Acosta, Cathleen Joy C.

PHI104
BSA 4A TUE 1PM- 4PM

I.WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy (from the Greek word phílosophía, meaning ‘the love of wisdom’) is the
study of knowledge, or "thinking about thinking". Philosophy is an activity people undertake
when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they
live, and their relationships to the world and to each other. As used originally by the ancient
Greeks, the term "philosophy" meant the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, and comprised
ALL areas of speculative thought, including the arts, sciences and religion.

II.TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
i. Speculative Philosophy - a philosophy professing to be founded upon intuitive or a priori
insight and especially insight into the nature of the Absolute or Divine broadly.
ii. Perspective Philosophy - the philosophical view that all ideations take place from
particular perspectives, and that there are many possible conceptual schemes, or
perspectives in which judgment of truth or value can be made.
iii. Occidental Philosophy -a philosophy of understanding the causes and its effects
iv. Continental Philosophy - This refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century
philosophy from mainland Europe. Continental philosophy includes the following
movements: German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics,
structuralism, post-structuralism, French feminism, the critical theory of the Frankfurt
School, and some other branches of Western Marxism.
v. Analytic Philosophy - often understood as being defined in opposition to continental
philosophy. The term "analytic philosophy" can refer to a tradition of doing philosophy
characterized by an emphasis on clarity and argument, often achieved via modern
formal logic and analysis of language, and a respect for the natural sciences.

III.BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy can be divided into six branches:
i. Epistemology
The theory of knowledge, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos
(word/speech), is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, scope and
possibility of knowledge. It analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it relates to
similar notions such as truth, belief and justification.

ii. Metaphysics
It is called “the true nature of reality”. Forms the basis from which we perceive and
give meaning to our world. As such, how we understand metaphysics forms the
foundation for all other philosophical studies, as well as how we apply our resulting
belief systems to our lives.
 iii. Logic
Logic is most often said to be the study of arguments. Logic is the study of reasoning, or
the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

iv. Ethics
Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the "science (study) of morality".
In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is "good" or "right". It is concerned with
questions on morality and values and how they apply to various situations. It can be
divided into the branches of meta-ethics, normative and applied ethics.

v. Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the creation and appreciation of
beauty through critical analysis and reflection.

IV.NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
i. Philosophy analyzes the foundations and presuppositions underlying other disciplines:
Philosophy investigates and studies the underpinnings of science, art, and theology.
ii. Philosophy attempts to develop a comprehensive conception or apprehension of the
world. : Philosophy seeks to integrate the knowledge of the sciences with that of other
fields of study to achieve some kind of consistent and coherent world view.
Philosophers do not want to confine their attention to a fragment of human experience
or knowledge, but rather, want to reflect upon life as a totality.
iii. Philosophy studies and critically evaluates our most deeply held beliefs and attitudes; in
particular, those which are often held uncritically: Philosophers have an attitude of
critical and logical thoughtfulness. They force us to see the significance and
consequences of our beliefs, and sometimes their inconsistencies. They analyze the
evidence (or lack of it) for our most treasured beliefs, and seek to remove from our
perspectives every taint and trace of ignorance, prejudice, superstition, blind acceptance
of ideas, and any other form of irrationality.
iv. Philosophy investigates the principles and rules of language, and attempts to clarify the
meaning of vague words and concepts : Philosophy examines the role of language in
communication and thought, and the problem of how to identify or ensure the presence
of meaning in our use of language. It is a method--a practice--which seeks to expose the
problems and confusions which have results from the misuse of language, and to clarify
the meaning and use of vague terms in scientific and/or everyday discourse.

V.WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY PHILOSOPHY “It

is not enough to have a good mind. The main thing is to use it well.” - Rene Descartes7
Philosophy is a
necessary product of man's rational mind. To live, man must gain knowledge of the world. To
understand the world, man must form conclusions about its very nature. For instance, to gain
knowledge of particular objects, man must recognize that objects have identity. He must
 recognize that conclusions are possible because the world does exist, and exists in a particular
way.Philosophy provides the framework for which man can understand the world. It provides
the premises by which man can discover truth, and use his mind to support his life. Every man
has an understanding of the world. Every man must have a philosophy, even if it is never
made explicit.

VI.WHAT IS LOGIC

i. Nominal Definition : logic comes from the Greek word ‘logos’ which means thought,
study, science or a word.
ii. Real Definition : It is a science of basic principle of principles, laws, pedagogical method
which man’s mind must follow in its way of thinking for its validity and licitly attainment
of truth.

VII.WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY LOGIC

o It develops the habit of clear thinking. It teaches how to think, either we read or hear
correctly and logically
o It is guide in the process of drawing out conclusions.
o It emphasizes the importance definition. It tells us the real and nominal definition that
conforms to reality.
o It helps us interpret the facts adequately.
o It cultivates the habit of looking for the assumptions presupposed in reasoning.
o It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It provides training in order to
develop the ability to comprehend implications and protect us with technique in
determining assumptions.
o It helps us defect fallacies and avoid self-deceptions. It gives us an auxiliary to illogical
reasoning.
o It helps us persuade or convince others. It therefore trains us in various methods having
a good night and right decision in thinking of others.

VIII.TYPES OF LOGIC
i. Formal Logic: This is traditional logic or philosophical logic that studies formal rules
passed down from Aristotle. It is the study of inference with purely formal and explicit
content i.e. it can be expressed as a particular application of a wholly abstract rule.
ii. Informal Logic: It studies natural language or ordinary language and is a discipline that
developed recently. Natural language here means a language that
is spoken, written or signed by humans for general-purpose communication, as
distinguished from formal languages or constructed languages. It focuses on the
reasoning and argument one finds in personal exchange, advertising, political debate,
legal argument, and the social commentary that characterizes newspapers, television,
the Internet and other forms of mass media.
 iii. Symbolic Logic: Symbolic Logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the
formal features of logical inference. It deals with the relations of symbols to each other,
often using complex mathematical calculus.
iv. Mathematical Logic: Both the application of the techniques of formal
logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, and, conversely, the application
of mathematical techniques to the representation and analysis of formal logic.

IX.MAIN DIVISION OF LOGIC

i. Simple apprehension is the first act of the intellect wherein by the acts of our senses we
mentally grasp a thing without affirming or denying anything about it. It is the process
through which the capability of thinking comprehends the objective reality as it outside
the mind. When one holds the idea or thought tightly, it is therefore formed using term.
ii. Judgement is the second act of the intellect wherein we join two understood terms
obtain or acquired in simple apprehension and deconstruct them either by affirmation
or by negation.
iii. Reasoning is the third act of the intellect wherein we draw conclusion from a given act of
validity. It is the process through which the mind of the capability of thinking arrives at
the conclusion at the conclusion from the previously processed judgement. It tells us
how to form a new proposition from the premises and it is also called inference,
otherwise known as the process to arrive at a certain conclusion.

X.NATURE OF LANGUAGE
Language is God’s special gift to mankind. Without language human civilization, as we
now know it, would have remained an impossibility. Language is ubiquitous. It is present
everywhere––in our thoughts and dreams, prayers and meditations, relations and
communication. Besides being a means of communication, and storehouse of knowledge, it is
an instrument of thinking as well as a source of delight.

According to Irvingv Copi (1968), there are three basic functions of functions that based on
the integral parts of man namely: Head-Informative; Heart-Expressive; Hand-Directive.

i. INFORMATIVE
This is the most common function of language wherein we inform or asking
information about the things we know and ask about the things that we do not know
yet.
ii. EXPRESSIVE
This second function of language illustrates emotions and attitudes where being
expressed wonderfully. This will be found basically in poetry. It also illustrates
common exclamations. It also expresses different moods and mere expressions of
feelings and emotions. Furthermore, these arguments do not deny or affirm something.
 iii. DIRECTIVE
This last function of language is most easily seen in commands or requests. It is that
which prevents an action to be done.

XI.WHAT IS CONCEPT
A concept is a mental abstraction which allows generalization and the extension
of knowledge from some known objects to others unknown. It integrates two or more
particulars into a common mental unit.

XII.TYPES OF CONCEPT
I. Concept based on intention
i. First Intention: a concept by which we know a thing independent of our mind. E.g.
Humans have two legs.
ii. Second Intention: a concept by which we conceive a thing in reality in so far as the
mind understands it. E. g. The Philippines is the Pearl of the Orient Sea.
II. Concept based on Subject and Form
i. Concrete: It creates a form and subject in the mind. E. g. Black dress.
ii. Abstract: A concept endowed with form only. E. g. Blackness.
III. Concept based on Substance and Accidents
i. Absolute: A concept that manifests itself to the mind as a substance and as an
independent reality.
ii. Connotative: A concept that manifests itself to the mind as an accident connected to
a substance.
IV. Concept based on Existence and Possession
i. Positive: An essential characteristic of this classification is that it formulates the
concept in an affirmative form.
ii. Negative: It expresses an object that lacks something or that which is stated in
negative form.

XIII.WHAT IS TERM
A term is an external sign of a concept and last element of proposition. Terms are vocal
signs which express objects as they are conceived by the intelligence; they are not the
expression of subjective concepts as such, or of things as they are in nature, but of things as
the intelligence conceives them; in a word, they designate known objects.

XIV.PROPERTIES & CLASSIFICATION OF TERM

I. Properties
i. Comprehension – comes from the Latin word ‘comprendere’ means to understand.
It is therefore, the totality of all essential characteristics belonging to the given
term.
ii. Extension – of the terms are terms that denote individual things or particulars that
express that totality of all the
 iii. Supposition - comes from the Latin word “sub” means under and Latin infinitive
form of the verb “ponere”, means to put. Therefore, it is to put under.

II. Classifications
1) Terms According to kinds of Concept
o Abstract- is a term which pertains to the abstract quality in form only, thus
it cannot be perceived by senses.
o Concrete- is a term which pertains to the expressions of a form and a
subject. Thus, it can perceive by senses.
o Absolute- pertains to definition of a complete subject which is based on
independent reality.
o Connotative- it pertains to the object as an accident manifested in substance.
o Positive- pertains to the possession or existence of something.
o Negative- pertains to non-possession or non-existence of something.
2) Terms as Last Element of a Proposition
o Subject
o Predicate
3) Terms as a Sign of Concept
o The Significant Term- when it stands for his own existence.
o The Insignificant Term- when it does not stand for his existence like the
demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns.
4) Terms as to Incompatibility With Other Term
o Contradictory- a term which is mutually exclusive.
o Contrary- a term that is opposing to one another, similar to opposition but
there is the possibility of a middle term.
o Correlative- a term that is mutually related to each other. To the extent of
being dependent on each other.
5) Terms as to definiteness of Meaning
o Univocal- comes from the Latin word “unus”, means one and infinitive verb
of the Latin word “vocare”, means to call, in short to call one. A term with
exactly the same meaning at least in two occurences.
o Equivocal- is a term maybe considered, if it exhibits difference in meaning
wherever it is used in at two occasions.
o Analogous- terms that expresses partly the same and partly different
meaning.

XV.SUPPOSITION
Supposition comes from the Latin word “sub” means under and Latin infinitive form of
the verb “ponere”, means to put. Therefore, it is to put under. This is also a property of a term
that acquires from its use in the proposition. There are two kind of supposition, namely:

• Formal Supposition- uses the word for its real meaning.

• Material Supposition¬- is a kind of supposition uses a word for itself alone.
 XVI.DEFINITION
The word definition comes from the infinitive verb of the Latin word “definere”, which
means to enclose within a limit. Therefore, it is a term that being defined. It signifies an act of
defining a term.

XVII.NATURE & MEANING OF JUDGEMENT

We call judgement to the mental act in which we affirm o deny a concept from another.
The reason there are judgments is precisely because what is judged is neither simple nor
directly given or accessible in sensation, but requires comparison along several dimensions;
weighing evidence; balancing desires, beliefs and knowledge; consulting diverse sources, both
in oneself, in others and in books; and needs reference, for a sound decision, to what one has
learned.

XVIII.COMPONENTS OF JUDGEMENT
i. The existence of two concepts which means that it may take the form of the subject
and the predicate.
ii. The comparison of these two concepts which means that component simply
manifests a process of knowing the relationship existing in two concepts given.
iii. The pronouncement between assertive or denial which means that the components
embodies the principle behind the true essence of judgement.

XIX.WHAT IS PROPOSITION
Proposition is an external sign of judgement, it affirms or denies something about a
certainty reality or object.

XX.ELEMENTS OF A LOGICAL STATEMENT

The elements of a logical statement are three: subject, copula and predicate.
i. The subject is the person from whom we affirm or deny something. Example: In the
judgement "the Sun is bigger than the Earth", the subject is "The Sun".
ii. The copula is the element that connect the subject and the predicate. It is usually a
form of the verb: "is".
iii. The predicate is what we affirm or deny. In the last example: "bigger than the Earth".

XXI.KINDS OF PROPOSITION

i. Categorical Proposition: It is a type of proposition which has no condition for their

assertion. – Roshan is a student.
ii. Conditional or Hypothetical Proposition: A type of compound proposition, it is false
only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.- If Ram will pass, then he
will get a bicycle.
iii. Disjunctive Proposition: A type of compound proposition; if true, at least one of the
component of propositions must be true.-Ram is honest or clever
XXII.REASONING & INFERENCE

Reasoning is one of the ways by which thinking moves from one idea to a related
idea. It consists in comparing the subject and predicate of a not evident judgment, which is
to be the conclusion, with a middle term to see whether, objectively, the one implies the
other or excludes it.

Inference, in philosophy, is the assertion of a conclusion, in general because one has

already asserted (and thus accepted) certain premises one considers sufficient to assert the
conclusion.

XXIII.METHODS OF REASONING
a. Deductive Reasoning (Deduction) - The reasoning method that deals with
certainty. It is often called top-down reasoning because it generally starts with a
certain rule about a class of things, compares that to a certain fact about a
specific thing, and then reasons down towards a certain conclusion about a
specific thing.

b. Inductive Reasoning (Induction) - The reasoning method that deals with

probability. It looks for patterns in data, reasoning by consistency. It is often
called bottom-up reasoning because it generally starts with specifics
facts/observations/measurements and/or probable and reasons toward a
generalization.

c. Abductive Reasoning (Abduction) - The reasoning method that deals with

guesswork. Abductive reasoning is a method of reasoning that formulates a
hypothesis, a type of probable conclusion that doesn’t necessarily follow from
the premises.

XXIV.KINDS OF INFERENCE
I. Premises - which is/are the previously known as judgement.
II. Conclusion - which is the new judgement from the premises