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Enver Pasha

Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: ‫ ;اﺳﻤﺎﻋﯿﻞ اﻧﻮر ﭘﺎﺷﺎ‬Turkish: İsmail Enver
Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922) was an Ottoman military officer and a
Ismail Enver
Pasha
leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He became the main leader of the
Ottoman Empire in both the Balkan Wars (1912–13) and in World War I (1914–
18). In the course of his career he was known by increasingly elevated titles as he
rose through military ranks, including Enver Efendi (‫)اﻧﻮر اﻓﻨﺪي‬, Enver Bey (‫اﻧﻮر‬
‫)ﺑﻚ‬, and finally Enver Pasha, "pasha" being the honorary title Ottoman military
officers gained on promotion to the rank ofMirliva (major general).

After the Ottoman coup d’état of January 1913, Enver Pasha became (4 January
1914) the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the
triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal
Pasha) who held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World
War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief (despite his role
as the de jure Deputy Commander-in-Chief, as the Sultan formally held the title),
Enver Pasha was the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman
Empire. He decided to involve the Empire in World War I on the side of Germany.
Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the
Armenian Genocide[2][3][4] and thus is held responsible for the death of between
Minister of War
800,000 and 1,800,000[5][6][7][8] Armenians.
In office
Prior to World War I, he was hailed at home as "the hero of the revolution", and 4 January 1914 – 13 October 1918
Europeans often spoke of Ottoman Turkey as "Enverland".[9] He was a strong Prime Minister Said Halim Pasha
proponent of Pan-Turkism.
Preceded by Ahmet Izzet Pasha
Succeeded by Ahmet Izzet Pasha
Personal details
Contents
Born Ismail Enver
Early life and career
22 November 1881
Rise to power Constantinople,
Young Turk Revolution
Constantinople
Italo-Turkish War
Vilayet, Ottoman
Balkan Wars and seizure of political leadership
Empire
World War I
Minister of War Died 4 August 1922
Battle of Sarikamish, 1914 (aged 40)
Commanding the forces of the capital, 1915–1918 Bukharan People's
Yildirim Soviet Republic,
Army of Islam (present-day
Armistice and exile Tajikistan)
Relations with Mustafa Kemal Nationality Ottoman
Pan-Turkism and death, 1921–22
Political party Committee of Union
Family legacy and Progress
Family
Marriage and issue Spouse(s) HIH Princess
Naciye Sultan, 24
See also February 1914
References Alma mater Army War College
Sources (1903)[1]
External links Signature

Early life and career


Enver was born in Istanbul on 22 November 1881. Enver's father, Ahmed (c. 1860–
1947), was a Gagauz Turk either a bridge-keeper in Monastir[10] or a small town
public prosecutor in theBalkans[11] and his mother Ayşe, an Albanian.[12] His uncle
was Halil Pasha (later Kut). Enver had two younger brothers, Nuri and Mehmed
Kamil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He studied for different
degrees in military schools in the empire and ultimately graduated from the Harp
Akademisi with distinction in 1903. He became amajor general in 1906. He was sent
to the Third Army, which was stationed in Salonica. During his service in the city,
Enver (left) with his father, Ahmed
he became a member of theCommittee of Union and Progress(CUP).
Bey (center), and half-brotherNuri
Pasha (later Nuri Killigil; right).
Rise to power

Young Turk Revolution


In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution broke out in Salonica, and the young Enver quickly
became one of its military leaders. The successful revolt brought the CUP to power,
ushering in the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. During the course of
the next year, a reactionary conspiracy to organize a countercoup culminated in the "31
March Incident", which was put down. Enver Bey took an active role in the suppression
of the countercoup. Afterwards, he was sent to Berlin as a military attaché, where he
grew to admire the German military culture and strengthened the military ties between
Enver Pasha depicted on a
Germany and the Ottoman Empire, inviting German officers to reform the Ottoman Young Turks flyer with the slogan
Army. "Long live the fatherland, long live
the nation, long live liberty"
written in Ottoman Turkish and
Italo-Turkish War French.

In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania (Trablus-i


Garb, modern Libya), starting the Italo-Turkish War. Enver decided to join the defense
of the province and left Berlin for Libya. There, he assumed the overall command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops.[13]
Because of the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Istanbul. This
, he was made lieutenant colonel.[14]
allowed Italy to take control of Libya. In 1912, thanks to his active role in the war

However, the loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity, and it fell from government after rigging the 1912 elections (known as the
Sopalı Seçimler, "Election of Clubs"), to be replaced by the Liberal Union party (which was helped by its military arm, the Savior
Officers, that denounced the CUP's actions during the 1912 elections). The defeated CUP assumed an ideology favoring more
centralization under Enver.

Balkan Wars and seizure of political leadership


In October 1912, the First Balkan War broke out, where the Ottoman armies suffered severe defeats at the hands of the Balkan
League. These military reversals weakened the government, and gave Enver his chance to grab for power from the Liberal Union. In
a coup in January 1913, he returned power to the CUP from the Liberal Union and introduced a triumvirate that came to be called the
"Three Pashas" (Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha, and
Djemal Pasha). He took the office as Minister of War.
In 1914, he was again Minister of War in the cabinet of
Said Halim Pasha, and married HIH Princess Emine
Naciye Sultan (1898–1957), the daughter of Prince
Süleyman, thus entering the royal family as a damat
("bridesgroom" to the ruling House of Osman). His
power grew steadily while Europe marched towards
total war. He then left the peace negotiations then
under way in London. The renewed hostilities only
worsened the Empire's situation, however, as the two
major remaining strongholds of Adrianople (Edirne)
and Yannina fell to the Bulgarians and the Greeks, Enver Bey (center) talking to the
British attaché and press in
respectively, forcing the Ottomans to concede defeat at
Constantinople immediately after
the Treaty of London. seizing power in the 1913Raid
Enver Bey in Libya on the Sublime Porte, also
In June 1913, however, the Second Balkan War broke
during the Italo-Turkish known as the 1913 Ottoman
out between the Balkan Allies. Enver Bey took coup d'état.
War, 1911–12, wearing
the style of hat named advantage of the situation and led an army into Eastern
"Enveriye" after him. Thrace, recovering Adrianople from the Bulgarians,
who had concentrated their forces against the Serbs and Greeks. After this success, Enver Bey
became a Pasha, and recognised by some Turks as the "conqueror of Edirne".

World War I
Enver Pasha was an architect of the Ottoman-German Alliance, and expected a quick victory in the war that would benefit the
Ottoman Empire. Without informing the other members of the Cabinet, he allowed the two German warships SMS Goeben and SMS
Breslau, under the command of German admiral Wilhelm Souchon, to enter the Dardanelles to escape British pursuit; the subsequent
"donation" of the ships to the neutral Ottomans worked powerfully in Germany's favor, despite French and Russian diplomacy to
keep the Ottoman Empire out of the war. Finally on 29 October, the point of no return was reached when Admiral Souchon, now
Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman navy, took Goeben, Breslau, and a squadron of Ottoman warships into the Black Sea and raided
the Russian ports of Odessa, Sevastopol, and Theodosia. Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire on 2 November, and Britain
followed suit on 5 November. Most of the Turkish cabinet members and CUP leaders were against such a rushed entry to the war, but
Enver Pasha held that it was the right course of action.

As soon as the war started, 31 October 1914, Enver ordered that all men of military age report to army recruiting offices. The offices
were unable to handle the vast flood of men, and long delays occurred. This had the effect of ruining the crop harvest for that
year.[15]

Minister of War
After taking office in 1913, Enver proved ineffective as War Minister, and frequently over the next four years, the Germans had to
support the Ottoman government with generals such as Otto Liman von Sanders, Erich von Falkenhayn, Colmar Freiherr von der
Goltz, and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein. The Germans also gave the Ottoman government military supplies and fuel.

Enver Pasha's message to the army and the people was "war until final victory". During the war, living conditions deteriorated
rapidly, and discontent grew. Enver would remain War Minister until he fled the country in 1918.

Battle of Sarikamish, 1914


Enver Pasha assumed command of the Ottoman forces arrayed against the Russians in the
Caucasus theatre. He wanted to encircle the Russians, force them out of Ottoman territory
, and
take back Kars and Batumi, which had been ceded after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78.
Enver thought of himself as a great military leader, while the German military adviser, Liman
von Sanders, thought of him as incompetent.[15] Enver ordered a complex attack on the
Russians, placed himself in personal control of the Third Army, and was utterly defeated at
the Battle of Sarikamish in December 1914 – January 1915. His strategy seemed feasible on
paper, but he had ignored external conditions, such as the terrain and the weather. Enver's
army (90,000 men) was defeated by the Russian force (100,000 men), and in the subsequent
retreat, tens of thousands of Turkish soldiers died. This was the single worst Ottoman defeat
of World War I. On his return to Constantinople, Enver Pasha blamed his failure on his Enver Pasha in 1914
Armenian soldiers, although in January 1915, an Armenian named Hovannes had saved his
life during a battle by carrying Enver through battle lines on his back.[16] Nonetheless, Ismail
Pasha later initiated the deportations and sporadic massacres of Western Armenians, culminating in the Armenian
Genocide.[17][18][19][20]

Commanding the forces of the capital, 1915–1918


After his defeat at Sarıkamısh, Enver returned to Istanbul (Constantinople) and took
command of the Turkish forces around the capital. He was confident that the capital
was safe from any Allied attacks.[21] The British and French were planning on
forcing the approaches to Constantinople in the hope of knocking the Ottomans out
of the war. A large Allied fleet assembled and staged an attack on theDardanelles on
18 March 1915. The attack (the forerunner to the failed Gallipoli campaign) was a
disaster, resulting in the loss of several ships. As a result, Enver turned over
command to Liman von Sanders, who led the successful defence of Gallipoli, along
with Mustafa Kemal. Enver then left to attend to pressing concerns on the Caucasus Wilhelm II and Enver Pasha in
Gallipoli
Front. Later, after many towns on the peninsula had been destroyed and women and
children killed by the Allied bombardment, Enver proposed setting up a
concentration camp for the remaining French and British citizens in the empire. Henry Morgenthau, the American ambassador to the
[22]
Ottoman Empire, convinced Enver not to go through with this plan.

Yildirim
Enver’s plan for Falkenhayn’s Yildirim Army Group was to retake Baghdad, recently taken by Maude. This was nearly impossible
for logistical reasons. Turkish troops were deserting freely, and when Enver visited Beirut in June 1917, soldiers were forbidden to be
stationed along his route for fear that he would be assassinated. Lack of rolling stock meant that troops were often detrained at
Damascus and marched south.[23]

Army of Islam
During 1917, due to the Russian Revolution and subsequent Civil War, the Russian army in the Caucasus had ceased to exist. At the
same time, the Committee of Union and Progress managed to win the friendship of the Bolsheviks with the signing of the Ottoman-
Russian friendship treaty (1 January 1918). Enver looked for victory when Russia withdrew from the Caucasus region. When Enver
discussed his plans for taking over southern Russia, he ordered the creation of a new military force called the Army of Islam which
would have no German officers. Enver's Army of Islam avoided Georgia and marched through Azerbaijan. The Third Army under
Vehib Pasha was also moving forward to pre-war borders and towards the First Republic of Armenia, which formed the frontline in
the Caucasus. General Tovmas Nazarbekian was the commander on the Caucasus front, and Andranik Ozanian took the command of
Armenia within the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman advance was halted at the
Battle of Sardarabad.
The Army of Islam, under the control of Nuri Pasha, moved forward and attacked
Australian, New Zealand, British, and Canadian troops led by General Lionel
Charles Dunsterville at Baku. General Dunsterville ordered the evacuation of the
city on 14 September, after six weeks of occupation, and withdrew to Iran;[24] most
of the Armenian population escaped with British forces. The Ottomans and their
Azerbaijani allies, after theBattle of Baku, entered the city on 15 September.

However, after the Armistice of Mudros between Great Britain and the Ottoman
Empire on 30 October, Ottoman troops were obliged to withdraw and replaced by
the Triple Entente. These conquests in theCaucasus counted for very little in the war
as a whole but they did however ensure that Baku remained within the boundaries of
Azerbaijan while a part of Soviets and later as an independent nation.
Wilhelm II and Enver Pasha in 1917

Armistice and exile


Faced with defeat, the Sultan dismissed Enver from his post as War Minister on 4
October 1918, while the rest of Talaat Pasha's government resigned on 14 October
1918. On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire capitulated by signing the
Armistice of Mudros. Two days later, the "Three Pashas" all fled into exile. On 1
January 1919, the new government expelled Enver Pasha from the army. He was
tried in absentia in the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 for crimes of "plunging
the country into war without a legitimate reason, forced deportation of Armenians
Enver Pasha in Batumi in 1918. [25]
and leaving the country without permission" and condemned to death.

Enver first went to Germany, where he communicated and worked with German
Communist figures like Karl Radek. In April 1919, Enver left for Moscow in order to serve as a secret envoy for his friend General
Hans von Seeckt who wished for a German-Soviet alliance.[26] In August 1920, Enver sent Seeckt a letter in which he offered on
behalf of the Soviet Union the partition of Poland in return for German arms deliveries to Soviet Russia.[26] Besides working for
General von Seeckt, Enver envisioned cooperation between the new Soviet Russian government against the British, and went to
Moscow. There he was well-received, and established contacts with representatives from Central Asia and other exiled CUP
s Asiatic Department.[27] He also met with Bolshevik leaders, including Lenin. He
members as the director of the Soviet Government’
tried to support the Turkish national movement and corresponded with Mustafa Kemal, giving him the guarantee that he did not
intend to intervene in the movement in Anatolia. Between 1 and 8 September 1920, he was in Baku for the "Congress of Eastern
Peoples", representing Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. His appearance was a personal triumph, but the congress failed in its
aim to create a mass pro-Bolshevik movement among Moslems. V
ictor Serge, a witness, recorded that:

At Baku, Enver Pasha put in a sensational appearance. A whole hall full of Orientals broke into shouts, with scimitars
and yataghans brandished aloft: 'Death to imperialism" All the same, genuine understanding with the Islamic
world...was still difficult.[28]

Relations with Mustafa Kemal


Much has been written about the poor relations between Enver and Mustafa Kemal, two men who played pivotal roles in the Turkish
history of the 20th century. Both hailed from the Balkans, and the two served together in North Africa during the wars preceding
World War I, Enver being Mustafa Kemal's senior. Enver disliked Mustafa Kemal for his circumspect attitude toward the political
agenda pursued by his Committee of Union and Progress, and regarded him as a serious rival.[29] Mustafa Kemal (later known as
Atatürk) considered Enver to be a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin;[30] he criticized Enver and his colleagues for
their policies and their involvement of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.[31][32] In the years of upheaval that followed the
Armistice of October 1918, when Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish resistance to occupying and invading forces, Enver sought to return
from exile, but his attempts to do so and join the military ef
fort were blocked by theAnkara government under Mustafa Kemal.
Pan-Turkism and death, 1921–22
On 30 July 1921, with theTurkish War of Independence in full swing, Enver decided
to return to Anatolia. He went to Batum to be close to the new border. However,
Mustafa Kemal did not want him among theTurkish revolutionaries. Mustafa Kemal
had stopped all friendly ties with Enver Pasha and the CUP as early as 1912,[30] and
he explicitly rejected the pan-Turkic ideas and what Mustafa Kemal perceived as
Enver Pasha’s utopian goals.[29] Enver Pasha changed his plans and traveled to
Enver and Mustafa Kemal at
Moscow where he managed to win the trust of the Soviet authorities. In November
European manoeuvres, 1910.
1921 he was sent by Lenin to Bukhara in theTurkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist
Republic to help suppress the Basmachi Revolt against the local pro-Moscow
Bolshevik regime. Instead, however, he made secret contacts with some of the rebellion’s
leaders and, along with a small number of followers, defected to the basmachi side. His
aim was to unite the numerous basmachi groups under his own command and mount a co-
ordinated offensive against the Bolsheviks in order to realize his pan-Turkic dreams. After
a number of successful military operations he managed to establish himself as the rebels’
supreme commander, and turned their disorganized forces into a small but well-drilled
army. His command structure was built along German lines and his staff included a number
of experienced Turkish officers.[33]

From Fromkin 1989, p. 487:

However Enver’s personal weaknesses reasserted themselves. He was a


vain, strutting man who loved uniforms, medals and titles. For use in
stamping official documents, he ordered a golden seal that described him as
A portrait of Enver Pasha.
‘Commander-in-Chief of all the Armies of Islam, Son-in-Law of the Caliph
and Representative of the Prophet.’ Soon he was calling himself Emir of
Turkestan, a practice not conducive to good relations with the Emir whose
cause he served. At some point in the first half of 1922, the Emir of
Bukhara broke off relations with him, depriving him of troops and much-
needed financial support. The Emir of Afghanistan also failed to march to
his aid.

On 4 August 1922, as he allowed his troops to celebrate theKurban Bayramı (Eid al-Adha) holiday while retaining a guard of 30 men
at his headquarters near the village of Ab-i-Derya near Dushanbe, the Red Army Bashkir cavalry brigade under the command of
Yakov Melkumov (Hakob Melkumian) launched a surprise attack. According to some sources, Enver and some 25 of his men
mounted their horses and charged the approaching troops, when Enver was killed by machine-gun fire.[34] In his memoirs, Enver
Pasha’s aide Yaver Suphi Bey stated that Enver Pasha died of a bullet wound right above his heart during a cavalry charge.[35]
Alternatively, according to Melkumov’s memoirs, Enver managed to escape on horseback and hid for four days in the village of
Chaghan. His hideout was located after a Red Army officer infiltrated the village in disguise. Melkumov’s troops then stormed
[36][37][38]
Chaghan, and in the ensuing combat Enver was killed by Melkumov himself.

From Fromkin 1989, p. 488:

There are several accounts of how Enver died.According to the most


persuasive of them, when the Russians attacked he gripped his
pocket Koran and, as always, charged straight ahead. Later his
decapitated body was found on the field of battle. His Koran was
taken from his lifeless fingers and was filed in the archives of the
Soviet secret police.
Enver’s body was buried near Ab-i-Derya. In 1996, his remains were brought to
Turkey and reburied at Abide-i Hürriyet (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in Şişli,
Istanbul. Enver’s image remains controversial in Turkey, since there are those who
blame him for the Ottoman entrance into W
orld War I and the subsequent collapse of
the Empire.

Family legacy

Family
After Enver’s death, three of his four siblings, Nuri (1889–1949), Mehmed Kamil
(1900–62), and Hasene Hanım, adopted the surname "Killigil" after the 1934
Surname Law required all Turkish citizens to adopt a surname.
Enver Pasha’s grave at the Abide-i
Enver’s sister Hasene Hanım married Nazım Bey. Nazım Bey, an aid-de-camp of Hürriyet (Monument of Liberty)
Abdul Hamid II, survived an assassination attempt during the 1908 Young Turk cemetery in Istanbul, where his
Revolution of which his brother-in-law Enver was a leader.[39] With Nazım, Hasene remains were interred in 1996.
gave birth to Faruk Kenç (1910–2000), who would become a famous Turkish film
director and producer.

Enver’s other sister, Mediha Hanım (later Mediha Orbay; 1895–1983), married Kâzım Orbay, a prominent Turkish general and
politician. On 16 October 1945, their son Haşmet Orbay, Enver's nephew, shot and killed a physician named Neşet Naci Arzan, an
event known as the "Ankara murder". At the urging of the Governor of Ankara, Nevzat Tandoğan, Haşmet Orbay's friend Reşit
Mercan initially took the blame. After a second trial revealed Haşmet Orbay as the perpetrator, however, he was convicted. The
murder became a political scandal in Turkey after the suicide of Tandoğan, the suspicious death of the case’s public prosecutor
Fahrettin Karaoğlan, and the resignation of Kâzım Orbay from his position as Chief of the General Staff of Turkey after his son’s
conviction.

Marriage and issue


By his marriage to Emine Naciye Sultan, a granddaughter of sultanAbdülmecid I, Enver had:

HH Princess Dr. Mahpeyker Enver Hanımsultan (1917–2000), married and divorced,Dr. Fikret Ürgüp (1918–?), and
had issue, one son:

Hasan Ürgüp (1948–89)unmarried and without issue


HH Princess Turkan Enver Hanımsultan (1919–89), married HE Huvayda Mayatepek,Turkish Ambassador to
Denmark, and had issue, one son:

Osman Mayatepek (b. 1950),married Neshe Firtina and had one daughter

Mihrishah Türkan Mayatepek (b.1992)


HH Prince Sultanzade Captain Ali Enver Beyefendi (1921 –Australia, December 1971), married and had issue, one
daughter:

Arzu Enver (b. 1955), married Aslan Sadıkoğluand had Issue

Burak Sadıkoğlu

His widow remarried his brother Mehmed Kamil Killigil (1900–1962) in 1923, and had one daughter:

HH Princess Rana Killigil Hanımsultan (1926; Paris – 14 April 2008; Istanbul), married Osman Sadi Eldem and had
three children:

Ceyda Eldem (b. 1952)


Necla Eldem (1954–64)
Edhem Eldem (b. 1960) married Zeynep Sedef o
Trunoğlu and had issue, one son:

Simin Eldem (b.1987)

See also
Great Famine of Mount Lebanon
Ottoman Empire
Three Pashas
Young Turks
Committee of Union and Progress
Basmachi Revolt
Armenian Genocide

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95422-6.

External links
Enver's biography
Enver Pasha in 1911 Britannica
Enver's declaration at the Baku Congress of the Peoples of the East1920
Interview with Enver Pashaby Henry Morgenthau – American Ambassador to Istanbul 1915
Biography of Enver Pashaat Turkey in the First World War website
Personal belongings of Enver Pasha
Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922)
Newspaper clippings aboutEnver Pasha in the 20th Century Press Archivesof the German National Library of
Economics (ZBW)

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