wave and the
other is a cosine)? Record scope displays for +90 and -90.
Repeat the measurement for +180 and -180-degrees, can you observe any differences between the +180
and -180 phase conditions? Record scope displays for +180 and -180.

Return the generator’s Channel 2 phase back to 0 degrees. Waveforms should once again be lined up (in-
phase).

C. MEASUREMENTS OF PHASE DIFFERENCE USING LISSAJOUS PATTERNS

On the scope’s “Horiz” menu, select Time Mode XY. This will set the voltage on Channel 1 to the x-axis and the
voltage on Channel 2 to the y-axis. Verify that the scope’s trigger input is not connected to the generator with a
coaxial cable; otherwise, you will only observe half the waveforms.

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Reduce the generator frequency to 1 Hz. With these two waveforms in-phase, the amplitude rises and falls
together. When both rise the x-y plot moves along the positive diagonal. When both fall together, the plot
moves into the (-x,-y) diagonal. Increase the frequency to 1kHz and record the scope display.

Adjust the phase of generator’s Channel 2 to 45 degrees. What is the shape of the displayed waveform?
Record the scope display. Adjust the phase of Channel 2 to +90-degree. What is the shape of the
displayed waveform? Record the scope display.
Reduce the sinewave frequency to 1 Hz. At a +90-degree phase shift, you should now be able to see the
phase vector rotating around the x-y display. What is the direction of rotation? In your report, discuss
why the vector is rotating the observed direction.
With the waveform frequency still at 1 Hz, adjust the phase of channel to -90-degrees. What is the
direction of rotation? In your report, discuss why the vector is rotating the observed direction.
Lastly, adjust the generator’s Channel 2 phase to 180-degrees. Increase the frequency back to 1 kHz.
Record the scope display. What is the shape of the waveform? In your report, explain why at 180-degree
phase difference, you observe this Lissajous pattern? Compare this pattern to the pattern when the two
waveforms are in-phase.

D. FREQUENCY RESPONSE (BODE PLOT) OF THE RC NETWORK

Using a DMM, measure the precise resistance of a 10k resistor, record the value on Table 1 below. Using the
LCR meter, measure the precise value of the 0.01 F capacitor, record the capacitance in uF on Table 1.

Table 1 Measured values for a 10k resistor and 0.01F capacitor

Resistance k
Capacitance F

Wire up the RC circuit, shown in Figure 6, onto a breadboard. Using a BNC tee, share the function generator’s
Channel 1 output between the scope’s Channel 1 input (BNC-BNC cable) and the input side of the 10 k resistor
(BNC to clips cable). The function generator is the vIN(t) source in Figure 6. Connect a BNC to clips coaxial cable
to measure the capacitor voltage, vCAP(t).

Figure 6 Schematic for measuring frequency response of RC network

Adjust the generator frequency to 1 kHz with a peak-to-peak voltage to 5 V (5 Vpp). Set the generator’s Channel 1
output load to “High-Z”. Adjust the scope display to observe approximately 4-5 cycles of this waveform. Adjust the

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scope’s vertical scaling for Channel 1 and Channel 2 for the largest peak amplitude without clipping the waveform
off the screen. Set the scope’s DC offset to 0 volts for each channel.

Using the scope’s “Meas” subsystem, select the following four measurements.
Frequency on Channel 1 (Freq(1))
Phase difference (Phase(1->2))
Pk-Pk voltage Channel 1 (Pk-Pk(1))
Pk-Pk voltage on Channel 2 (Pk-Pk(2))

If necessary, adjust the generator’s peak-to-peak amplitude until the scope measures 5 V pk-pk on scope Channel
1. Is the capacitor voltage, leading or lagging? Record the scope display.

In case of noise on the scope measurement, average the measured waveform using the scope’s Averaging mode
found under the “Acquire”, “Avg Mode” buttons.

Adjust the frequency on the generator to the values shown on Table 2. At each frequency, record the capacitor’s
peak-to-peak voltage (Pk-Pk(2)) and phase difference (Phase(1->2)). For the phase difference measurement,
include a minus sign to the measured difference if the capacitor voltage is “lagging” the input, as found above.
Note: during the measurements, you will need to continually adjust the time scaling and vertical scaling (for
scope’s Channel 2) as the frequency is changed, always adjust for at least 4-5 cycles for the most accurate
measurements.

Once the measured voltages and phase differences are recorded, calculate the decibels (dB) ratio of the peak-to-
peak voltage across the capacitor (VCAP) to the peak-to-peak voltage at the input (VIN) and enter on Table 2. For
each frequency, also calculate  in radians/second and enter on the table.

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Table 2 Measurements for capacitor voltage

Frequency, f (Hz) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k

VIN 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
VCAP
Phase diff (degs)
Calculate dB=
𝑉
20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (| 𝐶𝐴𝑃⁄𝑉 |)
𝐼𝑁

Calculate =2f
(rads/second)
Frequency, f (Hz) 10 k 20 k 50 k 100 k
VIN 5 5 5 5
VCAP
Phase diff (degs)
Calculate dB=
𝑉
20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (| 𝐶𝐴𝑃⁄𝑉 |)
𝐼𝑁

Calculate =2f
(rads/second)

𝑉𝐶𝐴𝑃
For your report, create a Bode plot of the dB magnitude of VCAP/VIN ( = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (| ⁄𝑉 |) versus  (x-axis).
𝐼𝑁
The plot can be created in any preferred application such as Excel, Matlab or Wolfram. Compare your
measurement to the theoretical amplitude plot.

For your report, create a Bode plot of the phase difference measurements from Table 2, plot the phase response
versus  (x-axis). The plot can be created in any preferred application such as Excel, Matlab or Wolfram. Compare
your measured response to the theoretical. If the measured frequency response was a filter, what type of filter
would it be - low-pass, high-pass, band-pass? Explain why your response is that type of filter.

E. TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE OF THE UNDERDAMPED SERIES RLC NETWORK

This section begins with the measurement of the transient response of a series RLC network placed inside a “black
box” as shown in Figure 7. The order in which the R, L and C components are connected is different for each box,
the example in Figure 7 is just one possible configuration. By performing a set of measurements, you will
determine the values and arrangement within the box supplied to you in the lab. The large switch on the front
panel of the box is used to select which component is connected to the output terminates. For example, in Figure
7, the switch in position #2 provides a direct connection between the two output terminals and the two capacitor

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leads. Connecting the oscilloscope (in differential mode) to these output terminals provides a way to measure
the sinusoidal voltage across only that component (the capacitor in Figure 7).

Record the Number of your RLC “Black Box” #______

Figure 7 Generator connected to series RLC circuit

On the scope, set the instrument to the “Default Setup” (key in upper right). Synchronize the scope’s trigger to the
generator output. Triggering is achieved using a BNC-BNC coaxial cable, connected to the Sync output on the
function generator to Trigger Input on the oscilloscope. Verify that the scope is configured for an External Trigger
(Trigger Menu).

You will simulate the On/Off switching of a source connected to the RLC circuit by using a pulsed waveform form
function generator configured with a relatively long time constant. Set the function generator’ Channel 1 for a
square wave, amplitude of 10Vpp, offset of 5.0V and a frequency of 1kHz.

Using a BNC-BNC cable, connect the function generator Channel 1 output to the scope’s Channel 1 input. Adjust
the scope scaling to observe two full cycles (two waveform periods) on the display. Note the Trigger location on
the display (centered). Record the scope display.

Replace the generator’s Channel 1 coaxial cable with a BNC-to-clip cable. With this cable, connect the generator to
the input of the black box. Note: the green dot on the box represents the ground connection.

Connect two more BNC-to-clip cables to scope’s Channel 1 and Channel 2 inputs. Connect scope Channel 1 “red-
colored” clip lead to one of the output terminals on the black box and connect scope Channel 2 “red-colored” lead
to the other output terminal. You will be making a differential measurement (Channel 1 – Channel 2) so only the
“positive” leads from each coaxial cable are required. Connect the two remaining negative (black-colored) leads
together.

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On the scope, switch through all three positions and optimize the vertical scaling on scope’s Channel 1 and Channel
2 (allowing large swings with no clipping on both channels for all switch positions). To reduce noise on the scope
display, set the Averaging mode to “Averaging” on the Acquire Menu.

You may recall that to set a differential measurement on the scope, you are using the Math function of Channel 1
“subtract” Channel 2. Once the Math function is selected, you have the option to turn off the displays for
Channels 1 and 2. Even though the two channel measurements are not display, the differential measurement is
correctly processed and displayed on an alternate channel (purple-colored). Optimize the Math function display
for the best vertical scaling for all positions of the switch.

Move switch to position 1. Record the scope display.

Move switch to position 2. Record the scope display.
Move switch to position 3. Record the scope display.

Based on the measurements over the three switch positions, try to determine which component, R L or C, is
connected to which switch position. You may need to reduce the horizontal time scaling to zoom in on the start
of the waveform to see which waveform has a jump in the measured voltage. Noting that the capacitor voltage
does not change instantaneously and the inductor current does not change instantaneously.

Based on your measurements, record the switch positions and which components are connected to each one on
Table 3.

Table 3 Identifying component location in a series RLC circuit

BOX #
Switch Position # Component (R, L or C?)
1
2
3

Now that you have identified the resistor location, use a DMM to measure the resistance. Record the resistance
value here.

Resistor, R = _________________ ohms

Determine Natural Resonant Frequency, d : For this underdamped circuit, select a switch position where the
oscillations are easily observed. Record the time difference between a few adjacent pairs of positive peaks. You
can measure this time difference using the scope’s Cursor function. You may need to change the horizontal scaling
to observe these oscillations. Take an average of several time differences and record the average time difference
below. Inverting this time difference provides the natural resonant frequency (in Hertz), fd. Record fd and the
associated d on the table below.

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(Average) Time Difference, td seconds

Damping frequency, fd = 1/ td Hertz
d = 2 fd Radians/second

At this point, you have two of the variables, R and d, for calculating the time domain response. In order to
calculate the values for L and C, you need to determine the resonant frequency, 0. With 0, you can calculate
, then L, then C.

𝜔𝑑 = √𝜔02 − 𝛼 2

1
𝜔02 =
𝐿𝐶
𝑅
𝛼=
2𝐿

F. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE UNDERDAMPED SERIES RLC NETWORK

Set the black box switch to the position identified as the resistor and continue using the scope configured for a
differential measurement. Reconfigure the function generator Channel 1 for a 10Vpp sine wave with 0V offset.
Start with a generator frequency of 5 kHz. Adjust scope’s Channel 1 and Channel 2 scaling to 5V/div. Adjust the
vertical scaling on the Math channel to 500mV/div. On the scope, add the measurement “Math: Pk-Pk”. This will
display the peak-to-peak voltage on the differential measurement (Math channel). Increase the function
generator frequency until the voltage across the resistor is maximum (start with 1 kHz increments and reduce the
increment size as you approach the peak). When you found the maximum voltage across the resistor, record
the associated generator frequency, 𝑓0 , at this resonance point. Using this value, calculate the resonance
frequency,⁡𝜔0 , and record below.

Frequency, 𝑓0 , at maximum VR ⁡:_______________

Calculate (𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 ) : ___________________

Using the following equations and values previously determined for R, d and 0, calculate the values for L and C
and record below.

𝜔𝑑 = √𝜔02 − 𝛼 2

𝑅
𝛼=
2𝐿
1
𝜔02 =
𝐿𝐶

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Calculate, :________________

Calculate 𝐿:________________

Calculate 𝐶:________________

In your lab report, draw the equivalent circuit (schematic) for the series RLC network in your black box, be sure to
correctly position the components and list the measured values to each component. Include the box # on the
schematic.

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